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Public Administration
➢ Human beings are a social creature. He always lives in the society and there is a political
system to sustain every society which is called the city-state or the nation-state.
➢ Therefore, it can be said that the society and the political system has been mandatory for
that since time immemorial. Works through the State, Government and administration. No
matter how effective, useful and attractive the state's objectives, policies, programmes,
projects, etc.
➢ There can be no benefit or positive change unless it is translated into work by the
administration. In general, administration is important for managing specific governance
or different types of human activities in an area.
➢ It deals with useful mechanisms and procedures, especially in government activities. The
administration includes planning, decision making, building goals and objectives, building
and rebuilding organizations, directing employees, working closely with the legislature
and private and public institutions to get public support, etc.
Administration: Meaning, Features and Importance

➢ Liberalisation and globalisation have particularly influenced the structure and importance
of governance. Beliefs like good governance have inspired the traditional concepts of
administration to clarify its meaning based on social justice.
Meaning
➢ The process of working properly or in an excellent manner in an organization or
government is called administration. Administration includes actions like giving
directions, paving, ordering, etc.
➢ The meaning of administration is more broad, such as finance administration, railway
administration, health administration etc. "Because administration is the work done by
more than one person with the support and positive purpose for accomplishing a
particular purpose.

➢ Therefore, it should require the purpose of various organizations, cooperation of many

individuals and social interest. In addition, according to various scholars, the meanings of
administration are as follows:
➢ According to Marx, "administration is a determined action to achieve the conscious
purpose.
➢ It is a definite use of an organised effort and means of things that we want to implement. “
➢ According to Simon, "the administration in its broad form can be interpreted from all
collective actions that are presented collaboratively to achieve the common goal." "
➢ According to Pffifner, "the organization and control of human and material resources is
administration.
➢ According to Luther Gullick, "the administration is concerned with the completion of the
work so that the target can be met."
➢ According to Negro, "Administration is an organization of both human beings and
materials to achieve the goal. “
➢ In White's words, "Administration is the art of controlling and renewing many people in
order to achieve a specific objective or goal."
CHARACTERSTICS
➢ The above definitions of administration in different sense have the following
characteristics:
➢ The special feature of the administration is that it work in organized form.
➢ Work is done to meet special objectives in the administration.
➢ Work is done in the spirit of cooperation in administration.
➢ The officers and employees working in the administration have some authority.
➢ The form of administration is seen in large formal organizations. Such as universities,
colleges, hospitals, business organisations, etc.

➢ The objective of the administration is to vary the objectives of the persons working in the
administration. For the same, the objectives of the people who are building and working in
the road are different.
Importance
➢ Administration is considered to be an essential element of the modern state. In Negro's
words, "public administration plays a dual role in the administrative process" –
➢ It gives the necessary information and business base for policy formulation.
➢ It helps in the implementation and evaluation of the policy. The importance of governance
in modern society has been highlighted by scholar Gerald Caiden through his book 'The
Dynamics of Public Administration' (1971) in the following form:
➢ As maintaining order and stability in the society.
➢ To maintain the political system.
➢ In institutionalizing social and economic changes.
➢ In maintaining commercial services on a large scale.
➢ In maintaining economic growth and growth rate.
➢ To protect the weaker sections of the society.
➢ In the construction of public opinion.
➢ To determine the favourable condition of public policy and political tendency.
➢ In the words of Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, "public administration is not just a protector of
civilized life, but a great means of social justice and social change. It has creatively
encouraged nations to solve the problems and internal problems of their borders as well
as to sustain the society.

Public Administration: Meaning, Features, Nature,

Scope, Importance and Limitations
➢ The development of any country requires a better policy and administrative system. A
better and efficient administrative organization is set up to meet these needs.
➢ The creation, implementation and evaluation of styles is done by the public
administration. It relates to the entire administrative functions of the Government. At
present, the area of public administration has become more comprehensive. At the same
time, the nature and importance of public administration give a comprehensive boost to
its areas.
Meaning
➢ The public administration is composed of two words, the first-’ Public ' and the second-'
administration '. Public means the people or citizens of a country, whereas the
administration means better implementation of the works, that is, the administration,
which is done for the citizens or for the welfare of the people, is called public
administration.
➢ Public administration is concerned with the activities of governance. It manages the
governance functions. That is, it is a means of translating political decisions under a
particular political system. The objectives and goals of the Government are achieved
through public administration.
➢ The public administration has to function in general to create, implement and evaluate
public policies, but at present there has been a prevalence in its area. It is in consonance
with the structure of institutions, processes, personnel and political system and the ideals
and principles of the Constitution.
The following definitions of public administration are in the view of
various scholars:
➢ According to Woodrow Wilson, "the name of implementing the law in a comprehensive
and systematic manner is public administration. Every act of implementing the law is an
administrative action. "
➢ According to E.N. Gladen, "The actual area of public administration is found in the
administrative sector of the government which is responsible for managing public affairs.“
➢ In Simon's words, "Public administration in the language of the masses means actions
that are edited by the executive branches of the central, state and local governments." "
➢ According to Pffifner, "public administration means the work of the government, whether
it is to operate an X-ray machine in a health laboratory or to mold coins in a mint."
➢ In Nigro's words, "Public administration is concerned with the three branches of the
government - legislative, judicial and executive and their mutual affiliation." "
Characteristics
The salient features of public administration are:
➢ Formulation and implementation of public policies.
➢ Public administration belongs to the executive branch of the Government.
➢ Public administration must have an organizational structure and administrative
machinery.
➢ Public administration has better administrative procedures.
➢ There is an explanation of the functions of the officers in the public administration.
➢ Public administrators are associated with many private groups and individuals in order to
serve the society.
➢ Collective efforts are made by the public administration to achieve the objectives in being
vested.
➢ The works are directed and operated as per certain rules.
➢ The public administration is different from the private administration in view.
➢ Public administration is a dynamic subject. Consequently, its nature varies. It has a
cascading effect of political, economic, social, constitutional as well as other social
sciences.

