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Total Environment
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ELSEVIER The Science of the Total Environment 188 Suppl. 1 (1996) $86-$98

Green revolution agriculture and chemical hazards

David Pimentel*
Department of Entomology, Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, IVY 14853.0999, USA

1. Introduction 1977; Goyal and Huffaker, 1984; Huffman, 1989).

For example, when nitrogen fertilizer applications
When serious food shortages developed in many are increased from 200 to 270 k g / h a or higher,
developing countries in the late 1950s, efforts crop yields are significantly reduced (Munson and
were made to improve the productivity of the Doll, 1959; OECD, 1986). Furthermore, growing
major grain crops, such as flee, wheat, and corn energy shortages and increasing costs of agricul-
to help feed the people in these nations. Plant tural chemicals are expected to constrain the
breeders developed short-stem, hybrid grains that worldwide use of fertilizers and pesticides.
responded in a positive way to high fertilizer Although the reliance on chemicals in Green
applications (Kendall and Pimentel, 1993). The Revolution agriculture has contributed to the re-
yield gains per hectare and total grain production markable gains in the production of grains in the
of these hybrids were remarkable, particularly in world, especially in developing countries, the ex-
Asia. The high yields were achieved primarily tensive use of fertilizers and pesticides has caused
through the increased use of agricultural chemi- serious public health and environmental problems
cals which are produced from fossil energy, a (Bull, 1982; W H O / U N E P , 1989; Pimentel, 1989;
finite resource (FAO, 1984). For the past 40 years El Sebae, 1989; Dinham, 1993; WRI, 1992). In
fertilizer and pesticide applications have in- this paper, the effects of pesticides and fertilizers
creased, with a corresponding increase in crop on public health and the environment, especially
yields (Richardson, 1991; WRI, 1992). Recently, in developing countries is assessed.
however, in the highly productive areas of Asia
including agricultural experiment stations, yields 2. Pesticides
in the rice/wheat systems have started to decline
(Duxbury, 1993). This situation is alarming to
agriculturalists worldwide. 21. Extent of use
Even before this current situation developed in
Asis, it was recognized that ultimately, because of Worldwide the use of pesticides has grown
diminishing returns it would be impossible to steadily since the late 1940s and at present about
continue increasing the amounts of fertilizers and 2.5 million tons of pesticides are used at a cost of
pesticides applied to these grain crops (ICIATI, about $20 billion each year. Despite the applica-
tion of this amount of pesticide plus the use of
various biological and other non-chemical con-
*Tel.: +1 607 255 2212; fax: +1 607 255 0939; e-maih trois, about 35% of all agricultural crop produc-
dpl [email protected] tion is lost to pests (Pimentel, 1991). Insect pests

0048-9697/96/$15.00 © 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

PII S 0 0 4 8 - 9 6 9 7 ( 9 6 ) 0 5 2 8 0 - 1
 D. Pimentel / The Science of the Total Environment 188 Suppl. 1 (1996) $86-$98 $87

cause an estimated 13% crop loss, plant pathogens subsidy of pesticides in developing countries is
12%, and weeds 10% (Cramer, 1967). In the 44% of the total retail price (Repetto, 1985). In
United States, crop losses to pests are estimated contrast, the Indonesian government found that
to reach 37%, with insects causing an estimated when farmers had to pay the full price of pesti-
13% loss, plant pathogens 12%, and weeds an- cides they were careful to determine whether they
other 12% (Pimentel el al., 1991). Thus, pests needed to treat or not, and significantly reduced
destroy an enormous amount of food and fiber their use of pesticides (Oka, 1993).
despite all our efforts to control them with pesti- In some developing nations, pesticide use is
cides and non-chemical controls. growing rapidly. For example, in India pesticide
Worldwide an estimated 67000 different pest use is increasing at about 12% per year (Singh,
species attack agricultural crops. Included are 1993). At this rate, pesticide use will double in
approximately 9000 species of insects and mites, less than 6 years. Chlorinated insecticides, like
50 000 species of plant pathogens (USDA, 1960), BHC and DDT, are still in heavy use. Currently,
and 8000 weeds (Ross and Lembi, 1985). In gen- these two insecticides account for nearly 70% of
eral, less than 5% of these are considered serious the total pesticides used jn India (Singh, 1993).
pests.
3. Public health effects
2.2. Crops treated

