Wa0000.

For best study material and concept lectures, visit YouTube channel:
Mandeep Education Academy

I have mentioned the important of each derivation
Abbreviations used:
IMP: important, V IMP: very important, M IMP: most important.
If nothing is mentioned that means the derivation is not that important but still
it can be asked in paper but chances are less.
All the best
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON AXIAL LINE (V IMP)

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two charges +q and – q as shown. We have to find
electric field due to this dipole at a point P on axial line at distance r from the centre of this dipole.
Clearly, the distance of P from – q is (r + a) and from +q is (r – a).
Electric field at P due to +q is
q 1
E q 
4πε o  r  a 2
And electric field at P due to – q is
q 1
Eq 
4πε o  r  a 2
Therefore, net field at P is
q  1 1 
Eaxial  E  q  E q    
4πε o   r  a 2  r  a 2 
 
 2
q  r  a   r  a  
2

4πε o   
2
 r 2
 a 2


 2 
q  r  a  2ar  r  a  2ar
2 2 2
   
4πε o    
2
 r 2
 a 2

2aq  2r 

 
2
4πε o r 2  a2
2pr
 [p  2aq]
 
2
4πε o a2  r 2

 2 2

q  r  a  2ar  r  a  2ar
2 2
 
4πε o    
2
 r 2  a2 
q 4ar


4πε o r 2  a2 2 
For short dipole r  a
2rp
E
4πε or 4
2p
 E
4πε or 3
ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON EQUATORIAL LINE (V IMP)

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two
charges +q and – q as shown. We have to find
electric field due to this dipole at a point P on
axial line at distance r from the centre of this
dipole. Clearly, the distance of P from – q is (r +
a) and from +q is (r – a).
Due to symmetry electric field at P due to both

+q and – q will be same which is given by
q
E q  E q 

4πε o r 2  a2 
The directions of E  q and E  q are as shown in
the figure. The components normal to the dipole axis E q sinθ and E  q sinθ  cancel out and
E q cosθ and E  q cos θ  will add up

Eeq  E q cosθ  E q cosθ
 Eeq  2E q cos θ
2q
 Eeq  cosθ

4πε o r 2  a2 
2q a
 Eeq  
2

4πε o r  a 2

r  a2
2
2aq
 Eeq  3

4πε o r 2  a2  2
p
 3

4πε o r 2  a2  2
For short dipole r  a

p
 E
4πε or 3
TORQUE ACTING ON AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD

(V IMP)
Consider an electric dipole consisting pf charges – q and + q and of length 2a placed in a uniform
electric field making an angle θ with electric field.
Force on charge – q = qE acting opposite to the field
Force on charge +q = qE acting along the field
Electric dipole is under the action of two equal and unlike parallel forces, which give rise to a
torque on the dipole.
τ  Force  perpendicular distance between the two forces
τ  qE  AN
 τ  qE  2a sinθ
 τ   q  2a  E sinθ
‘  τ  pE sinθ
  
 τ  pE
SPECIAL CASES
1. If θ  0o , sin0o  0,  τ  0 , this condition is called stable equilibrium. When the dipole is

displaced from this orientation it always comes back to the same configuration.
2. θ  180o , sin180o  0,  τ  0
this condition is called unstable equilibrium because once displaced the dipole never comes
back to this orientation instead it aligns itself parallel to the field.
3. θ  90o , sin90o  1,  τ  pE (maximum)
Please note: - In a non-uniform electric field Fnet  0, τ  0 , therefore dipole executes both
translation and oscillation.
DERIVATION OF COULOMB’S LAW FROM GAUSS LAW (IMP)

Consider an isolated positive point charge q at O. Imagine a sphere of radius r with centre O. the
magnitude of electric field intensity E at every point on the surface is the same and it is directed
radially outwards.
Therefore, the direction of vector ds representing a

small area element on the surface of sphere is along E
only i.e. θ  0o .
According to Gauss law
 
q
 E.ds  εo
q

 Eds cos0 
o
εo
q
 E  dscos0o 
εo
q

 E 4πr 2   εo
q
E
4πr 2
This is the electric field intensity at any point P distant r from an isolated point charge q at the centre
of the sphere. If another point charge qo were placed at point P, then force on qo would be
F  qo  E
qqo
F
4πε or 2
Which is Coulomb’s law.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT LONG CHARGED CONDUCTOR (V

IMP)
Consider a straight charged conductor of length l as shown. Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface
of radius r around this conductor. Let ds be small area on this surface. As conductor is positively
charged, electric field due it is outwards. Therefore, electric field and area vector are in same
direction. Applying gauss theorem, we have
 
q
 E.ds  ε o
q
  Eds cos 0o 
εo
q
  Eds 
εo
q
 E  2πrl  
εo
q
E
2πε orl
λ
 E
2πε or
q
λ  , λ is called linear charge density
l
1
Clearly, E  . Therefore, the variation of E with r is shown graphically in the figure:
r
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SPHERICAL SHELL (IMP)

When point P lies outside the spherical shell
Suppose that we have to calculate electric field at the point P at a distance r (r > R) from its centre.
Draw the Gaussian surface through point P so as to enclose the charged spherical shell. The
Gaussian surface is a spherical shell of radius r and centre O.
 