➢ The public administration has accepted the form of nature and the coordinated form of art
and science or both, which is as follows:
Nature of Public Administration

1. Integrated and manageable approach
2. Public administration is art or science
Integrated approach
➢ Under this, the sum of the totalization of actions to be edited to achieve a certain purpose
is called administration.
➢ That is, from small employees working in any secretariats or undertakings to large
officers, the work is considered as a part of the administration. Such as messengers,
SafaiKaramcharis, watchmen to secretaries and managers. If viewed comprehensively, the
actions and procedures of all branches of the Government, such as the Executive, the
Legislature and the Judiciary, are included in the public administration.
➢ Among the scholars who followed the unified approach, L.D. White, Wilson, Demark and
Pffifner etc. By adopting this approach, Pffifner has given the view that public
administration means the work of the Government, whether it is the operation of an X-ray
machine in the health experiment or the mint to mould the coins.
Manageable approach
➢ The management approach of public administration includes all administrative processes
that are related to management as well as integrating and controlling the entire
administrative organization to function collectively.
➢ Thus, the managerial work is aimed at integrating, controlling and coordinating all actions
of any organization. The pro-management approach comes from scholars, Simon,
Thomson, etc. In the managerial approach, Luther Gullick believes that public
administration is concerned with the completion of the work and the fulfillment of the
targets set.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS ART OR SCIENCE

Public administration is art or science, or both, there are differences among various scholars
on the subject, because some scholars consider it art and some learned science, although
nothing has been conclusively said by scholars. Art as a public administration art means to
treat any knowledge in life.
➢ According to Gladden, "art requires knowledge, but it gives special emphasis on practice
rather than theory. "That's where White believes that "public administration is actually
science or not, it should be left to a decision in the future..... But, at present, this art is
there. "
➢ In short, public administration can be considered as art on the basis of the following
arguments:
➢ There is a lack of unanimous and universal principles in the field of public administration.
➢ It lacks the ability to predict the pre-utterance.
Public administration requires special interest and qualities. A skilled administrator must have
special interest and qualities so that he can solve the problems better
▪ There is a continuous development of public administration, because the characteristic of
art is that there is a gradual development.
▪ Just as art and its processes are changing, the processes of public administration also
change according to time.
Public Administration as Science
▪ Any systematic knowledge is called science, in which common rules are discovered.
According to Hesley, science is a good knowledge that is based on tactics and evidence.
In Sheppard's words, science has key features.
▪ Having a concise, rational and allied knowledge.
▪ Sorting the facts and establishing a cause-of-work relationship therein.
▪ To examine estimates and findings.

▪ A large number of facts have been collected on which methods of scientific study are
used.
▪ It carries out scientific deliberations of facts and events and through this, administrators
or managers can assess what will be the consequences of these incidents? That is, it has
the potential to predict.
▪ The logic of treating public administration as science is more outdated. Woodrow Wilson
(the father of public administration) has termed public administration as science. The
scholars who consider public administration as science are Luther Gullick, Urwick.
According to these, public administration is studied sequentially.
▪ Which is scientifically concluded in the matter of hypothesis, collection of facts,
confirmation of facts, classification of facts, comparative studies, synthesis and analysis
etc. Like science, there are some common principles in public administration, such as the
unity of order, the area of control, the scientific management theory of Taylor, etc.
▪ Innovative experiments are carried out in public administration to remove the defects of
public administration and to develop administrative techniques, as well as technical
knowledge in public administration. Like a scientist, a skilled administration also needs to
have technical knowledge so that it can solve the problems properly. Thus, based on
these facts and arguments, public administration can be considered as science.
The reason for not treating public administration as science
▪ Many scholars have not given the public administration the noun of science, including
Morris Kohan, Finer, L.D. White etc. come. The following are the reasons for not treating
public administration as science:
▪ There is a lack of certainty in public administration, while science has the certainty of
rules.
▪ Public administration lacks universal principles, while science has universal principles,
such as the principles of physics, etc.
▪ There is a lack of supervision and testing in public administration, as there is no
laboratory of public administration like science.