The developed nations use about 80% of the Human pesticide poisonings and illnesses
pesticide applied yearly, while the developing na- clearly are the highest price being paid for heavy
tions use about 20% (Table 1). Most of this pesticide use. A recent World Health Organiza-
pesticide is applied to high value crops like cot- tion and United Nations Environmental Pro-
ton, fruit, and vegetables. Although the dosages gramme report (WHO/UNEP, 1989) estimated
of pesticides per hectare usually are relatively there are 1 million human pesticide poisonings
low, major quantities of pesticides are applied to each year in the world, and about 20000 deaths.
grain crops like rice and corn because enormous In the United States, nonfatal pesticide poison-
acreages of arable land are planted to these sta- ings reported by the American Association of
ple crops (Kendall and Pimentel, 1993). Poison Control Centers total about 67000 each
In some developing countries, pesticide use is year (Litovitz et al., 1990), Blondell (1991) has
encouraged because governmental subsidies re- indicated that because of demographic gaps, this
duce its cost to farmers. The median level for figure represents only 73% of the actual total
number of incidents.
Although developing countries use only approx-
Table 1 imately 20% of all the pesticides applied in the
Estimated annual pesticide use world (Pimentel, 1993), most of the pesticide-
induced deaths occur there (Committee, House of
Country/ Pesticide use Commons Agriculture, 1987). Frequently in de-
region (106 metric tons)
veloping countries there are inadequate occupa-
United States 0.5 tional and other safety standards, insufficient en-
Canada 0.1 forcement of standards, poor labeling of pesti-
Europe 0.8 cides, illiteracy, inadequate protective clothing
Other developed 0.5
Asia developing 0.3
and washing facilities for workers, and in general
Latin America 0.2 insufficient knowledge of pesticide hazards (Bull,
Africa 0.1 1982; WHO/UNEP, 1989; Dinham, 1993).
Food also is highly contaminated in some de-
World 2. 5 veloping countries. For example, in India more
Data from Pimentel (1993a). than 80% of the staple grain foods were found to
$88 D. Pimentel / The Science of the Total Environment 188 Suppl. 1 (1996) $86-$98

be contaminated with pesticides (Singh, 1993). used for insect control, (mean = 16.6 ppb), Fiore
During chapati preparation, DDT and BHC et al. (1986) reported evidence of significantly
residues remain in the cooked food and adults reduced immune response, although these women
receive a daily dosage of 208 and 519/zg, respec- did not exhibit any overt health problems.
tively. Therefore, the daily intake of DDT through Of particular concern are the chronic health
grains alone is about 69% of the prescribed safe problems associated with organophosphorus pes-
level by the World Health Organization (Singh, ticides which have largely replaced the banned
1993). organochlorines (Ecobichon et al., 1990). The
Because of the heavy contamination of staple malady OPIDP (Organo Phosphate Induced De-
foods with DDT and BHC, the safety of mother's layed Polyneuropathy) is well documented and
milk in India is a major concern. For example, includes irreversible neurological damage (Lotti,
D D T was found to be present at a level of 0.35 1984). Other problems with memory and mood
ppm in milk samples from Ludhiana and 0.62 have been documented. There is evidence to con-
ppm in samples from Mukteshwar (a cotton re- firm that persistent neurotoxic effects may be
gion). Singh (1993) reported that infants in these present even after the termination of an acute
regions were receiving pesticide dosages that were poisoning incident (Ecobichon et al., 1990).
13 and 24 times the levels recommended by the Such chronic health problems constitute a grave
World Health Organization. public health issue, because every person, every-
Both the acute and chronic health effects of where is exposed to some pesticide residues in
pesticides warrant concern. While the acute toxic- food, water, and the atmosphere. Of the food
ity of most pesticides is well documented crops, fruits and vegetables receive the highest
( W H O / U N E P , 1989; Ecobichon et al., 1990), in- dosages of pesticides. For example, about 35% of
formation on chronic human illnesses, including the foods purchased by U.S. consumers have de-
cancer, resulting from pesticide exposure is tectable levels of pesticide residues (FDA, 1990).
limited. The International Agency for Research From 1 to 3% of these foods have pesticide
on Cancer found 'sufficient' evidence of carcino- residue levels above the legal tolerance level set
genicity for 18 pesticides, and limited evidence of by FDA and EPA (FDA, 1990; Hundley et al.,
carcinogenicity for an additional 16 pesticides, 1988). Conceivably, these residue levels could well
based on animal studies ( W H O / U N E P , 1989). be higher because the U.S. analytical methods
With humans the evidence concerning cancer is now employed detect only about one-third of the
also mixed. Estimates are that the yearly number more than 600 pesticides now in use (OTA, 1988).
of U.S. cases of cancer in humans associated with Therefore, there are many reasons why 97% of
pesticides ranges from 6000 to 10 000 (Pimentel et the U.S. public is genuinely concerned about pes-
al., 1992). ticide residues in their food (FDA, 1989).
Many other acute and chronic maladies are The lack of public health data about the effect
beginning to be associated with pesticide use. For of pesticide use in developing countries is of
example, the recently banned pesticide, dibro- particular concern to medical specialists in these
mochloropropane (DBCP), used for plant regions because these specialists have evidence
pathogens control, has been found to cause testic- that Green Revolution agriculture and the in-
ular dysfunction in animal studies (Foote et al., tense use of chemicals is having negative impacts
1986) and has been linked to infertility among on public health (Pimentel et al., 1992).
human workers exposed to DBCP (Potashnik and
Yanai-Inbar, 1987). Also, a large body of evidence 4. Environmental effects
accumulated over recent years from animal stud-
ies suggests that pesticides can produce immune 4.1. Domestic animals
dysfunction (Thomas and House, 1989). In a study
of women who had chronically ingested ground- In addition to pesticide problems that affect
water contaminated with low levels of aldicarb, humans, several million domestic animals are
 D. Pimentel / The Science of the Total Environment 188 Suppl. 1 (1996) $86-$98 $89