Let E be the electric field at point P. Then, the electric flux through area element ds is given by,
 
dφE  E.ds

Since ds is also along normal to the surface,
dφ  Edscos0o  Eds
∴ Total electric flux through the Gaussian surface

is given by,
φ   Eds  E  ds
Now,
 ds  4πr
2
 φ  E  4πr 2 ........(i)
Since the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is q, according to Gauss theorem,
q
φ ..........(ii)
εo
From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain
q
E  4πr 2 
εo
q
E (for r  R)
4πε or 2
When point P lies inside the spherical shell
In such a case, the Gaussian surface encloses no charge.
According to Gauss law,
E  4πr 2  0
E 0
Hence, the field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell. The
variation of electric field intensity E with distance from the centre of a uniformly charge spherical
shell is shown:
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITE PLANE SHEET OF CHARGE (V IMP)
Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive charge having a uniform surface charge density σ
on both sides of the sheet.
Let P be the point at a distance ‘a’ from the sheet at which electric field is required.
Draw a Gaussian cylinder of area of

cross-section A through point P. The
electric flux crossing through the
Gaussian surface is given by,
Φ = E × Area of the circular caps of the

cylinder
Since electric lines of force are parallel

to the curved surface of the cylinder,
the flux due to electric field of the plane sheet of charge passes only through the two circular caps
of the cylinder.
φ  E  2A ......(i)
According to Gauss theorem, we have
q
φ
εo
Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,
q  σA where σ is the surface charge density (q/A)
σA
φ  ..........(ii)
εo
From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain
σA σ
E  2A   E
εo 2ε o
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
POTENTIAL AT A POINT DUE TO A POINT CHARGE (IMP)
Let a charge of 1 C be placed at a distance x from a charge q. Work done by electrostatic force if
we move this charge from A to B towards q through small distance dx
dW  Fdx cos180o
kq 1
 dW   dx
x2
Work done to move this charge from x   to x  r is
r kq
W   dx
 x2
r
 x 1 
 W  kq  
 1  
r
 1
 W  kq  
 x 
1 1 
 W  kq   
r 
kq
W
r
By definition, this is the potential at P. Thus potential at a distance r due to a charge q is
1 q
V
4πε o r
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Consider a charge kept at A. Let another charge q2 be brought from infinity to point B at a distance
r from it, then work done to bring it at P is
W  q2 V
 1 q1 
 W  q2  
 4πε o r 
1 q1q2
W
4πε o r
This work is stored in the system of two charges as electric potential energy. Thus
1 q1q2
U
4πε o r
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

(POTENTIAL GRADIENT) (IMP)
Consider a charge q moving from A to B in the direction of electric field as shown
Small amount of work done is
dW  q  VB  VA 
 dW  q  V  dV  V 
 dW  qdV
 dW  Fdr  qEdr
 qdV  qEdr
dV
 E
dr
 
Or dV   E.dr
POTENTIAL DUE TO DIPOLE AT AXIAL LINE
Potential at P due to +q
kq
V q 
r  a 
Potential at P due to –q
kq
Vq 
r  a 
Therefore, total potential at P is
Vaxial  V q  V q
kq kq
 Vaxial  
r  a  r  a 
kq  r  a   kq r  a 
 Vaxial 
r 2  a2
kqr  kqa  kqr  kqa
 Vaxial 
r 2  a2
 Vaxial
 2aq k
 2
r  a2
kp
 Vaxial 
r  a2
2
For short dipole a<<r

kp
Vaxial  
r2
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT A POINT ON EQUATORIAL LINE

As shown in the diagram, potential at P due to +q
kq
V q 
a2  r 2
Potential at P due to –q
k( q)
V q 
a2  r 2
Therefore, total potential at P is
Veq  V q  V q  0
POTENTIAL AT ANY ARBITRARY POINT
Consider a point P at a distance along a line making an angle θ with the dipole axis. If we resolve

p into two rectangular components as shown.
Point P lies on the axial line of the dipole with dipole moment pcosθ and on
equatorial line of the dipole with the dipole moment psinθ
kpcosθ
V 0
r2
kpcosθ
V
r2
CAPACITANCE
(7) Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor (IMP)
Consider a parallel plate capacitor as shown.
Let
V = potential difference between the plates
Q = charge on the capacitor
E = potential difference between the plates
σ = Surface charge density of the plates
d = distance between the plates
Q σA Q
As C   [ σ  ]
V V A
 V  Ed
σA
C
Ed
σ
field between plates capacitor is E 
εo
σA ε A
C  C o
σ d
d
εo
If there is a medium of dielectric constant k between the plates, then

ε
k  ε  kε o
εo
kε o A
C
d
ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR (NOT IN SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2023-24)
Let dW be the small amount of work by the battery to store small charge dq
So, dW = Vdq, where V is the voltage of the battery
q
V 
C
q
dW  dq
C
Then, the total work done to store charge Q is
Q q
 dW  
0 C
dq
1 Q
C 0
W qdq
Q
1  q2 
W  
C  2 0
1  2
Q  0  
2
W
2C  
Q2
W
2C
This work is stored in the capacitor in the form of electrostatic energy
Q2
 U
2C
 Q  CV
C2 V 2
U 
2C
1
 U CV 2
2
Q Q2
or C  U 
V Q
2
V
1
U QV
2
ENERGY DENSITY (U)

Energy stored
u
volume
1
CV 2
 2
Ad
1 ε o A E2d2

2 d  Ad
1
u ε oE2
2
CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC SLAB

BETWEEN THE PLATES (V IMP)
Consider a slab of thickness t inserted between the plates as shown
Potential difference between the plates is given by

V  Eo  d  t   Et
Eo
 V  Eo  d  t   t
k
 t
 V  Eo d  t  
 k
Let new capacitance be C'

Q
C' 
V
Q
 C' 
 t
Eo  d  t  
 k
εo A
 C' 
 1
d  t 1  
 k
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH CONDUCTING
SLAB BETWEEN THE PLATES (V IMP)
Consider a conducting slab placed between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor as shown
Since, electric field inside the conducting slab is zero, potential difference between the plates is
given by
V  Eo  d  t   Et
 V  Eo  d  t    0  t
 V  Eo  d  t 
σ
V d  t 
εo
σ
V d  t 
εo
Q Q ε A
 C'    C'  o
V Q dt
d  t
Aε o
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
SERIES COMBINATION
Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 and C3 connected in series as shown. Let
potential difference across them be V1, V2 and V3 and charge stored by each is Q.
If V is applied voltage, then
V  V1  V2  V3
Q
V 
C
Q Q Q
V   
C1 C2 C3
If equivalent capacitance is Ceq
Q Q Q Q
  
