Prof TVKB SOM Lecture 04 Strain

Mechanics of Solids – I
(Strain)
Prof. T.V.K. Bhanuprakash
Dept of Marine Engineering
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam - 530003
An assortment of tensile test specimens. The tensile test is a standard procedure for
determining the mechanical properties of materials. An important material property is the
stress-strain diagram, which is discussed in this chapter.
Strain
1. We now study deformations, or strains.
2. Strain is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of a body.
3. Two types of strain:
1. normal strain, which characterizes dimensional changes
2. shear strain, which describes distortion (changes in angles).
(Stress and strain are two fundamental concepts of mechanics of
materials. )
4. Their relationship to each other defines the mechanical properties of a
material, the knowledge of which is of the utmost importance in design.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
1. The strength of a material is not the only criterion that must be considered
when designing machine parts or structures.
2. The stiffness of a material is often equally important, as are mechanical
properties such as hardness, toughness, and ductility.
3. These properties are determined by laboratory tests.
4. Many materials, particularly metals, have established standards that describe
the test procedures in detail.
5. We study here only tensile test of steel - and use its results to illustrate several
important concepts of material behaviour.
1. Formalize the definition of normal (axial) strain.
2. Consider elongation of the prismatic bar of length L. Elongation “d ” may be
caused by a force and a temperature increase acting simultaneously.
3. Strain describes the geometry of deformation, independent of what actually
causes the deformation.
4. The normal strain (e ) is defined as the elongation per unit length.
5. Therefore, the normal strain (the axial strain) (no units)
1. If the bar deforms uniformly, then Eq. (2.1) represents the axial strain
everywhere in the bar.
2. Otherwise, this expression should be viewed as the average axial strain
3. If the deformation is not uniform, we must define strain at a point.
4. Let O be a point in the bar located at the distance x from the fixed end.
5. To determine the axial strain at point O, we consider the deformation of an
imaginary line element OA of length Dx that is embedded in the bar at O.
6. Denoting the elongation of OA by Dd, we define the axial strain at point O as
7. Normal strain, like normal stress, is defined at a point in a given direction.

8. Total elongation is obtained by integration
9. Formulas applicable for Compression

The Standard Tensile Test
1. The specimen is placed in the grips of a testing machine.
2. The grips are designed so that the load P applied by the machine is axial.
3. Two gage marks are scribed on the specimen to define the gage length L.
4. Marks are located away from ends to avoid the local effects caused by the grips and
to ensure that the stress and strain are uniform in the material between the marks.
5. The testing machine elongates the specimen at a slow, constant rate until the
specimen ruptures.
6. Load and elongation readings are taken continuously
P
7. The stress is obtained from 
A
8. Here A is the original cross section of the specimen