poisoned by pesticides each year, and meat, milk, and consumed before the test results are avail-
and egg products are contaminated by these able. About 3% of the chickens with too high or
chemicals. Colvin (1987) reported that in the U.S., thus illegal levels of pesticide residues are sold in
0.5% of animal illnesses and 0.04% of all animal the market (NAS, 1987).
deaths reported to a veterinary diagnostic labora-
tory were due to pesticide toxicosis. These per- 4.Z Destruction of beneficial natural predators and
centages are thought to be higher in developing parasites
countries because the regulation and use of pesti-
cides are not well monitored. In both natural and agroecosystems, many
Furthermore, these percentages are based only species, especially predators and parasites, con-
on poisonings reported to veterinarians. Many trol or help control herbivorous pest populations
animal pesticide poisonings that occur in the home (DeBach, 1964; DeBach and Rosen, 1991). Ben-
or on farms go undiagnosed and are attributed to eficial parasites and predators keep herbivore
other factors. In addition, when a farm animal populations at low levels, and therefore only a
poisoning occurs and little can be done for an relatively small amount of plant biomass is re-
animal, the farmer seldom calls a veterinarian, moved each growing season (Hairston et al. 1960).
but either waits for the animal to recover or Indeed, these natural beneficial species make it
destroys it. possible for ecosystems to function normally.
Shiploads of beef from developing nations have Like pest populations, also beneficial natural
had to be destroyed because of excessive pesticide enemies of pests are adversely affected by pesti-
contamination (ICIATI, 1977). As a result, sev- cides (Croft, 1990). F o r example, in U.S. cotton
eral Central American governments have been and apple crops, destruction of natural enemies
forced to establish laboratories to test meat for by pesticides has resulted in outbreaks of numer-
export for pesticide residues. Frequently, if the ous pests, including the bollworm, tobacco bud-
meats are found to contain pesticide residues worm, cotton aphid, spider mites, and cotton
above the acceptable level set by the importing loopers in cotton (OTA, 1979), and the European
nation, the contaminated meat is sold in local red mite, red-banded leafroller, San Jose Scale,
markets (ICIATI, 1977). oysterscale scale, rosy apple aphid, wooly apple
Similarly, other nations lose significant num- aphid, white apple leafhopper, two-spotted mite,
bers of livestock and large amounts of animal and apple rust mite in apple crops (Croft, 1990).
products each year due to pesticide-induced ill- Significant pest outbreaks also have occurred in
ness or death. Reliable data concerning these other crops, like potatoes and cabbage (Croft,
livestock losses do not exist and frequently infor- 1990; OTA, 1979). Also, because parasitic and
mation becomes only available when an incident predaceous insects often have complex searching
of mass destruction of livestock occurs. For exam- and attack behaviors, sublethal insecticide dosages
ple, when the pesticide, leptophos, was used by may alter this behavior and thereby disrupt the
Egyptian farmers on rice and other crops, 1300 effectiveness of these biological controls.
draft animals were poisoned and lost (El Sebae, When outbreaks of secondary pests occur be-
1991). cause their natural enemies are destroyed by pes-
Of the more than 600 pesticides now in use in ticides, additional and frequently more expensive
the U.S., residue tests are made for only 41, pesticide treatments are made to sustain crop
which have been determined by the Food and yields. For example, from 1980 to 1985 insecticide
Drug Administration (FDA) and U.S. Environ- use in rice production in Indonesia drastically
mental Protection Agency (EPA) to be of public increased (Oka, 1991). This caused the destruc-
health concern. While the monitoring program tion of beneficial natural enemies of the brown
records the number and type of violations, there planthopper and the pest population exploded.
is no significant cost to the animal industry be- Rice yields dropped so much that rice had to be
cause the meat, including poultry is generally sold imported into Indonesia for the first time in many
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years. The estimated loss in rice in just a two-year mately 285 000 ha of cotton had to be abandoned,
period was about $1.5 billion (FAO, 1988). because pesticides were ineffective and there was
Following the incident, entomologist I.N. Oka no way to protect the cotton crop from the bud-
and his cooperators, who previously had devel- worm. The economic and social impacts on the
oped a successful, low insecticide program for Texan and Mexican farming communities depen-
rice in Indonesia, were consulted by Indonesian dent upon cotton were devastating.
President Soeharto's staff (Oka, 1993). Their ad- Although the costs of pesticide resistance are
vice was to substantially reduce insecticide use high in the United States, its costs in tropical
and return to a sound 'treat-when-necessary' pro- developing countries are significantly greater, be-
gram that protected the natural enemies. Fol- cause there pesticides not only are used to con-
lowing Oka's advice, President Soeharto man- trol agricultural pests but are also vital in the
dated in 1986 that 57 of 64 pesticides be with- control of human disease vectors. Indeed, one of
drawn from use on rice, and pest management the major costs of pest resistance in tropical
practices be improved. Pesticide subsidies to countries is associated with malaria control. By
farmers also were eliminated. After a 65% reduc- 1961, for example, following the early pesticide
tion in pesticide applications, rice yields in Indo- use, the incidence of malaria in India declined to
nesia increased 12% (Oka, 1993). only 41000 cases/year. Over time, however,
mosquitoes developed resistance to pesticides and
4. 3. Pesticide resistance in pests the malarial parasites became resistant to drugs
used for malaria treatment, and as a result the
In addition to destroying natural enemy popu- incidence of malaria in India has exploded to
lations, the extensive use of pesticides often has reach about 59 000 000 cases per year (NAS, 1991).
resulted in the development of pesticide resis- Similar problems are occurring in the rest of
tance in insect pests, plant pathogens, and weeds. Asia, Africa, and South America, and the world-
A report of the United Nations Environment wide incidence of malaria is now estimated at 270
Programme ranked pesticide resistance as one of million cases per year (NAS, 1991).
the top four environmental problems in the world.
About 504 insect and mite species (Georghiou, 4.4. Honeybee and wild bee poisonings and reduced
1990), a total of nearly 150 plant pathogen species, pollination
and about 273 weed species now are resistant to
pesticides (Pimentel et al., 1992). Honey and wild bees are absolutely vital for
Increased pesticide resistance in pest popula- pollination of fruits, vegetables, and other crops
tions frequently results in several additional ap- worldwide. Their direct and indirect benefits to
plications of the commonly used and different world agricultural production amount to several
pesticides to maintain expected crop yields. Addi- billion dollars each year. For most crops both
tional pesticide applications compound the prob- crop yield and quality are enhanced by effective
lem, by further increasing environmental selec- pollination. For example, McGregor et al. (1955)
tion for resistance traits. Despite all attempts to demonstrated that for several cotton varieties,
deal with it, pesticide resistance continues to de- effective pollination by bees resulted in yield in-
velop in all crop pests (Dennehy et al., 1987). creases from 20 to 30%.
The impact of pesticide resistance, which devel- Because most insecticides used in agriculture
ops gradually over time, is felt in the economics are toxic to bees, their heavy use has a negative
of agricultural production. A striking example of impact on both honeybee and wild bee popula-
this occurred in northeastern Mexico and the tions. In some cotton growing regions of Tanzania
Lower Rio Grande of Texas (Adkisson, 1972). By and Kenya, bee-keeping by small farmers and
the late 1960s, extremely high pesticide resistance others is impossible because of the heavy use of
had developed in the tobacco budworm, a major insecticides on this crop (Bull, 1982). Without the
pest of cotton. Finally in the early 1970s approxi- pollination some needed food crops can not be
 1). Pimentel / The Science of the Total Environment 188 Suppl. 1 (1996) $86-$98 $91