▪ Public administration is ideal, while moral values and ideals have no place in science.
Robert Dahl also believes that public administration is far away from science.
▪ He has pointed out three major problems in his essay ‘The Science of Public
Administration’ - Three Problem:
▪ Firstly, it is impossible to isolate human from the problems of public administration,
because in any case, affect values in administration, while science is free from values.
▪ Secondly, the study of public administration requires the study of human conduct is more
playful and full of uncertainties.
▪ Thirdly, universal principles have been formulated based on some examples of limited
national and historical contexts in public administration.
Field
▪ According to various scholars, the area of public administration is determined by the
government's practices. There are usually four types of approaches, such as:
i. Comprehensive approach: According to scholars, under this approach, the
administration relates to the three organs of the government- Executive, Legislature
and the Judiciary. Prof. Jat has said on the basis of this evil ness that "the
administration come up with the objective of fulfilling or implementing public policy. "
▪ While scholars of public administration believe that the nature of the administration-
(a) There is a collaborative and collective effort in the public society.
(b) Relates to Executive, Legislature and Judiciary.
(c) It is part of the political process.
(d) Private is closely associated with groups and individuals.
ii. Narrow approach: According to this approach, the nature of the administration is
concerned only with the executive branch. As Simon writes, "The nature of administration
means actions that are edited by the executive branches of central, state and local
governments."

iii. The following details are studied, such as the working executive, the general
administration, the organization problems, the financial problems and the administrative
responsibility, etc.
iv. POSDCORB Approach: The view of this approach is that the above elements must be
in the nature of administration. Such as planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting and budgeting etc.
v. Public welfare approach: Scholars of this approach believe that "the nature of
administration means serving the people and this basic requirement should not be more
important and nothing else." Under this approach, L.D. White- The nature of the
Administration is considered to be "a means of achieving good lives and goals."
Importance
• A better administration is required to accelerate the social, economic and political
development of any country and provide good living standards to their citizens. It
effectively addresses the problems that are coming.
➢ The importance of public administration has increased in modern times, and its work
processes have also become complex. The importance of public administration is as
follows:
• As a regulatory administration-
• To maintain law and order. To recover taxes.
• o uphold the unity and integrity of the nation, Enforcement of court judgements.
• To assist in formulation of public policies and to implement and evaluate them.
• To act as a public welfare administration.
• To provide better administration for all round development of citizens and to raise their
standard of living.
• To act as a protector of civilization. In this context, Donhem has said that if our civilization
fails, it will be mainly because of the downfall of the administration. The administration
prohibits anti-social acts in the society as a moral act.
• In giving continuity to public policies- when there is a change in the government, it

maintains policies and gives them continuity.
• Gerald E. Caiden, in his creation 'The Dynamics of Public Administration' (1971),
discusses the importance of public administration in modern society, which is as follows:
• To maintain the political system.
• Maintaining order and stability in the society.
• Institutionalizing social and economic changes.
• Maintaining commercial services on a large scale.
• To maintain economic growth and development.
• To protect the weaker sections of the society.
• To play a role in public opinion.
• To determine the favourable condition of public policy and political tendency.
Limitations
• The importance of public administration is an important role not only in democratic and
welfare states but also in socialist states. Whatever may be the nature of the State, its
functions and responsibilities have increased.
• It is the responsibility of the public administration not only to establish internal peace and
to protect against external invasions but also to develop all aspects of human life.
However, liberalisation and globalisation have particularly influenced the structure and
role of public administration.
• Constraints like privatisation, down-sizing, procedural reforms have brought the role of
public administration to a crossroads and, at the same time, concepts like new public
management, entrepreneurial governance, good governance have motivated them to re-
determine its intention based on social justice, challenging the classical beliefs of public
administration.