Ceq C1 C2 C3
Q  1 1 1 
  Q   
Ceq  C1 C2 C3 
1 1 1 1
   
Ceq C1 C2 C3
PARALLEL COMBINATION
Figure shown three capacitors connected in parallel, let charge stored by each is Q1,Q 2 and Q 3
and potential difference across each is V. If charge supplied by battery be Q, then
Q  Q1  Q2  Q3
 Q  Ceq V, C eq  equivalent capacitance
Q  C1V  C2 V  C3 V
 Ceq V  V  C1  C2  C3 
 Ceq  C1  C2  C3
COMMON POTENTIAL
If two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 are charged to potential V1 and V2 and are connected
together, then, the charge flows from the capacitor at higher potential to the other at lower
potential till the potential of both become equal, this equal potential is called common potential.
Since total charge before and after remains same, therefore
C1V  C2 V  C1V  C2 V
C1V1  C2 V2
 V
C1  C2
LOSS OF ENERGY ON SHARING OF CHARGES

When charge is shared between the capacitors, energy is lost in the form of heat
Total energy before sharing
1 1
Ui  C1V12  C2 V22
2 2
total energy after sharing
1
Uf   C1  C2  V 2
2
 Heat loss, U  Ui  Uf
1
U 
2

C1V12  C2 V22   C1  C2  V 2 
1    C1V1  C2 V2 2  
U  C1V1  C2 V2   C1  C2  
2 2

 
2
2  C  C 
  1 2  
1  C1V1  C1  C2   C2 V2  C1  C2    C1V1  C2 V2  
2 2 2
 U   
 C1  C2 
2
2 

1  C1 V1  C1C2 V1  C1C2 V2  C2 V2  C1V1  C2 V2  2C1C2 V1V2 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 U   
2 C1  C2 

1  V 2  V22  2V1V2 
 U  C1C2  1 
2  C1  C2 
1 C1C2  V1  V2 
2
 U 
2 C1  C2
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
DRIFT VELOCITY (V IMP)
We may define drift velocity as the average velocity with which electrons get drifted towards the
positive terminal of the battery under the influence of an external electric field.
Let the initial velocities of electrons (in the absence of battery) be u1,u2 ,u3 .............un , then,
u1  u 2  u3 .............  un
 0.
n
eE
When the battery is applied, acceleration of each electrons is a  . When electrons move in a
m
conductor, they keep colliding with the heavy ions present in it and come to a momentary rest. Time
gap between two successive collisions is called relaxation time ( τ ).
Thus, if v1, v 2 ..........v n be the final velocities of electrons then, by definition, drift velocity is
v 1  v 2 ..........  v n
vd  .
n
Since, v1  u1  aτ1, v 2  u2  aτ 2 , v 3  u3  aτ 3 .........v n  un  aτn . Therefore vd becomes

u1  aτ1   u2  aτ2    u3  aτ3  .........  un  aτn 
vd 
n
 u  u2 ........  un   τ  τ ............  τn 
 vd   1   a 1 2 
 n   n 
eE
Or v d  τ , where τ is average relaxation time.
m
RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY (V IMP)
Consider a conductor of length  and area of cross section A connected to battery of potential
difference V. Then, volume of the conductor is A  . If number density of electrons in the conductor
(number of electrons per unit volume) is n, then total number of electrons in conductor is A  n.
q A n e
Hence, total charge is, q = A  ne. Therefore, current in the conductor is given by I  I .
t   
 
 vd 
or I  Anev d .
PROOF OF OHM’S LAW AND FORMULA FOR RESISTANCE (AND

RESISTIVITY): (IMP)
eE
 I  Anev d and v d  τ
m
 eE 
 I  Ane  τ
m 
Ane2E
I τ
m
Ane2  V 
I= τ
m   
m
V= I
Ane 2 τ
m
If physical conditions are constant is constant. Therefore, V  I.
Ane2 τ
m
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get R 
Ane2 τ
MICROSCOPIC OR VECTOR FORM OF OHM’S LAW.

I
J 
A
Anev d  eE 
J   J  ne  τ
A m 
ne2 τ
J E
m
 
or J  σE
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS (NOT IN SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2023-24)

Series Combination
Consider two resistors R1 and R 2 in series. The charge which leaves R 1 must be entering R2 .
Since current measures the rate of flow of charge, this means that the same current I flows through
R1 and R 2 . By Ohm’s law:
Potential difference across R1  V1  IR1 , and
Potential difference across R 2  V2  IR 2 .
Potential difference across R3  V3  IR3
The potential difference V across the combination is V1  V2  V3 . Hence,

V  V1  V2  V3  I R1  R2  R3  This is as if the combination had an equivalent resistance Req , which
by Ohm’s law is
Req  R1  R2  R3
This obviously can be extended to a series combination of any number n of resistors R1,R 2 ...........,R n
. The equivalent resistance Req is
Re q  R1  R2  R3 ................  Rn
Parallel combination
The currents I,I1,I2 and I3 shown in the figure are the rates of flow of charge at the points indicated.
Hence,
I  I1  I2  I3
The potential difference between A and B is given by the Ohm’s law applied to R 1
V  I1R1
Also, Ohm’s law applied to R2 and R3 gives
V  I2R 2 , V3  IR3
 I  I1  I2  I3
V V V V
   
Req R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
Or   
R eq R1 R2 R3
If n resistors are connected in parallel, then,
1 1 1 1 1
   ................ 
R eq R1 R2 R3 Rn
RELATION BETWEEN INTERNAL RESISTANCE, TERMINAL POTENTIAL