grown there. Estimates of annual agricultural in both cotton and stawberry crops (ICAITI, 1977).
losses attributed to reduced insect pollination of Furthermore, when weather a n d / o r soil condi-
crops due to pesticide impacts, may range as high tions are inappropriate for pesticide application,
as $4 billion/yr in the U.S. (Pimentel et al., 1992). herbicide treatments may cause yield reductions
Mussen (1990) emphasizes that poor pollina- ranging from 2% to 50% (Akins et al., 1976). The
tion not only reduces crop yields, but, more im- increased susceptibility of some crops to insects
portantly, it reduces the quality of crops such as and diseases following normal use of 2,4-D and
melons and other fruits. In experiments with mel- other herbicides was demonstrated by Oka and
ons, E.L. Atkins (P.C., University of California, Pimentel (1976).
Riverside, 1991) reported that with adequate pol- In addition, crop damage occurs when pesti-
lination melon yields were increased 10% and cides drift from the target crops to nontarget
quality was raised 25% as measured by the dollar crops located as far as several miles downwind
value of the crop. (Barnes et al., 1987). Drift occurs with almost all
methods of pesticide application including both
4. 5. Crop and crop product losses ground and aerial equipment, but the potential
problem is greatest when pesticides are applied
Basically pesticides are applied to protect crops by aircraft. With aircraft, 50% to 75% of applied
from pests to lessen damage and thereby preserve pesticide misses the target area (ICAITI, 1977;
yields. However, sometimes crops are damaged by Mazariegos, 1985; Ware, 1983). In contrast, from
the very pesticides used to protect them. This 10% to 35% of the pesticide applied with ground
occurs when: (1) the recommended dosages sup- application equipment misses the target area
press crop growth, development, and yield; (2) (Hall, 1991).
pesticides drift from the targeted crop to damage Crop injury and subsequent loss due to drift is
adjacent nearby crops (e.g., citrus adjacent to particularly common in areas planted with diverse
cotton); (3) residual herbicides either prevent crops. For example, in 1983 and 1984, nearly $20
chemical-sensitive crops from being planted in million of cotton was destroyed in southwest Texas
rotation or inhibit the growth of crops that are by drifting 2,4-D herbicide when adjacent wheat
planted; a n d / o r (4) excessive pesticide residues fields were aerially sprayed with the herbicide
accumulate on crops, necessitating the destruc- (Hanner, 1984).
tion of the harvest. Crop losses translate into Another hazard occurs when residues of some
financial losses for farmers, distributors, whole- herbicides persist in the soil and crops planted in
salers, transporters, retailers, food processors, and rotation are injured (Keeling et al., 1989). For
others in the food chain. The costs of crop losses example, in 1988/1989, an estimated $25-$30
increase when the related costs of investigations, million of Iowa's soybean crop was lost due to the
regulation, insurance, and litigation are added to persistence of the herbicide Sceptor in the soil
the equation. Ultimately the public pays for these (Pimentel et al., 1992).
losses in higher marketplace prices. Once harvested most crops are vulnerable to
In the U.S. reliable data on crop losses due to the destruction by other groups of insect and
pesticide use are difficult, if not impossible, to other pests. When proper storage facilities are
obtain. Many losses are never reported to the not available, losses may range from 25% up to
state and federal agencies because the injured 75%. This is especially a problem for grains and
parties settle privately (Pimentel et al., 1992). The other crops stored on small farms in developing
same difficulties exist worldwide. nations. When the harvested grains and other
Damage to crops may occur even when recom- crops are treated with pesticides to prevent post-
mended dosages of herbicides and insecticides harvest losses, there is a danger that applied
are applied to crops under normal environmental dosages may be too high and that the pesticide
conditions. For example, heavy dosages of insecti- persists to create major public health problems
cides used on crops suppressed growth and yield (Dinham, 1993).
$92 D. Pimentel / The Science of the Total Environment 188 Suppl. 1 (1996) $86-$98

