Mechanics of Materials

Lab Report

Submitted By:
Muhammad Ibrahim Afridi
2022-IM-25

Submitted To:
Dr. Kashif Ishfaq

Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Department

UET Lahore

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 Experiment # 01

1. Experiment Title:
To draw the load-extension curve of a metallic wire and hence determine the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the wire.
2. Experiment Statement:
This experiment aims to determine the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) of a metallic
wire by plotting and analyzing the load-extension curve. The modulus of elasticity is a
fundamental mechanical property that characterizes a material's stiffness and its ability to deform
under an applied load.

3. Objectives:
 To determine the deflection of wire by applying the load and also see the limit how much
load a wire can bear.
 To determine the Modulus of elasticity of wire.

4. Apparatus:
 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus
 Wire
 Hangers
 Weights in pounds
 Meter Rod
 Vernier Caliper

5. Apparatus Diagram:

Wire Clipper

G Board

G Wire

Wire Clipper

Weight Applied

Figure 1: Wire stretching Apparatus

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6. Theory:
6.1. Introduction
When a new wire rope is subjected to a load, the strands and the core decrease in size (are
compacted). In addition, the strands are squeezing more tightly around the core. The construction
settles. This means that the wire rope’s dimension becomes slightly smaller, causing the wire
rope to become longer. This elongation is known as constructional elongation and remains in
place until the wire rope has been subjected to loads several times in normal operation. If the
wire rope is at a later date subjected to a greater force than that experienced under normal
operating conditions, the steel wire rope will probably become a little longer [1].
6.2. Wire
A wire is a single usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal. Wires are used to bear
mechanical loads or electricity and telecommunications signals. Wire is commonly formed
by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire gauges come in
various standard sizes, as expressed in terms of a gauge number. The term 'wire' is also used
more loosely to refer to a bundle of such strands, as in "multistranded wire", which is more
correctly termed a wire rope in mechanics, or a cable in electricity.

Figure 2: Different types of mechanical wires

Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms. Although usually circular in cross-section,
wire can be made in square, hexagonal, flattened rectangular or other cross-sections, either for
decorative purposes, or for technical purposes such as high-efficiency voice
coils in loudspeakers. Edge-wound coil springs, such as the Slinky toy, are made of special
flattened wire [2].

6.3. Forms of wire

6.3.1. Solid wire
Solid wire, also called solid-core or single-strand wire,
consists of one piece of metal wire. Solid wire is useful for
wiring breadboards. Solid wire is cheaper to manufacture
than stranded wire and is used where there is little need for

Figure 3: Solid wires

flexibility in the wire. Solid wire also provides mechanical ruggedness; and, because it has
relatively less surface area which is exposed to attack by corrosives, protection against the
environment.
6.3.2. Stranded wire
Stranded wire is composed of a number of small wires bundled or wrapped
together to form a larger conductor. Stranded wire is more flexible than solid
wire of the same total cross-sectional area. Stranded wire is used when higher
resistance to metal fatigue is required. Such situations include connections
between circuit boards in multi-printed-circuit-board devices, where the
rigidity of solid wire would produce too much stress as a result of movement
during assembly or servicing; A.C line cords for appliances; musical
instrument cables; computer mouse cables; welding electrode cables; control Figure 4: Stranded wires
cables connecting moving machine parts; mining machine cables; trailing machine cables; and
numerous others.
6.3.3. Braided wire
A braided wire consists of a number of small strands of wire braided
together. Braided wires do not break easily when flexed. Braided wires are
often suitable as an electromagnetic shield in noise-reduction cables [3]. Figure 5: Braided wire