DIFFERENCE AND EMF (IMP)
Let ε be emf of the cell, V be the terminal potential difference, r be the internal resistance, R be
external resistance and I be the current flowing in the circuit then, potential drop across internal
resistance is Ir. Therefore, potential drop across external resistance is,
V  ε  IR
 Ir  ε  V
εV
r 
I
εV
r 
V
R
 V
ε
r  R
 V 
ε 
Or r    1  R
V 
Charging. During charging of a cell, current flows in reverse direction with the help of external
agency, so the terminal potential difference becomes V = ε + I.
COMBINATION OF CELLS (V IMP)

Like resistors, cells can also be connected in series and parallel combination.
Series combination. Consider two cells of emfs ε1 and ε 2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 are
connected in series.
If V1 and V2 be the terminal potential differences of the two cells, then V = V1  V2
 V   ε1  Ir1    ε 2  Ir2 
 V   ε1  ε 2   I  r1  r2 
Comparing this with V  ε eq  Ireq we get
ε eq  ε1  ε 2
This result can be extended to series combination of n cells as
ε eq  ε1  ε 2  ε 3 .............εn
Parallel combination
If two cells are connected in parallel, terminal potential difference across them is same but current
is different, ∴ total current
I  I1  I2
ε1  V ε1  V
I 
r1 r2
ε1 ε 2 1 1
I   V  
r1 r2  r1 r2 
 r  r  ε r  ε 2r1
 V 1 2   1 2 I
 r1r2  r1r2
ε r  ε 2r1  r1r2 
V  12  I 
r1  r2  r1  r2 
Comparing this with V  ε eq  Ireq we get
ε1r2  ε 2r1
ε eq 
r1  r2
This result can be extended to parallel combination of n cells as
ε1 ε 2 ε 3 ε
ε eq    ............  n
r1 r2 r3 rn
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE (V IMP)

Wheatstone bridge is a circuit which is used to measure accurately an unknown resistance.
Principle. It states that when the bridge is balanced (i.e. when Ig  0 ), the product of resistances of
opposite arms is equal.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to loop ABDA, we get
I1P  IgG  I  I1  R  0
Since Ig  0
I1P  I  I1`  P  0
 I1P  I  I1  R ..........(i)
Applying second law in loop BCDB, we get
I
1  Ig  Q  I  I1  Ig  S  IgG  0
 Ig  0
 I1Q  I  I1  S  0
 I1Q  I  I1  S ..........(ii)
From (i) and (ii) we get
P R

Q S
Or PS  QR
FINDING UNKNOWN RESISTANCE USING SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE (NOT IN

SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2023-24)
It a practical form of a Wheatstone bridge which is used to find an unknown resistance. Its operation
is based on the principle of wheat stone bridge.
As shown in the figure introduce a suitable value of R and close key K. Move the jockey on the wire
AC to obtain the null point (i.e. zero reading of the galvanometer). Let point B be the null point on
the wire AC. Let length AB be  , therefore length BC is 100   . As the bridge is balanced, therefore,
by Wheatstone bridge principle, we have
P R

Q S
If r be the resistance per cm length of the wire, then
P = resistance of length  of the wire =  r
Q = resistance of length 100   of the wire = 100    r
r R
 
100    r S
 100   
Or S   R
  
Knowing  and R, S can be determined.
PROOF OF WORKING PRINCIPLE OF POTENTIOMETER (NOT IN SYLLABUS

FOR SESSION 2023-24)
Principle. The working of potentiometer is based on the fact that the fall of potential across any
portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion provided the wire is of uniform
area of cross section and a constant current is flowing through it.
Proof. Let A be the area of cross section, ρ be the resistivity of the material pf the wire, V be potential
difference across length  whose resistance is R. Let I be the current flowing through the wire, then
by Ohm’s law
V  IR

As R  ρ
A

we have V  Iρ
A
 Iρ 
or V    
A
or V  
V
is called potential gradient of the wire i.e. fall in potential per unit length of the wire.

DETERMINING A POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE USING POTENTIOMETER (NOT IN
Close key K and adjust the value of R so that fall of potential across the potentiometer wire is greater
than the potential difference to be measured. Close key K 1 . Adjust the position of jockey on
potentiometer wire where is pressed, the galvanometer shows no deflection. Let that position be J.
Let length AJ be  . If k is the potential gradient of potentiometer wire, then potential difference
across R 1 i.e.
V = k
If r is the resistance of potentiometer wire of length L, then current through potentiometer wire is ,
ε
I
Rr
 ε 
Potential drop across potentiometer wire = Ir =  r
R r 
 ε r
Potential gradient of potentiometer wire k   
R  r L
 ε r
∴V  
R r L
COMPARING EMFS OF TWO CELLS USING POTENTIOMETER (NOT IN
Two cells whose emfs are to compared are connected as shown in the figure. First connect terminal
1 with terminal 3 such that cell with emf ε1 comes in the circuit. If  1 is the balancing length in this
case, we can write
ε1  k 1 ……….(i)
Now disconnect 1 and 3 and connect 2 and 3. Now cell with emf ε 2 comes in the circuit. If  2 is the
balancing length in this case, then
ε 2  k 2 ……….(ii)
ε1  1
From (i) and (ii) we get 
ε2  2
_________________________________________________________________________
DETERMINING INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL (NOT IN SYLLABUS FOR

SESSION 2023-24)
Close key K and note the balancing length. Let it be  1 . Now, emf of the cell, ε = potential difference
across length  1 of the potentiometer wire
Or ε  k  1
Now close key K 1 so that the resistance R is introduced in the circuit. Again, find the position of null
point. Let balancing length in this case be  2 . Then, potential difference between two terminals of
the cell, V = potential difference across length  2 of the potentiometer wire
i.e. V  k  2
ε 1