4.6. Ground and surface water contamination foods like insects and other invertebrates. In ad-
dition, because most government safety regula-
Many pesticides applied to crops eventually tions ban the sale of fish contaminated with pesti-
end up in ground and surface waters. In the cide residues, these unmarketable fish constitute
United States the three most common pesticides an economic loss.
found in groundwater are aldicarb (an insecticide), Each year large numbers of fish and other
alachlor, and atrazine (two herbicides) (Osteen aquatic foods are killed by pesticides worldwide.
and Szmedra, 1989). Estimates are that nearly For example, based on EPA (1990b) data we
one-half of the groundwater and well water in the calculate that from 1977 to 1987 the cost of fish
United States is or has the potential to be con- kills due to all factors has been $141 million/year;
taminated (Holmes et al., 1988). EPA (1990a) from $6 to $14 million in fish/year are killed by
reported that 10.4% of community wells and 4.2% pesticides. These estimates of fish kills are con-
of rural domestic wells have detectable levels of sidered to be low for the following reasons. In
at least one pesticide of the 127 pesticides tested many instances, no estimate is made of the num-
in a national survey. According to Nielsen and ber of fish killed and also, fish kills frequently
Lee (1987), it would cost an estimated $1.3 billion cannot be investigated quickly enough to de-
annually if U.S. well and groundwater were moni- termine accurately the primary cause. In addition,
tored for pesticide residues. Undoubtedly, similar fast moving waters in rivers dilute pollutants so
and even more serious groundwater contamina- that precise causes of kills frequently cannot be
tion problems exist in developing countries. identified. Moving waters also wash away some of
Groundwater contamination with pesticides is a the poisoned fish, while other poisoned fish sink
serious problem because about one-half of the to the bottom and cannot be counted. Perhaps
world population obtains its water from wells, and most significant is the fact that, unlike direct kills,
once groundwater is contaminated, the pesticide few, if any, of the widespread and more frequent
residues remain for many years. Not only are just low-level pesticide poisonings are dramatic
a few microorganisms able to degrade pesticides enough to be observed and therefore go unrecog-
but the groundwater recharge rate averages less nized and unreported.
than 1% per year. Pesticide contamination of
drinking water constitutes an important health 4.8. Wild birds and mammals
problem in both developed and developing coun-
tries (Bull, 1982; Dinham, 1993). Worldwide wild birds and mammals are also
damaged by pesticides. These animals serve as
4. 7. Fishery losses 'indicator species' for assessing the general health
of a given ecosystem. Deleterious effects on
Millions of tons of soil are washed and blown wildlife include: death from direct exposure to
from pesticide treated cropland into adjacent lo- pesticides; secondary poisonings from consuming
cations including streams and lakes where they contaminated prey; reduced survival, growth, and
contaminate aquatic ecosystems (USDA, 1989). reproductive rates from exposure to sublethal
Pesticides also drift during application into dosages; and habitat reduction through elimina-
streams and lakes and contaminate these aquatic tion of food sources and refuges (McEwen and
systems. Also, some soluble pesticides are easily Stephenson, 1979). Although in developing na-
leached into streams and lakes (Nielsen and Lee, tions many crops receive relatively little or no
1987). pesticide, some crops, such as cotton, receive
Once in aquatic systems, pesticides cause fish- pesticide applications ranging as high as 30 to 50
ery losses in several ways. These include: high k g / h a / y e a r (ICIATI, 1977). Also in the U.S.,
pesticide concentrations in water that directly kill some crops receive this much pesticide, however,
fish; low level doses that may kill highly suscepti- on average 3 kg of pesticide per hectare is ap-
ble fish fry; or the elimination of essential fish plied. In some countries, such as the Netherlands,
 D. Pimentel / The Science of the Total Environment 188 SuppL 1 (1996) $86-$98 S93