6.4. Explanation
When a solid is stretched, compressed, or deformed in some other way, it is said to contain a
strain. To produce a strain in a solid one must apply some force to the solid, for example by
pressing on its surface. Note that the word strain refers to the deformation, not to the force
required to produce that deformation. The strain thus produced, will in general vary as a function
of position within the body of the object. Thus, at every point within the body of the object, we
can quantify the strain both by the magnitude of the stretching of the body at that point and by
the direction and way in which it is stretching. At some points within the body the strain may be
a pure elongation or compression of the material while at other points the strain may be a
shearing deformation. Strain is a measurement of deformation. However, if you apply a force to
a larger amount of material, it will deform more than applying that force to a smaller amount of
material. We want to know the material property that tells us how much a material will deform,
thus we must divide our measured deformation by the amount of material to give us a unit less
quantity. Thus, strain is defined as:
ε = ∆L/ L
The Young’s Modulus is given by the ratio of stress to strain for the stretching-type strains only.
In other words, there is no shear involved. For example, the Young’s Modulus of a particular
metal could be measured by subjecting a wire made of this metal to a stretching force, as we do
in this lab. The ratio of the stress being applied to the resulting strain in the wire is the Young’s
Modulus, Y. (By the way, the Poisson Ratio is the ratio of the relative length change due to

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stretching to the relative narrowing of the wire due to the stretching. We will not be concerned
with the Poisson ratio in this lab.

Figure 6: Wires of bridge are stretching

In the case of a stretched wire, the stress in the wire will be uniform and equal to the ratio of the
applied force to the cross-sectional area of the wire:
σ = F/ A
Where F is the force applied in the direction you are measuring (in another direction would cause
shear, which is delt with other Modulus’s but not in the Young’s Modulus. Since the Young’s
Modulus is stress over strain, [4] then:
Y = σ ε = FL / A∆L
6.5. Shear Modulus:
Shear Modulus of elasticity is one of the measures of mechanical
properties of solids. Other elastic moduli are Young’s modulus and bulk
modulus. The shear modulus of material gives us the ratio of shear stress to
shear strain in a body. Figure 7: Shear modulus
 Measured using the SI unit pascal or Pa.
 The dimensional formula of Shear modulus is M1 L-2 T-2.
 It is denoted by G.
It can be used to explain how a material resists transverse
deformations but this is practical for small deformations only, following which they are able to
return to the original state. This is because large shearing forces lead to permanent deformations
(no longer elastic body) [5]. The elastic moduli of a material, like Young’s Modulus, Bulk
Modulus, Shear Modulus are specific forms of Hooke’s law, which states that, for an elastic
material, the strain experienced by the corresponding stress applied is proportional to that stress.

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6.6. Elasticity:
Elasticity, ability of a deformed material body to return to its original shape and size when the
forces causing the deformation are removed. A body with this ability is said to behave (or
respond) elastically.

Figure 8elasticity in rod

6.7. Modulus of elasticity:

Modulus of elasticity is the measurement of material resistance to deform plastically. Hence it is
the material ability to withstand tensile (elongation) or compressive loads without being
deformed permanently. [3]
Other numbers measure the elastic properties of a material, like Bulk modulus and shear
modulus, but the value of Young’s Modulus is most commonly used. This is because it gives us
information about the tensile elasticity of a material (ability to deform along an axis).

6.8. Need Of Young’s Modulus Test:

Young's Modulus test, also known as the tensile test, is an important mechanical testing
procedure used to determine the Young's Modulus (E) of a material. There are several reasons
and needs for conducting Young's Modulus tests:
 Material Characterization:
Young's Modulus is a fundamental material property that quantifies a material's stiffness or how
it responds to an applied load.

 Material Selection:
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Engineers and material scientists use Young's Modulus values to select appropriate materials for
specific applications. For example, materials with a high Young's Modulus are suitable for
applications where stiffness and rigidity are required, while those with a low Young's Modulus
may be used for flexibility and elasticity.
 Failure Analysis:
In cases of structural failures or accidents, analyzing the Young's Modulus of the materials
involved can provide valuable insights into why the failure occurred. It helps engineers and
investigators understand how materials responded to loads.
 Material Property Prediction:
Young's Modulus data can be used to predict material behavior in various situations, such as how
a material will behave under tension, compression, or bending.
 Educational Purposes:
Young's Modulus tests are common experiments in materials science and engineering education.
They help students understand the relationship between stress and strain, and how materials
respond to external forces.