V 2
ε 1
∴ 
V 2
ε 
 r    1  R v
V 
 1 
∴r   1  R
 2 
Knowing the values of  1 ,  2 and R, internal resistance of the cell can be determined.
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT
MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF A CIRCULAR LOOP CARRYING
CURRENT (V IMP)
Consider a circular current carrying loop carrying current I. We have to find magnetic field at the
centre of this loop. Consider a small current element dl on the circumference of this loop. Clearly
angle between dl and r is 90o. Applying Biot Savart’s law, we get
μo  Idlsin90o 
dB   
4π  r2 
μo Idl
 dB 
4π r 2
Integrating both sides we get
μo Idl
 dB  
4π r 2
μ I
 B  o 2  dl
4π r
μ I
 B  o 2  2πr
4π r
μoI
 B
2r
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO ARC

As complete circle is also an arc which subtends an angle 2π at the centre so
by applying the unitary method, we can find the magnetic field at the centre
of arc as follows:
Angle Magnetic field

2π μoI
2r
1 radian  μoI  1 μoI
 2r   2π  4πr
 
Any angle θ μoI
B θ
4πr
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

Magnetic field at point P at a perpendicular distance r from from a straight cinductor carrying
current I is
μoI
B  sinφ1  sinφ2 
4πr
Special cases
When length of wire is infinite (or very long) and distance r is

very small then
 If P lies near one end , then φ1  90o and φ 2  0o
μoI
so, B 
4πr

sin90o  sin0o 
μoI
 B
4πr
 If P lies near centre, then φ1  90o and φ2  90o
μoI
so, B 
4πr

sin 90o  sin90o 
μoI
 B
2πr
MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR LOOP (M IMP)

Small magnetic field due to current element Idl of circular loop of radius r at a point P at distance x
from its centre is
μo Idlsin90o μo Idl
dB  
4π s 2

4π r  x 2
2

Component dBcosφ due to current element at point P is cancelled by equal and opposite
component dBcosφ of another diagonally opposite current element, whereas the sine components
dBsinφ add up to give net magnetic field along the axis. So net magnetic field at point P due to
entire loop is
2πr μo Idl r
 dB sinφ   .
  
1/2
0 4π r  x
2 2
r  x2
2
μoIr 2πr
B 3  dl
 
0
4π r  x 2 2 2
μoIr
B 3
.2πr

4π r  x 2 2 2

μoIr 2
 B 3
.

2 r x
2

2 2
Which is directed along the axis (a) towards the loop if current in it is in clockwise direction (b)
away from the loop if current in it is in anticlockwise direction.
Special points
If point P is far away from the centre of the loop i.e. x >> r then magnetic field at point P is
μoIr 2 μoIπr 2 μ IA
B  3
or B  o 3 where A is the area of the circular loop.
2x 2πx 2πx
μoNI
If circular loop has N turns then magnetic field strength at its centre is B  and at any point on
2r
μoNIr 2
the axis of circular loop is B  3

2 r 2  x2  2
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW (V IMP)

It states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity over a closed loop is μo times the total
current threading the loop.

 
 B.dl  μoI
Proof:
Consider a straight conductor carrying current as shown in the figure. Consider a circular
 
Amperian loop of radius r around the conductor. As B and dl are in same direction so angle
between them is 0. Therefore
 
 B.dl
  Bdlcos0o
  Bdl
 B  dl
μoI
  2πr
2πr
 μoI
 
  B.dl  μoI
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY AT THE CENTRE OF A LONG SOLENOID (V IMP)

Let a solenoid consists of n no. of turns per unit length and carry current I. Then magnetic field
lines inside the solenoid are parallel to its axis whereas outside the solenoid the magnetic field is
zero. Line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop PQRS shown in the figure is
  Q   R   S   P  
 B.dl   B.dl   B.dl   B.dl   B.dl
P Q R S
Q R P
  B.dlcos 0o   B.dlcos90o  0   B.dlcos 90o
P Q S
Q
 B  dl  0  0  0  BL
P
But by Ampere’s circuital law
 
 B.dl  μo  total current threading loop PQRS
 μo  number of turns in solenoid PQRS  I
 μonLI
Therefore
BL  μonLI
 B  μonI
1
Note: at the ends of the solenoid the magnetic field is B  μonI
2
FORCE ACTING ON A CHARGED PARTICLE MOVING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

If a charge q is moving with velocity v in a magnetic field of intensity B such that the angle
between velocity vector and magnetic field vector is θ, then a force F acts on the particle such that
i) F  q
ii) F  v
iii) F  B
iv) F  sinθ
Combining all these, we get
F  qvB sin θ
 F  qvB sinθ
As the value of constant in this relation is 1 in SI units.
In vector form
  
 
F  q v  B , thus F is perpendicular to the plane containing v and B.
If a charge q enters perpendicularly into a magnetic field, then its path will be circular as force
always acts in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion of motion of the charge.
Centripetal force required for circular motion is provided by the magnetic force acting on the
particle. Thus
mv 2
 q vB
r
mv
 qB
r
1. Radius of the path (r)

mv
r
Bq
2. Velocity (v)
Bqr
v
m
3. Time period (T)
2πr 2π r 2πm
T  
v Bq r Bq
m
4. Frequency
1 Bq
v 
T 2πm
5. Angular frequency
Bq Bq
ω  2πv  2π  
2πm m
6. Kinetic energy
2
1 1  Bqr 
KE  mv 2  m 
2 2  m 
1 B2 q2r 2 1 B2qr r 2
 KE  m 
2 m2 2 m
If charge particle enters at an angle with the direction of magnetic field then split its velocity into
rectangular components v cos θ along the field and v sin θ perpendicular the field as shown. Due to
these two components, the motion of the charge is helical.
Distance between two turns of the helix is called pitch(d) which is given by
2πm
d  v cosθ  time period  v cosθ 
Bq
VELOCITY SELECTOR OR VELOCITY FILTER