The limitations of public administration can be understood from the following

points:
• In India, the policy of liberalisation is being adopted by the Government, which is
liberalising the rules and laws, conditions, duties, etc. Due to which the role of public
administration is being limited and red tapism is also decreasing.
• Through privatisation, the Government is reducing its role and encouraging the private
sectors. Such as the process of disinvestment, running ‘Tejas’ train etc. Consequently,
the role of public administration has decreased.
• The small size of the Government, i.e., down-sizing, has reduced the role of public
administration. At present, the government is focusing on 'minimum government,
maximum governance'.
• Procedural reforms like e-governance have reduced the role of public administration.
• The new public management and entrepreneurial regime has limited the scope of public
administration. New public management focuses primarily on efficiency, austerity and
effectiveness (3Es = Efficiency, Economy and Effectiveness).
• The information and communication revolution of the 21st century has ensured public
access to social media resulting in greater public control over public administration and
limited public administration. At the same time, the powers of the public servant's
discretion have been curbed.
• With the process of globalisation, the economy of one country is connecting with the
economy of another country, which is leading to market primacy and reducing the role of
the State.
• Thus, it can be said that the area of public administration is being limited, but there is
relevance of public administration in terms of governance, policy formulation and
implementation, women's issues, public welfare issues, environment, terrorism, naxalism,
foreign policy, etc.
Administration Public Administration
Administration is a general terminology, with a The perspective of public administration is

broad perspective. narrow, as it relates to public policies.
Administration is a universal activity, which Public administration is specifically

can be seen in all kinds of group efforts, concerned with government activities. This
whether it is a group family, a state or other may include all the administrations which
social association. have a substantial impact on the people.
The administration is concerned with the Public administration is a double-nature. It is

completion of the works so that the target set teaching and research and academic subjects
can be met. as well as functional science.
Administration is also an activity and process Public administration is concerned with the
is also there. formulation and implementation of public
policy. This policy is a process of science.
Administration is an collaborative task done Public publications are the implementation of

by more than one person to serve a particular objectives which have been set by the elected
purpose. representatives by the people.
The administration covers both public Public administration is concerned with the '
administration and private administration. public ' (government related) administration.
Administration is the name of all collective Public administration is part of the work of the
actions that are presented collaboratively to Government by which the objectives and
achieve the common goal. objectives of the Government are achieved.
The Study Method of Public Administration

➢ In general, the study system of public administration is enunciated by the combination of
social and organization principles, history and a number of subjects related to the general
public.
➢ There are many approaches or methods in the study of public administration, such as
there may be a number of approaches to study any event and each approach interprets

that phenomenon in different ways. It is important to choose problems and about the
basic content of subject under consideration.
➢ The main task is to explain, in which something is interpreted on the basis of a particular
rule. The following methods or approaches of public administration are:
1. Organizational method
2. Behaviourist method
3. Systemic method
Organizational method
➢ This method is often considered legal, formal, historical, purely thoughtful and
descriptive, with prominent supporters of White and Anderson. The recognition of this
method that major problems of public administration arise from the legal framework of the
organization.
Which formally presents the internal relationship of the organization and presents their problems
in a historical context. As per this method, the following methods are adopted for the study of
public administration:
➢ Historical method
Legal method
➢ Life circular method
➢ Content method
➢ Scientific method
➢ Political system
Based on the analysis of the above facts, the problems of organization, personnel administration,
etc., now need to be studied in a detailed context of democratic goals. In this context, renowned
scholars John Gauss, Paul Appleby, etc., have abandoned apolitical theory in the context of
public administration.
➢ The study of public administration has started through detailed political theory. Even John
Gauss has clearly stated that "in our time the principle of public administration meant
synonymous with the principle of politics."
Behavioural method
➢ After World War II, the behaviourist system in the field of public administration was used
as an important subject. Various scholars, such as Wiener, Simon, Sayers, Hadi, Stokes
and Ris, etc., formulated the same method.
➢ Since, the behaviourist system differs from the traditionalist and formal method. Although
the behaviourist method does not replace the traditionalist theory, it complements what
gives a special emphasis to the study of public administration. According to Smithberg, a
renowned scholar, public administration has four important features-
➢ Emphasizing the relationship and behaviour of a person and administrative structures.
➢ To study the administrative organization in public administration for the purpose of a
social system.
➢ To emphasize the principle of propriety rather than the principle of sovereignty.
➢ Emphasis on informal means instead of formality in the means of basic communication
system. According to behaviourist theory, the following methods are adopted for the
study of public administration:
Psychological method
➢ According to renowned scholar Miss Follet, the desires of individuals and groups in the
field of administration, their moral values and prejudices affect their behaviour within the
administration, because psychology is the science of human conduct, however, public
administration is also concerned with conduct.
Case method
➢ In 1952 AD, the method was first used in the Inter-University Programme in the United
States.
➢ The 20 cases researched here were published by scholar Herald in the name of ' Public
Administration and Policy Administration '.