the average amount of pesticide applied per 4.9. Microorganisms and invertebrates
hectare per year may be as high as 21 kg
(NIPHEP, 1992). Pesticides easily move into soils, where they
The full extent of bird and mammal destruction may be toxic to the arthropods, earthworms, fungi,
is difficult to determine because these animals bacteria, and protozoa. These small organisms are
are often secretive, camouflaged, highly mobile, vital to world ecosystems worldwide because they
and live in dense grass, shrubs, and trees. Typical dominate both the structure and function of all
field studies of the effects of pesticides often natural systems.
obtain extremely low estimates of bird and mam- For example, an estimated 4.5 tons/ha of fungi
mal mortality (Mineau and Collins, 1988). This is and bacteria exist in the upper 15 cm of soil.
because bird and mammal carcasses disappear They, along with the arthropods, make up 95% of
quickly due to vertebrate and invertebrate scav- all species and 98% of the biomass (excluding
engers, and field studies can not account for birds vascular plants). Microorganisms are essential to
that die a distance from the treated areas. proper functioning in the ecosystem, because they
Nevertheless, many bird casualties caused by break down organic matter, thus enabling vital
pesticides have been documented. For instance, chemical elements to be recycled. Equally impor-
White et al. (1982) reported that 1200 Canada tant is the ability of some microorganisms to 'fix'
geese were killed in one wheat field that was nitrogen, making it available for plants. The role
sprayed with a 2:1 mixture of parathion and of microorganisms can not be overemphasized,
methyl parathion at a rate of 0.8 kg/ha. Carbofu- because in nature, agriculture, and forestry they
ran applied to alfalfa killed more than 5000 ducks are essential agents in biogeochemical recycling
and geese in 5 incidents, while the same chemical of the vital elements in all ecosystems (Brock and
applied to vegetable crops killed 1400 ducks in a Madigan, 1988). To date no relevant quantitative
single incident (Flicklnger et al., 1991). The appli- data on the extent of microorganisms destruction
cation of carbofuran is estimated to kill 1-2 mil- by pesticides have been collected in any nation,
lion birds each year in the United States (EPA, making it impossible to place a dollar value on
1989; Mineau, 1993). Another pesticide, diazinon, the damage inflicted on this large group of organ-
applied on just three golf courses killed 700 isms by pesticides.
Atlantic Brant geese or 1/4th of the wintering
population (Stone and Gradoni, 1985). 5. Fertilizers
Several studies have reported that the use of
herbicides in crop production results in the total 5.1. Extent of use
elimination of weeds that harbour some insects
which serve as food for several species of birds Yearly, about 200 million tons of commercial
(Potts, 1986). For example, the use of herbicides fertilizer nutrients are added to the land areas of
led to significant reductions in populations of the the world (WRI, 1992) (Table 2). From the start
grey partridge in the United Kingdom and com- of the Green Revolution, which began in the late
mon pheasant in the United States. 1950s, there has been nearly a 20-fold increase in
Pesticides also adversely affect the reproduc- the use of commercial fertilizers. As mentioned,
tive potential of many birds and mammals. Expo- the breeding of crops to tolerate large amounts of
sure of birds, especially predatory birds, to chlori- fertilizers, particularly nitrogen (N), and the ap-
nated insecticides has caused reproductive fail- plication of large amounts of fertilizers to in-
ure, sometimes attributed to eggshell thinning crease crop yields provide the basis of the Green
(Stickel et al., 1984). Most of the affected species Revolution (Kendall and Pimentel, 1993).
populations have recovered since DDT was Because of the importance of N inputs to the
banned in the United States. However, DDT is success of the Green Revolution and because the
still being widely applied in many developing N content of fertilizer is the major environment
countries (Singh, 1993). pollutant, N is the focus of this analysis. At pre-
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Table 2 Europe (FAO, 1990). At present, China is using