Consider a situation as shown in the figure in a charge is moving perpendicularly to both electric
and magnetic fields such the force the force acting on charge due to both the fields is equal and
opposite i.e.
qE = qvB
E
v 
B
This result is used in velocity selectors or

velocity filters in which we have to select
a particle with a particular value of
velocity.
FORCE ACTING ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD (V IMP)
Consider a conductor of length  and area of cross section A carrying current I placed in a
magnetic field at an angle θ as shown. If number density of electrons in the conductor is n then
total number of electrons in the conductor is An .
As force acting on one electron is f  ev dB sinθ where vd is the drift velocity of electrons.
So the total force acting on the conductor is
Anf  An  ev dB sinθ 

  Anev d  B sinθ
 F  IB sinθ
Direction of this force can be determined by Fleming’s left hand rule.
FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL STRAIGHT CONDUCTORS CARRYING

CURRENT (M IMP)
When the currents are in same direction
When two current carrying conductors are placed parallel to each

other, each conductor produces a magnetic field around itself. So, one
conductor is placed in the magnetic field produced by the other.
Using Fleming’s left hand rule it can be easily shown that the
forces on them are such that they attract each other. Force acting on 1st
conductor is given as
F1  I1B2 sin90o
μoI2
F1  I1
2πr
F1 μoI1I2
 
 2πr
Now force acting on conductor 2 is given by
F2  I2B1 sin90o
μoI1
F2  I2
2πr
F2 μoI1I2
 
 2πr
Therefore F1  F2
Note: When the current is in opposite direction the conductors will repel each other the magnitude
of force will be same as derived above.
TORQUE ACTING ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD (M IMP)
When a rectangular loop PQRS of sides ‘a’ and ‘b’ carrying current I is placed in uniform magentic
field B, such that area vector A makes an angle θ with direction of magnetic field, then forces on the
arms QR and SP of loop are equal, opposite and collinear, thereby perfectly cancel each other,
whereas forces on arms PQ and RS of loop are equal and opposite but not collinear, so they give
rise to torque on loop.
Force on side PQ or RS of loop is F  IbBsin90o  IbB
Perpendicular distance between two non collinear forces r  asinθ
So, torque on the loop is
τ  F  IbBa sin θ  I  ab  B sin θ

or τ  IAB sin θ
If loop has N turns then τ  NIAB sin θ .

 
In vector form τ  M  B where M = NIA is called magnetic dipole moment of current loop abd is
directed in direction of area vector.
 If the plane of the loop is normal to the direction of magnetic field i.e. θ = 0o between
 
B and A then the loop does not experience any torque i.e. τmin  0
 If the plane of the loop is parallel to the direction of magnetic field i.e. θ = 90o between
 
B and A then the loop experience maximum torque τmax  NIAB
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER (M IMP)

A galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting a low shunt resistance in parallel with
it, so that most of the current by passes through the shunt resistance, enabling the galvanometer to
measure much larger currents.
Thus if a galvanometer of resistance Rg which gives full scale deflection at Ig is to be used to convert
into an ammeter capable of measuring a maximum current I , we connect a shunt resistance R in

parallel with it which is obtained as
VR  VG
 I  Ig  R  IgRg
IgRg
 R
I  Ig
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER (V IMP)

A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting high resistance in series with it, so
that most of the voltage applied drops across it, enabling the galvanometer to measure much larger
voltages.
Thus is the galvanometer of resistance R g which gives full deflection at current Ig , is to be converted
into voltmeter capable of measuring maximum voltage up to V volts, then a high resistance R is
connected in series with it which is given by
V  IgRg  IgR or V  IgRg  IgR

V
or R   Rg
Ig
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
In syllabus of 2022-23 its mentioned “qualitative aspects” which means you don’t need to
prepare the derivations of this chapter for board exam. But your teacher can give these in
half yearly or pre board exams
MAGNETIC FIELD OF A BAR MAGNET AT AN AXIAL POINT

Let NS be a bar magnet of length 2l and of pole strength qm. Suppose the magnetic field is to be
determined at a point P which lies on the axis of the magnet at a distance r from its centre, as
shown.
Imagine a unit north pole placed at point P. Then from Coulomb’s law of magnetic forces, the force
exerted by N- pole of strength qm on unit north pole will be
μo qm 
FN  , along NP
4π  r   2
Similarly, the force exerted by S pole on unit north pole is
μo qm 
FS  , along PS
4π  r   2

Therefore, the strength of the magnetic field B at point P is
Baxial = FN  FS ( FN  FS )
μo qm  1 1 
   
4π   r   2  r   2 
 
μo qm 4r
 .
 
2
4π r 2   2
But qm 2  M (magnetic dipole moment)
μo 2Mr
So, Baxial  .
 
2
4π r 2  2
For short bar magnet   r , therefore , we have
μo 2M
Baxial 
4π r 3
MAGNETIC FIELD OF A BAR MAGNET AT AN EQUATORIAL POINT

Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2 and of pole strength qm . Suppose the magnetic field is to
be determined at a point P lying on the equatorial line of the magnet NS at a distance r from its
centre as shown.
Imagine a unit north pole placed at point P. Then from Coulomb’s law of magnetism, the force
exerted by north pole of the magnet on unit north pole is
μo qm
FN  . along NP
4π x 2
Similarly, the force exerted by the S pole of the magnet on unit north pole is
μo qm
FS  . along PS
4π x 2
As the magnitude of FS and FN are equal, so their vertical components get cancelled while the
horizontal components add up along PR.
Hence, magnetic field at the equatorial point is