➢ The Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration at Mussoorie in India has
also started publishing such research in its quarterly magazine ' Administrator '.
➢ Statistical Quantity Method
➢ According to this method, Simon and Ridley spoke about statistics, fact knowledge and
statistics in public administration, as they believed that planning by determining statistical
magnitude in administration facilitates the promotion of research. So, in private
administration also, this method is being resorted to at present to ascertain the cost
accounting method.
Ecological system
➢ This method is primarily concerned with studying the problems of public administration
and its related problems and to quantize the situation of the people and the administrative
proceedings in their environment. Fred W. Riggs, a renowned scholar of the eco-system,
is considered. They reconciled administrative arrangements in developing countries. For
example, Thailand.
Systematic method
➢ In general, it differs from the behaviourist and traditionalist method. In public
administration, it is a method which is considered to be a central element. The
organization is often created under the systemic system to meet a purpose.
➢ Although the work of different organs is different in the organization, their functions are
evaluated in a holistic manner, as the administrative structure has a mutual movement in
the input and output, resulting in the operation of the administrative system.
▪ The system theory mainly contains three qualities-

• Interdependence relationship
• Scope
• Limitations
Chester Bernard, a renowned scholar, considered the administrative organisation as an important
arrangement, as it consisted of human actions.
• Consider group systems, which we call organizations, to be like a person's living social
life," he writes. "
• In this way, he acknowledged the importance of human elements for the creation and
operation of a formal organization, while refuting the traditional ' non-traditional ' idea of
administrative organizations '. Based on the analysis of the said facts, it can be said that
all methods are necessary for the study of public administration. It would be absolutely
wrong to understand that there is conflict in these systems.
• However, it can actually be said that the above method complements each other, which
improves the worms and mistakes in them. Public administration should not only be time-
mannered in inductive and negative practices, but should also be coordinated and
adopted in modern behaviourist and traditional practices of public administration.
• Ultimately, the basic of our study will remain traditional, but by adopting scientific
methodology and provision, we should try to achieve scientific precision through
reasoning to the maximum extent possible.

Evolution of Public Administration as

a Subject
➢ It is generally believed that public administration is the oldest art and the latest science.
Its art has been prevalent in human society since ancient times. For example, when the
primitive man lived in the forest, the seeds of public administration were hidden in him.
➢ But the study of public administration as a purely classical subject started from the last
decade of the 18th century.
Evolution of public administration in ancient era
➢ Management of public administration is known as a matter of action and knowledge or a
separate branch. As ancient as public administration management, the early social life of
the early public administration took shape in the river valleys of ancient Egypt, India,
China and Mesopotamia.
➢ Administration first developed as an employee system for the maintenance of the Nile
River in Egypt. In the third century BC, public services were developed in China through
competition.
➢ In ancient India, the well-developed administrative system was found in the village society
of the Ganga-Sindh river valley, the monarchical state and the Republic, where
administration meant art.
➢ On the other hand, the economics of Mahabharata, Ramayana and Kautilya describe the
administration. Kautilya's economics describes the duties of various employees related to
public administration in a systematic manner.
➢ Medieval feudalism in the field of administration incorporated an anarchic
decentralization, as well as their fragmented sources adjusted and organized by the newly
independent monarchies of The Administration, England, France and Russia.
Nevertheless, the development of its democracy and the Industrial Revolution
complicated the functions of the public administration.

➢ As a result, the burden of addressing social justice, economic crisis and social security
related problems is on the public administrators.
Evolution of public administration in modern age

➢ In modern times, the development of public administration can be divided into five phases
and understood as follows:
▪ First Phase- Politics-Administration Dichotomy- 1887-1926
▪ Phase II- Emphasis on principles of administration- 1927-37
▪ Phase III- Challenge of Administrative Principles- 1938-46
▪ Phase IV- Emphasis on Inter-Disciplinary Studies- 1947-70
▪ Fifth phase-in the context of new public administration and new public management-from
1971 to present.
First Phase- Political Administration Dichotomy- 1887-1926
▪ First, in 1887, an article on the study of administration written by Woodrow Wilson related
to public administration from the United States was published in the journal Political
Science Quarterly, the subject of which was "To create a science of administration."
▪ That paves the path of governance Make its organization strong and pure. As a result
Prof. Waldo has considered Woodrow Wilson as the father of public administration.
Politics is concerned with the formulation of policies and administration is related to the
implementation of policies.
▪ Therefore, this concept is called the political administration Dichotomy. L.D. White, who
recognizes public administration as a separate subject from political science. White's
masterpiece introduction to the study of public administration is important. This book
emphasizes the political administration dichotomy.
Phase II- Emphasis on principles of administration- 1927-37
▪ In 1927, W.F. Willougby books ' Principal of Public Administration ' mentioned the new
recognition of public administration. According to this, there are many principles in public
administration.
▪ The implementation of these principles requires improvement in administration.