Estimated amounts and sources of fertilizer nutrients world-
large quantities of N to help produce needed food
wide
for its extremely dense population of about 1.2
Sources Amounts in million tons billion (PRB, 1993) (Table 3).
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
In Europe the shortage of agricultural land and
its high population density, account for the heavy
Commercial fertilizer 80 30 90 use of N and other fertilizers. For example, the
Animal wastes 250 60 180
amount of N applied per hectare in the Nether-
Human wastes 120 30 100
Biological N-fixation 1O0 -- --
lands is 528 kg, from both commercial sources
and livestock wastes (NIPHEP, 1992). In regions
Total 550 120 370 of the world where there are heavy applications
of commercial N a n d / o r where there are large
numbers of livestock per hectare, N-pollution of
ground and surface water can increase to haz-
sent about 80 million tons of commercial N are
ardous levels. Little, if any, monitoring is cur-
used in world agriculture each year (Tables 2 and
rently being carried out in either developed or
3). Approximately 55% of this is applied to land
developing nations to ascertain the causes and
in developing nations and 45% in developed na-
seriousness of N pollution. According to Nielsen
tions (FAO, 1990). In addition, to the large
and Lee (1987) it would cost the U.S. $800 million
amount of commercial N applied, other major
per year to carry out a satisfactory job of moni-
sources of N include biological N-fixation by mi-
toring N in well and groundwater resources.
croorganisms, livestock manure, and human
wastes (Table 2).
5.3. Erosion and loss of fertilizers
5.2 Distribution of fertilizers
Surface waters receive N primarily from ero-
Most of the N is applied to grain crops because sion and leaching. Of the total N applied for crop
these crops dominate world agricultural produc- production, only 25-50% is harvested in the crop.
tion and are staples of human diets (Kendall and Of the N remaining, 20-50% is lost by erosion,
Pimentel, 1993). The regions of the world receiv- 10-50% by leaching, and 10-50% by volatiliza-
ing the heaviest applications of N are China and tion (Pimentel, 1989). Soil erosion in the U.S., for
example, averages about 16 t o n n e / h a per year
(USDA, 1991). Note the soil formation rate under
Table 3
World use of commercial nitrogen fertilizer, 1990
agricultural conditions is only about 1 tonne/ha
per year, emphasizing the magnitude of losses
103 tons kg/ha incurred by erosion (Pimentel, 1993b). One ton of
rich agricultural soil washed into surface waters
North America 11 245 48
Europe 15 365 110
may contain as much as 4 kg of N, 1 kg of
Oceania 468 17 phosphorus (P), and 20 kg of potassium (K)
Former USSR 10 045 43 (Alexander, 1977; Greenland and Hayes, 1981).
Africa 2145 11 Therefore, the loss of 16 tonne/ha per year of
Latin America 3 880 22 soil, containing about 64 kg of N, is more than the
Asia a 9 679 51
India 7 396 44
48 k g / h a per year of N applied per hectare per
China 18 855 126 year in the U.S. (FAO, 1990). Troeh et al. (1991)
report that the U.S. loses an estimated $18 billion
Worm 79 078 53 annually because fertilizer nutrients are eroded
aExcluding India and China
from the land.
Data from FAO (1990). Through leaching and soil erosion, N is also
 D. Pimentel / The Science of the Total Environment 188 Suppl. 1 (1996) $86-$98 $95