Beq  FN cos θ  FS cosθ
 Beq  2FN cos θ
μo qm 
 Beq  2
4π x 2 x
μo M
 Bq  3
4π
 r 2  2  2
For short magnet   r , so we have
μo M
Beq  along PR
4π r 3
TORQUE ON A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2 placed in a uniform magnetic field B. Let qm be the pole
strength of each pole. Let the magnetic axis of the bar magnet make an angle θ with the field B as
shown
Force on north pole  qmB along B
Force on south pole =  qmB opposite to B
The forces on the two poles are equal and opposite. They form a couple. So, torque is given by
τ  Force  perpendicular distance
 τ  qmB  2
 τ   qm 2  B
 
τ  M B
Special cases
 
1. When angle between M and B is 0o, sin 0 o  0 , therefore τ  0 , this is the condition of
stable equilibrium.
 
2. When angle between M and B is 180o, sin180o = 0, therefore τ  0 , this is the condition of
unstable equilibrium.
 
3. If angle between M and B is 90o, sin 90o  1 τ max  MB
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The torque which acts on magnetic dipole in external magnetic field tends to align the dipole in the
direction of magnetic field. If the dipole is rotated against the action of this torque, work has to be
done, this work is stored in the dipole in the form of potential energy.
Small amount of work done dW done in rotating the dipole through small angle dθ is
dW  τdθ  MB sin θdθ
Total work done in rotating the dipole from θ  θ1 to θ  θ2 is
θ2
W   MB sinθdθ
θ1
 W  MB   cosθ θ2
θ
 W  MB cosθ2  cosθ1 
This work is stored in the dipole in the form of potential energy
Thus, U  MB cos θ 2  cosθ1 
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
MOTIONAL EMF (NOT IN SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2023-24)

In case of a conductor in translational motion in a magnetic field (V imp)
The figure shows a rectangular conducting loop PQRS in the plane of the paper. The conductor is
free to move. Let the conductor QR be moved towards the right with a constant velocity v. The
area enclosed by the loop PQRS increases.
Therefore, the amount of magnetic flux linked with the loop increases. An e.m.f. is induced in the
loop.
If the length QR = l and the distance through which is it pulled is x, then emf induced between
d
ends Q and R is ,  = 
dt
As   BA cos 0 o = BA
d d d
 =  (BA)  B (A)  B (x)
dt dt dt
dx
  =  B
dt
or  =  Bv
This is called motional emf as it is produced due to motion of a conductor in a magnetic field.
In case of a conductor in rotational motion in a magnetic field (imp)
0+ωl ωl
Average linear velocity of the rod is v avg = =
2 2
therefore, magnitude of emf induced between the ends of the rod is
 ωl  1
ε = Bl   = Bl2ω
 2 2
Energy considerations (v imp)
Force on the movable arm
 Bv  B2  2 v
F  IB sin90o    B 
 R  R
 B2 2 v  B2  2 v 2
Power delivered by external force  Fv   v 
 R  R
 Bv  B22v 2
2
Power dissipated as heat loss = I R  2

 R 
 R  R
Clearly, mechanical power delivered = electrical power dissipated, which proves the law of
conservation of energy.
SELF-INDUCTANCE OF SOLENOID (M IMP)

Let us consider a solenoid of N turns with length  and area of cross section A. It carries a current
I. If B is the magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid, then
Magnetic flux per turn = B  area of each turn
μ0NI
But, B 

μ0NIA
Therefore, magnetic flux per turn =

Hence, the total magnetic flux (φ) linked with the solenoid is given by the product of flux through
each turn and the total number of turns.
μ0NIA
 N

μ0N2IA
i.e.   ……. (i)

If L is the coefficient of self-induction of the solenoid, then
  LI …….. (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii)
μ0N2IA
LI 

μ0N2 A
 L

If the core is filled with a magnetic material of permeability m, then
μ N2 A
L

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE OF TWO SOLENOIDS (M IMP)
S1 and S2 are two long solenoids each of length l. The solenoid
S2 is wound closely over the solenoid S1. N1 and N2 are the
number of turns in the solenoids S1 and S2 respectively. Both
the solenoids are considered to have the same area of cross
section A as they are closely wound together. I1 is the current
flowing through the solenoid S1. The magnetic field B1
produced at any point inside the solenoid S1 due to the current
I1 is
μoN1I1
B1  ……. (1)

The magnetic flux linked with each turn of S2 is equal to B1A.Total magnetic flux linked with
solenoid S2 having N2 turns is
2  B1AN2
Substituting for B1 from equation (1)
 μoN1I1 
2    AN2
  
 μoN1N2I1 
2   A ..... (2)
  
But 2  MI1 ..... (3)
Where M is the coefficient of mutual induction between S1 and S2.

From equations (2) and (3)
μ NN I 
MI1   o 1 2 1  A
  
μ NN A
M  o 1 2

If the core is filled with a magnetic material of permeability
μ N1N2 A
M

Thus, the coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the emf induced in one
coil when the rate of change of current through the other coil is unity. The unit of coefficient of mutual
induction is henry.
One henry is defined as the coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils when a change
of current of one ampere per second in one coil produces an induced emf of one volt in the other
coil.
The coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils depends on the following factors
1) Size and shape of the coils, number of turns and permeability of material on which the coils
are wound.
2) Proximity of the coils
ALTERNATING CURRENT
AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTOR ONLY (IMP)

Consider a resistor of resistance R connected to an alternating emf source as shown.
Let the applied emf be E  Eo sinωt .