 
L “d ”is the elongation between the gage marks
9. The strain is computed from , where
and “L” is the original gage length.
10. These results, which are based on the original area and the original gage length,
are referred to as nominal stress and nominal strain.
11. As the bar is being stretched, its cross-sectional area becomes smaller and the
length between the gage marks increases.
12. Dividing the load by the actual area of the specimen, we get the true stress.
13. True strain is obtained by dividing the elongation “d ”by the current gage length.
14. Nominal and true values are essentially the same in the working range of metals.
15. They differ only for very large strains, such as in rubber-like materials or in ductile
metals just before rupture.
16. With only a few exceptions, engg applications use nominal stress and strain
1. Plotting axial stress versus axial strain results in a stress-strain diagram.
2. If the test is carried out properly, the stress-strain diagram for a given material is
independent of the dimensions of the test specimen.
3. That is, the characteristics of the diagram are determined solely by the
mechanical properties of the material.
4. A stress-strain diagram for structural steel is shown.
5. The following mechanical properties can be determined from the diagram.
Elastic Limit
Proportional Limit and Hooke’s Law
Yield Point
1. The point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost horizontal is called the
yield point, and the corresponding stress is known as
2. the yield stress or yield strength.
3. Beyond the yield point there is an appreciable elongation, or yielding, of the material
without a corresponding increase in load.
4. Indeed, the load may actually decrease while the yielding occurs.
5. However, the phenomenon of yielding is unique to structural steel.
1. Other grades of steel, steel alloys, and other materials do not yield, as indicated by
the stress-strain curves of the materials shown
2. Incidentally, these curves are typical for a first loading of materials that contain
appreciable residual stresses produced by manufacturing or aging processes.
3. After repeated loading, these residual stresses are removed and the stress-strain
curves become practically straight lines.
1. For materials that do not have a well-defined yield point, yield stress is
determined by the offset method.
2. This method consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the stress-
strain curve.
3. This line starts at a prescribed offset strain, usually 0.2%    0.002
4. The intersection of this line with the stress-strain curve, is called the yield point at
0.2% offset.
Ultimate Stress :The ultimate stress or ultimate strength, as it is often called, is the
highest stress on the stress-strain curve.
Rupture Stress
The rupture stress or rupture strength is the stress at which failure occurs.
For structural steel, the nominal rupture strength is considerably lower than the
ultimate strength because the nominal rupture strength is computed by dividing the
load at rupture by the original cross-sectional area.
The true rupture strength is calculated using the reduced area of the cross section
where the fracture occurred.
The difference in the two values results from a phenomenon known as necking.
As failure approaches, the material stretches very rapidly, causing the cross section
to narrow, as shown.
Because the area where rupture occurs is smaller than the original area, the true
rupture strength is larger than the ultimate strength.
However, the ultimate strength is commonly used as the maximum stress that the
material can carry.
Working Stress and Factor of Safety
1. The working stress  w also called the allowable stress, is the maximum safe
axial stress used in design.
2. In most designs, the working stress should be limited to values not
exceeding the proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the elastic
range (the straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram).
3. However, because the proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately,
it is customary to base the working stress on either the yield stress  yp
or the ultimate stress  ult divided by a suitable number N, called the factor of
safety. Thus,
4. The yield point is selected as the basis for determining w in structural steel
because it is the stress at which a prohibitively large permanent set may occur.
5. For other materials, the working stress is usually based on the ultimate strength.
6. Many factors must be considered when selecting the working stress.
7. This selection should not be made by the novice; usually the working stress is set by
a group of experienced engineers and is embodied in building codes and
specifications.
Factors affecting the selection of Working Stress
1. A discussion of the factors governing the selection of a working stress starts with the
observation that in many materials the proportional limit is about one-half the
ultimate strength.
2. To avoid accidental overloading, a working stress of one-half the proportional limit
is usually specified for dead loads that are gradually applied.
3. (The term dead load refers to the weight of the structure and other loads that, once
applied, are not removed.)
4. A working stress set in this way corresponds to a factor of safety of 4 with respect to
sult and is recommended for materials that are known to be uniform and
homogeneous.
5. For other materials, such as wood, in which unpredictable non-uniformities (such as
knotholes) may occur, larger factors of safety are used.
6. The dynamic effect of suddenly applied loads also requires higher factors of safety.
Axially Loaded Bars
1. Consider a bar of length L and constant cross-sectional area A that is loaded by an
axial tensile force P.
2. We assume that the stress caused by P is below the proportional limit, so that
Hooke’s law is applicable.
3. Because the bar deforms uniformly, the axial strain is which upon
substitution into Hooke’s law yields
4. Therefore, the elongation of the bar is
5. In the case where the axial strain varies with the x-coordinate, the elongation of
the bar can be obtained by integration
Example 1
The steel propeller shaft ABCD carries the axial loads shown.
Determine the change in the length of the shaft caused by these
loads. Use E=29x106 psi for steel.
1. Because the axial force and the cross-sectional area are
constant within each segment, the changes in the lengths of
the segments can be computed from
d = pL/AE
2. The change in the length of the shaft is obtained by adding
the contributions of the segments.
3. Noting that tension causes elongation and compression
results in shortening, we obtain for the elongation of the shaft
Example 2
The cross section of the 10-m-long flat steel bar AB has a constant
thickness of 20 mm, but its width varies as shown in the figure. Calculate
the elongation of the bar due to the 100-kN axial load. Use E = 200 GPa for
steel.
Load throughout = 100 kN ( From statics)
Example 3
The rigid bar BC is supported by the steel rod AC of cross-sectional area
0.25 in2. Find the vertical displacement of point C caused by the 2000-lb
load. Use E =29 x 106 psi for steel
FBD of C
For rod AC
BC is rigid so BC = BC/
Generalized Hooke’s Law
a. Uni-axial loading; Poisson’s ratio