▪ The need for scientific management, administration experts, industrial background and
supervision was felt.
▪ Therefore, after the scientific management movement, many theories relating to public
administration shown interest.
▪ Thus, the above era was called the Golden Age of principles in public administration.
Phase III- Challenge of Administrative Principles- 1938-46
▪ The development of public administration in this era resulted in a response against
mechanical approach. In this time, due to constant pressure from social powers and basic
needs, the process of linking scientific management in industries with (humane) political
science was also started.
▪ In the famous book 'The Functions of the Executive' published in 1938 AD, Chester
Barnard emphasized the tools dependent on behavior and psychology for organizational
analysis of public administration.
Phase IV - Emphasis on Interdisciplinary Studies - 1947-70
▪ In this phase, mainly Herbert Simon and Robert Dahl made significant contributions.
Herbert Simon's creation in 1947 AD proved to be a milestone for management in public
administration.
▪ Simon saw public administration linked to economics, sociology, psychology and political
science. He rejected the political administration and the category administration principle,
but accepted the pure science and social psychology of public administration, which was
concerned with the administration of human aspects and the ordering of public policy.
Fifth Phase - In context of New Public Administration and New Public
Management - from 1971 to present
▪ Dwight Waldo and Fred W. Riggs are among the scholars who play an important role in
the development of public administration at this stage.

▪ Riggs emphasized on a comparative study of public administration, which created its

samples and ideals on the societies of the developing country.
▪ The shortcomings of the initial norms of public administration in the 1980s-90s resulted in
the emergence of a new public managerial approach.
▪ In other words, it also came to be known as market-oriented public administration. Its
main focus was to achieve efficiency, economy and effectiveness. Since 1971, the
development of new people's administration has enriched the study of public
administration.
▪ Thus, changing the nature of public administration as a subject has been changed,
revised and promoted in accordance with the economic political social environment and
ideologies. At present, more emphasis is being given to political and policy formulation
processes and study of public administration and projects in the study of public
administration.
Role of Public Administration in Developed and Developing

Societies
▪ In a book titled 'Three Worlds of Development', Irving Horowitz has divided the world into
three parts in terms of development, such as:
▪ In the second class, the Soviet Union and its factional nations take over.
▪ The third category included most nations, especially in Asia, Africa and Latin America,
who were freed from colonial slavery. These nations are placed in the category
ofdeveloping states, which are yet to develop multi-faceted development with change.
▪ According to various scholars, the developed society is considered to be the nations that
have succeeded in establishing and maintaining progressive and fair standards in all its
economic, social, political, cultural and administrative, all stages.
The salient features of public administration in developed societies are as
follows:
▪ In developed societies, since stability is found in the political system, public services are
fully developed in societies that are generally accepted as an autonomous institution.
▪ In these societies, effective control of bureaucracy is established by political institutions.

▪ In developed societies, bureaucracy is considered to be good, lawful, efficient and
politically accountable.
▪ In these societies, public interest and public participation at the administrative level are
comparatively more non-discriminatory.
▪ Public welfare and achievement adaptation in these societies is of a comparatively high
standard.
▪ Administrative consultations, political decisions and legal decisions are taken on a
rational basis in developed societies.
In these societies, public services with expert nature are found rather than generalists of public
services. In addition, public administration in developed societies mainly performs three types of
functions:
▪ Support and promotion to private enterprises: Most of the major functions in
developed societies are private enterprises, so the public administration has to encourage
private enterprises, address and coordinate all their problems.
▪ Regulatory and preventive functions: The main functions of public administration in
developed societies are to implement laws, maintain internal order, collect revenue and
protect the state from foreign invasions.
▪ Service work: In developed societies, administrators/bureaucrats are public servants
and not masters. Finally, the administrator's job is to provide services to citizens in the
fields of compulsory education, good health, recreation, communication and
transportation.
In the context of these actions of public administration in developed societies, scholar says: "A
problem that is widely reflected in the more developed countries is the lack of consistency
between many services and regulatory agencies. "
▪ Therefore, the main function of public administration should be to provide guidance,
coordination and leadership. Thus, the public administration is adopting managerial
techniques to overcome many evils of the bureaucratic system.

Role of public administration in developing societies

▪ Fred W. Riggs has analysed the relationship between economic, technical, administrative,
political and communication factors, etc., in a detailed perspective for the administrative
arrangements of developing countries.
▪ Based on his studies conducted in Thailand and the Philippines, he explained how the
environment has influenced administrative arrangements. Important elements for social
structures in the contemporary society and the administrative structure of this society,
which Riggs has called 'Sala
➢ It provides the framework of both multifunctional and semi-functional societies, which is
relevant to the extent to which it is responsible for the analysis of equidistant societies.
Riggs's main interest was in emphasizing on evolving administrative stages.
➢ In addition, Ferel Hardy, a renowned scholar, has pointed out the following features of the
public administration of developing countries:
➢ The structure of public administration in developing societies is not indigenous and is
merely a copy of Western colonial countries.
➢ In these societies, personnel experts are not proficient and are of normal nature for
administrative action.
➢ The administrative machinery working in these societies is not production oriented.
➢ There is a difference between principle and practice for the functioning of the
administrative machinery of developing societies.
➢ Bureaucracy working in developing societies is autonomous in practice.
Along with this, other features are as follows-
i. In developing societies, administrations are bureaucratic with red tapism.
ii. Public servants appear neutral in these societies from above, but they have some
connection with politics.
iii. In these societies, public servants consider themselves to be separate and superior to the
people.