Dividing both sides by R, we get
E Eo
 sinωt
R R
E Eo
 sinωt
R R
 I  Io sinωt
Therefore, current and voltage are in same phase.
Graph and phasor diagram
AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING INDUCTOR ONLY (V IMP)
Consider an inductor of inductance L connected to an AC source as shown
dI
Since E  L
dt
E
Therefore dI  dt
L
E
dI  dt
L
E sinωt
 dI  o dt
L
E
  dI   o sinωtdt
L
E
 I  o  sinωtdt
L
E
 I  o   cosωt 
ωL
E  π 
 I   o sin   θ  
ωL   2 
Eo   π 
I  sin  θ   
ωL   2 
  π 
 I  Io sin  θ    Eo
  2  where Io 
ωL
AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITOR ONLY (V IMP)
Consider an inductor of inductance L connected to an AC source as shown
Since Q = CE
Q  CEo sinωt
Q  CEo sinωt
dQ d
I  CEo sinωt 
dt dt
 I  ωCEo cosωt
Eo
I cosωt
1
ωC
π
 I  Io sin(ωt  )
2
Eo
Where where  Io
1
ωC
π
Thus current leads the voltage by a phase of in a purely capacitive circuit.
2
IMPEDANCE IN SERIES LCR CIRCUIT (M IMP)

Consider a resistor of resistance R, inductor of inductance L and capacitor of capacitance C
connected in series to an alternating EMF source as shown:
Voltage across all the components is shown in the diagram below
 VL  VC 
2
V  VR2
 VL  IXL , VR  IR, VC  IXC
IXL  IXC   IR 

2 2
V 
 V  I2  X L  XC   R 2
2

 V I  X L  XC   R 2
2


V
I
  X L  XC 
2
R 2
 XL  XC 
2
Z  R2
Where Z is called the impedance of the circuit.
RESONATING FREQUENCY IN SERIES LCR CIRCUIT (IMP)

Resonance occurs when inductive reactance becomes equal to capacitive reactance
XL  XC
1
 2πν rL 
2πv r C
1
  2πν r  
2
LC
1
 2πv r 
LC
1
 vr 
2π LC
ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR (M IMP)
Consider an inductor of inductance L connected to a voltage source E as shown in figure above.
Let current at any instant be I.
As we know that instantaneous power is given by
P  EI
dI
As E  L
dt
dI
so, P  LI
dt
dW
P 
dt
dW dI
  LI
dt dt
 dW  LIdI
So, total work done by source to build a max. current Io in the circuit is
Io
 W   LIdI
0
Io
 I2 
 W L 
 2 0
 I2 
 W  L  0  0
2 
1
 W  LIo2
2
This work is stored in the circuit as magnetic potential energy. So,
1 2
UB  LIo
2
POWER IN SERIES LCR CIRCUIT (M IMP)

Let a voltage E  Eo sinωt be applied to a series LCR circuit and current flowing through it is
Io sin  ωt  φ  , so instantaneous power supplied to the source is
P  EI  Eo sinωt  Io sin  ωt  φ 
EoIo
 cosφ  cos  2ωt  φ  
2 
The average power over a cycle is given by the average of the two terms in RHS of above
equation. It is only the second term which is time dependent. Its average is zero (the positive half
of the cosine cancels the negative half). Therefore
EoIo E I
P cos φ  o o cos φ
2 2 2
 P  ErmsIrms cos φ
For purely inductive or purely capacitive circuit
φ  90o  cosφ  0  P  0
______________________________________________________________________________

Wa0000.

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wa0000.

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wa0000.

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

For best study material and concept lectures, visit YouTube channel:

Mandeep Education Academy

ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON AXIAL LINE (V IMP)

Electric field at P due to +q is

And electric field at P due to – q is

Therefore, net field at P is

ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON EQUATORIAL LINE (V IMP)

Due to symmetry electric field at P due to both

E q cosθ and E  q cos θ  will add up

For short dipole r  a

TORQUE ACTING ON AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD

Force on charge – q = qE acting opposite to the field

Force on charge +q = qE acting along the field

1. If θ  0o , sin0o  0,  τ  0 , this condition is called stable equilibrium. When the dipole is

DERIVATION OF COULOMB’S LAW FROM GAUSS LAW (IMP)

Therefore, the direction of vector ds representing a

According to Gauss law

Which is Coulomb’s law.

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT LONG CHARGED CONDUCTOR (V

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SPHERICAL SHELL (IMP)

∴ Total electric flux through the Gaussian surface

From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain

When point P lies inside the spherical shell

In such a case, the Gaussian surface encloses no charge.

According to Gauss law,

Draw a Gaussian cylinder of area of

Φ = E × Area of the circular caps of the

Since electric lines of force are parallel

According to Gauss theorem, we have

Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

q  σA where σ is the surface charge density (q/A)

From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain

Work done to move this charge from x   to x  r is

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Small amount of work done is

POTENTIAL DUE TO DIPOLE AT AXIAL LINE

For short dipole a<<r

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT A POINT ON EQUATORIAL LINE

If there is a medium of dielectric constant k between the plates, then

ENERGY DENSITY (U)

CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC SLAB

Potential difference between the plates is given by

Let new capacitance be C'

LOSS OF ENERGY ON SHARING OF CHARGES

Since, v1  u1  aτ1, v 2  u2  aτ 2 , v 3  u3  aτ 3 .........v n  un  aτn . Therefore vd becomes

RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY (V IMP)

PROOF OF OHM’S LAW AND FORMULA FOR RESISTANCE (AND

MICROSCOPIC OR VECTOR FORM OF OHM’S LAW.

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS (NOT IN SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2023-24)

Potential difference across R1  V1  IR1 , and

Potential difference across R 2  V2  IR 2 .

Potential difference across R3  V3  IR3

The potential difference V across the combination is V1  V2  V3 . Hence,

Also, Ohm’s law applied to R2 and R3 gives

If n resistors are connected in parallel, then,

RELATION BETWEEN INTERNAL RESISTANCE, TERMINAL POTENTIAL

COMBINATION OF CELLS (V IMP)

If V1 and V2 be the terminal potential differences of the two cells, then V = V1  V2