1. Experiments show that when a bar is stretched by an axial force, there is a
contraction in the transverse dimensions
2. Sime´on D. Poisson showed that the ratio of the transverse strain to the axial
strain is constant for stresses within the proportional limit.
3. This constant, called Poisson’s ratio, is denoted by nu (lowercase Greek nu).
4. For uni-axial loading in the x-direction Poisson’s ratio is
5. et is the strain in the transverse direction
6. The minus sign indicates that a positive strain (elongation) in the axial direction
causes a negative strain (contraction) in the transverse directions.
7. The transverse strain is uniform throughout the cross section and is the same in
any direction in the plane of the cross section.
8. Therefore, we have for uni-axial loading
Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity that ranges between 0.25 and 0.33
for metals.
Using yields generalized Hookes law for uniaxial loading
b. Multiaxial Loading
Biaxial Loading
Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s law for uni-axial loading to
biaxial and tri-axial loadings.
Consider an element of the material that is subjected simultaneously to
normal stresses in the x- and y-directions
Here sz = 0 (Biaxial loading)
Tri-Axial Loading
Shear Strain
1. Shear stress causes the deformation as shown.
2. The lengths of the sides of the element do not change, but the element
undergoes a distortion from a rectangle to a parallelogram.
3. The shear strain, which measures the amount of distortion, is the angle g
(lowercase Greek gamma), always expressed in radians.
4. It can be shown that the relationship between shear stress t and shear strain g
is linear within the elastic range; that is, which is
Hooke’s law for shear
1. The material constant G is called the shear modulus of elasticity (or
simply shear modulus), or the modulus of rigidity.
2. The shear modulus has the same units as the modulus of elasticity (Pa
or psi).
3. We will prove later that G is related to the modulus of elasticity E and
Poisson’s ratio n by
Example 4
The 50-mm-diameter rubber rod is placed in a hole with rigid, lubricated
walls. There is no clearance between the rod and the sides of the hole.
Determine the change in the length of the rod when the 8-kN load is applied.
Use E = 40 MPa and n = 0.45 for rubber.
The expansion of rubber in the y and z
directions is prevented by the walls
through a constant pressure p.
If the constraining effect of the hole were neglected, we get
Example 5
Two 1.75-in.-thick rubber pads are bonded to three steel plates to form the
shear mount shown in Fig. (a). Find the displacement of the middle plate
when the 1200-lb load is applied. Consider the deformation of rubber only.
Use E = 500 psi and n = 0.48 for rubber
Each rubber pad has a shear area of A = 5x9= 45 in2 that carries half the1200-lb
load. Hence, the average shear stress in the rubber is
we see that the displacement of the middle plate
Example 6
An initially rectangular element of material is deformed as shown in the figure
(note that the deformation is greatly exaggerated). Calculate the normal strains
ex and ey, and the shear strain g for the element
Statically Indeterminate Systems
The concrete post is reinforced axially with four symmetrically placed steel bars, each of
cross-sectional area 900 mm2. Compute the stress in each material when the 1000-kN
axial load is applied. The moduli of elasticity are 200 GPa for steel and 14 GPa for
concrete.
Compatability Condition
Example 8
Let the allowable stresses in the post described in Example 7 be sst = 120 MPa and
sco = 6 MPa. Compute the maximum safe axial load P that may be
applied.
From the previous example,
(safe)

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Mechanics of Solids – I

7. Normal strain, like normal stress, is defined at a point in a given direction.

9. Formulas applicable for Compression

a. Uni-axial loading; Poisson’s ratio

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