reaching surface waters. In the U.S. the amounts 5.5. Environmental effects
of nitrate-nitrogen in most lakes and reservoirs
are usually quite low or below 0.1 ppm (Pimentel, 5.5.1. Eutrophication
1989). This is because aquatic plants take up and When lakes and rivers are polluted with N, P,
utilize the N almost as fast as it is available. K, and other nutrients from eroded or leached
Streams usually have higher concentrations of fertilizers, livestock and human wastes, algae and
nitrate-nitrogen than lakes, and the concentra- other micro- and macro-plants frequently explode
tions may range from 0.1 to 0.5 ppm (Pimentel, in growth. The enrichment and eutrophication of
1989). waterways comes from the various sources listed
As N use increases in Green Revolution agri- in Table 2.
culture, the pollution problems grow as well. Perhaps the most serious effects of heavy eu-
trophication are fish kills and overall degradation
5.4. Public health problems of aquatic ecosystems. The dense growth of plant
materials and subsequently their rapid decompo-
The impact of fertilizer nutrients, especially N, sition, depletes oxygen in the water, causing se-
on human health is relatively minor compared vere fish kills (Halasi-Kun, 1981).
with that of pesticides. The primary health In addition to fish kills, heavy weed and algal
concern is the level of N in drinking water. For growth restrict the recreational use of the aquatic
instance, when infants ingest drinking water with ecosystems. It is unpleasant to swim in ill-smell-
nitrate-nitrogen levels above 10 ppm (10 ing algal growth or heavy growths of macro-weeds.
mg/liter), they may develop methemoglobinemia Also, boats are nearly impossible to operate in
or cyanosis (NAS, 1972; EPA, 1986). heavy weed growths. Control of aquatic weeds
The recommended acceptable limit of nitrate- without first controlling the enrichment caused by
nitrogen in drinking water in the U.S. is 10 ppm, fertilizer nutrients is impossible.
this is about the same as the 50 ppm of nitrate When lake and river enrichment becomes se-
recommended as the acceptable limit by the vere, many fish and larger invertebrates die and
World Health Organization (WHO) (OECD, population outbreaks of small plants and animals
1986; NIPHEP, 1992). WHO's maximum accept- take place (Pimentel, 1989). The outbreak of
able limit is 100 ppm of nitrate (Conway and smaller organisms drastically reduces the biologi-
Pretty, 1988). cal diversity of the polluted aquatic ecosystems.
In addition to contaminating water supplies, Most of the organisms high in the trophic system,
the heavy application of nitogen fertilizer (160 such as fish and the large invertebrates, are greatly
k g / h a or higher) to some crops, especially leafy reduced in number or lost from the system, and
vegetables results in a high N content (Shuphan, the aquatic ecosystem becomes unstable (Lo
1972). When such vegetables, as spinach, are con- Pinto, 1981).
sumed by infants, aged 2-10 months, they may
develop methemoglobinemia (Shuphan, 1972). 6. Conclusion
Livestock can also be adversely affected by
nitrate-nitrogen. With concentrations of about 5 The success of the Green Revolution was made
ppm in drinking water, methemoglobinemia may possible by the development of grains that toler-
occur in young animals (Pimentel, 1989). The ate high levels of fertilizers. Basically then, higher
afflicted animals show cyanosis, rapid breathing, crop yields realized have been dependent on the
and extreme respiratory problems (Shuval and 20-30-fold increase in the use of agricultural
Gruener, 1972). With prolonged periods of expo- chemicals, primarily fertilizers and pesticides sup-
sure, livestock may experience reduced milk pro- plied from fossil fuels. Now 30 years after the
duction, vitamin A deficiency, thyroid distur- initiation of the Green Revolution technologies,
bances, and reproductive difficulties and abor- crop yields have leveled and in some regions are
tions. beginning to decline.
896 D. Pimentel / The Science of the Total Environment 188 Suppl. 1 (1996) $86-$98

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