iv. Most of the work in these societies is done by the Government. Consequently, citizens
depend on the government.
v. Corruption is found in developing societies.
➢ Currently, the newly independent nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America suffer from
many administrative problems. Thus some of the major problems of lock administration in
the developing state are as follows:
i. Lack of administrative infrastructure
ii. Lack of good management in administration
iii. Reduction in industrial and professional standards
iv. Lack of administrative leadership capacity
v. Lack of ethics in administration
vi. Lack of accountability among bureaucrats in administration
vii. Generalist vs. Expert Problem for Specific Services
• Finally, it can be said that the main difference between the administrative system of
developed and developing societies is not their socio-cultural distinction, but of their
respective economic and social environment at present.

New Dimension of Public Administration

• The administration of any country requires the inclusion of new elements in time. If these
new dimensions are not adopted, that system or administration lags behind others, which
makes it difficult to deal with the then problems and challenges.
• Similarly, in public administration also, new dimensions are required from time to time.
The public administration has to adopt new researches to discharge its functions and fulfil
the objectives. The nature of public administration before World War II was negative.
• Which used to maintain law and order, recover taxes, enforce court decisions, etc., which
lacked new elements like human values, morality.
• But, after World War II, a strong concerted and systematic effort is being made to increase
the efficiency and effectiveness of public administration.
• In which the culture, methods and procedures of public administration, better

management, training, etc., are being done. The main reason for such reforms is the
increase in the organizational structure changes and complications at present. At the
same time, the public administration expects the citizens to get maximum services from
minimum means.
• The new dimensions in public administration mean the inclusion of new elements and
enforcement of laws in any prevailing system of a country and state, that is, to improve
the administrative organization, behaviour, laws and procedures in public administration
in a systematic manner.
• The implementation of these new elements makes the work smooth and easy. The new
elements of public administration include the ideal values of new public administration,
new public management, etc.
• The new public administration emphasizes relevance, value, social change and
emphasizes on efficiency and effectiveness in innovative public management.

The innovative trends of public administration are as follows:

• The size of the field of public administration is increasing. In today's era of globalization,
new problems and challenges are coming up, such as terrorism, Naxalism, climate
change, population growth etc. In such a situation, new facts, techniques and methods are
being adopted.
• In the new trends of public administration, the political administration dichotomy has been
rejected, that is, at present, the implementation and evaluation of the public administration
policy is assisted and advised.
• In public administration, emphasis is being given on comparative studies of two or more

countries or state administrations, such as the administration of India and Britain, the
administration of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, etc.
• The behaviourist approach has been adopted in the innovative tendencies of public
governance. In this approach, the administrative organization emphasizes human
tendencies and values. Innovative reforms are implemented by inspecting human
behaviour and conduct.
• Public administration has emphasized the integration of public administration and private
administration into innovative trends, as the similarities between the two administrations
have increased in the era of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation.
• At the same time, the information revolution has given impetus to the integration of these
two. In this context, the Government has decided to include private experts in the
administration, which is called ' lateral entry '.
• Emphasis is being given on sociological and psychological studies in public

administration. Earlier, there was more emphasis on rules and laws in public
administration.
• The concept of science has not been accepted in the new trends of public administration,
as public administration lacks universally accepted principles.
• The new public administration is trying to implement the concept, which emphasizes
morality, equality, social change, etc.

• Efforts are being made to adopt the concept of neo-public management in the innovative
dimensions of public administration, with greater emphasis on austerity, efficiency and
effectiveness.
• Thus, efforts are being made to achieve social equality and justice by incorporating many
facts, methods, techniques, social and psychological values, austerity and efficiency, etc.,
in the innovative trends of public administration.
• At the same time, emphasis is being given to the entrepreneurial government, minimum
government, maximum governance, market based administration, customer oriented
administration, target oriented administration, etc.
States Market
• The state means all the functions of the Government which make significant contributions
in the areas of law and order, social, economic and political development and education,
health, human resources, etc.
• The market means the private sector, that is, how much the market contributes to the
development of a state and what is its quality of service. The 21st century has a cascading
effect on liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation.
• At present, the society of developing countries has been more volatile, with the role of the
State and the Government declining and the impact of the market, that is, the private
sector, is increasing.
• The state is concerned with the government, bureaucracy, public interest, public welfare,
while the market is concerned with public choice approach, new public management and
competitive environment.
• Prominent scholars, including Downs, Niskanen etc., are of the view of lacking the role of
state and bureaucracy and emphasizing on marketization, privatisation and competition,
thereby providing qualitative services to citizens at low cost.
• The role of the State in developing countries depends on the society, cultural, economic
and political system and citizens of that country. The State, that is, the Government, takes