6.9. Application of Young’s Modulus[4]:

 Structural Engineering:
In civil engineering and architecture, Young's Modulus is used to assess the stiffness and
deformability of building materials such as concrete, steel, and wood.
 Mechanical Engineering:
Young's Modulus is essential in mechanical design to select materials for components like
springs, beams, and columns.
 Aerospace Engineering:
In aerospace applications, Young's Modulus is used to design and analyze aircraft components,
spacecraft structures, and materials used in aviation.
 Electronics:
In microelectronics, Young's Modulus is applied to materials used in semiconductor devices,
substrates, and packaging.

7. Procedure
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  Put the initial load of 2 lb to remove wrinkles in wire.
 Measure length of wire using meter rod.
 Measure diameter of the wire using Vernier calliper.
 Adjust main scale so that zeros of two scales coincide with each other.
 Put a load of 5 lb in the hanger and measure extension.
 Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on
unloading.
 Check the zeros at no load.
 Calculate the “Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E)” of the material.

8. Observations and Calculations

 Least Count of the scale of apparatus = 0.5 mm
 Least Count of micrometer = 0.08 mm
 Least Count of meter rod =1 mm
 Length of wire (L) = 880 mm
 Diameter of wire (d) = 0.5 mm
 Initial Load = 0.5 lb.
 X-area of wire (A= πd2/4) = 5.08 mm2

Extension-δl Modulus of
P/δl
Elasticity
Effective Load-P
(in)
No. of Obs. (lb/inch)
E=(P/δl)(L/A)
(lbs)
Loading Unloading Average From Graph
(psi)

1. 0.5 0.04 0.08 0.06

2. 1 0.16 0.19 0.17

3. 1.5 0.24 0.28 0.26 5.71 987.8

4. 2 0.28 0.35 0.35

5. 2.5 0.37 0.37 0.37

Table 1 Calculation of Modulus of Elasticity

9. Sample Calculations:
E=(P/δl)(L/A)

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E=(1/0.17) (34.6/0.2)

E= 988 Psi

10.Load Extension curve:

Extension Load

0 0

0.06 0.5

0.175 1

0.26 1.5

0.315 2

0.37 2.5

2.5 Stress 2.5

2
2
Load (lbs)

1.5
1.5
1
1
0.5
0.5
0
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Extension (in)

11.Graph Explanation:
 In the beginning, as load (force) is applied to the metallic wire, the wire will initially undergo
linear deformation. This linear region obeys Hooke's law, which states that the deformation
of a material is directly proportional to the applied force
 The modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) can be determined from the slope of the initial
linear region (Elastic Region) of the graph.
 The yield point provides information about the material's ability to undergo plastic
deformation before permanent deformation occurs.

12.Conclusion
It is concluded that as we increase the weight on hanger the extension in wire is also increase
gradually and Stress is also increase in the wire. By that stress and strain we can find the modulus of
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elasticity of wire. And also see the result by drawing load extension curve. We can examine the
behavior of wire by applying load.

13.Comments
As we increase the applied load there is gradually change in length of wire but when we unloaded the
weight reading is different from loading weight that is due to some residual stresses in wire that will
be recovered in sometimes. There is also some error due to hanger. In air, the hanger changes its
direction due to some flow of air.

Refrences:
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastic_modulus....................................................................[1 ]
 https://byjus.com/physics/youngs-modulus-elastic-modulus/ ……………....………………………..[1]
 https://www.britannica.com/science/elasticity-physics........................................................[2]
 https://www.jlwinstruments.com/products/test-solutions/modulus-of-elasticity-testing/ ..[3]
 https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/story/amp/applications-of-youngs-modulus.............[4]

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