a number of steps to address the problems and challenges of these countries, which
increase its scope.
• There are several factors for expansion of these works such as best utilization of limited
resources, expansion of market, sustainable development, capital building, development
of human resources, etc.
Debate on state vs market
• The debate over state versus market has started on the basis of Keynes theory. The public
choice approach in public administration argues that in order to promote the preferences
of consumers, institutional plurality is necessary in the process of providing public goods
and services.
• This approach enunciates the new principle, which is called ‘New Public Management' or
'Entrepreneurial Government'. This principle emphasizes the role of the State and on
marketization, privatisation and competition.
The reason for the state's failure
• It is the ultimate duty of any State to improve the quality of life of its citizens by making
economic growth and this is possible only if qualitative services are provided at low
resources. The major points for the reasons for the failure of the state are as follows:
• Such works are being undertaken by the States which lack the requisite effectiveness and
efficiency.
• Since the 1980s, the expenditure of developing countries has increased drastically,
leading to increased inflation as well as increase in rates of taxes.
• The size of bureaucracy was increased by the state which promoted red tapism and
corruption.
• The fiscal deficit has increased due to the expenditure incurred by developing countries
for welfare schemes.
• In a developing country like India, law and order, education, health, transport, housing,
electricity, water, etc., have failed to provide basic services.

• Most of the developing countries: undertakings are running into losses.
• Continuous budgetary deficit in developing countries etc.
• Thus, for the above reasons, the State has been unable to provide better services, but
there are also some limitations of the State which does not allow it to openly support the
market, such as:
• Law and order is a task which cannot be entrusted to the market.
• The market cannot be trusted at the time of crisis.
• The main objective of the market is to earn profit, while the main objective of the State is
to make public welfare.
• There is always competition in the market, which is why the welfare schemes are
neglected.
• The market cannot be expected to make proper and equitable distribution of resources.
• The market cannot be expected to provide integrated services for the entire country.
• Market friendly intervention of state
• In the era of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation, market intervention is

necessary by the State, but this intervention should not be very effective, that is, this
intervention should be market-friendly.
The World Bank's 1991 report explains market-friendly state intervention as
follows:
• Intervene reluctantly — this means that the market should be let to function unless it is
necessary to intervene.
• Enforce checks and balances - that is, continuous intervention is necessary for the
discipline of international and domestic markets.
• Transparent and open intervention- interference by the State is not legally wayward and is
simple, transparent and subject to rules.
• Despite these interpretations of the World Bank, there are many problems at present.
Mishra and Puri have highlighted four problems of the state versus the market, which are
as follows:
• There are wide disparities in the markets in the economies of developing countries.
• It is not expected that the market will be able to ensure proper distribution of resources.
• The market does not expect it to strike a balance between the total demand and the total
supply.
• The market is of competitive nature, which lacks equality.
• The above problems make it clear that there is a need for a better balance between the
State and the market, because excessive intervention of the State limits the market sector
and the bureaucracy dominates the market, but intervention in the field of liberalisation,
privatisation and globalisation has to be kept to a limit.
As per the 1991 report to the World Bank, five functions of the State have
been mentioned:
▪ To uphold the foundations of law.
▪ To protect the weaker and backward classes.
▪ Maintaining long-term economic stability.
▪ To conserve the environment.
▪ To invest in social sector services.

Private Administration
➢ The administration for the purpose of making profit by a person or a private institution is
called private administration. It has private control over production, exchange, control and
management.
➢ There is no government intervention on private administration. There is no sense of public
interest in private administration. These include schools, colleges, hospitals, coaching
center's, political parties, clubs, etc.
Similarities in Public Administration and Private Administration
➢ There is a lot of similarities between public administration and private administration.
There are many thinkers who advocate greater use of technology and its modalities to
private administration in public administration.
➢ According to Henry Fayol, Mary Parker Follet and Urwick, the basic elements of the
administration often remain the same, whether in the private sector or in the public sector.
The main points of similarities to public administration and private administration are as
follows:
➢ Both public administration and private administration require an organization.
Organization is the body of public and private administration in which similar
administrative activities are carried out. Similarities are found in the functioning of these
two administrations. Their main function is POSDCORB.
➢ At the same time, other works include providing data, accounting, creating files, etc.
➢ Both public administration and private administration have the same responsibility for the
officers.
➢ For the success of public and private administration, officers and employees need
qualification and efficiency. That is, efficiency, diligence, honesty, conscientiousness,
leadership, intellectual level, etc., both are equally necessary for the officers and
employees of the administrations.

➢ Whether the administration is public or private, both are equally moving towards
development.
➢ In the 21st century, the same system of appointment, promotion, salary, retirement,
dismissal rules and pension, etc., in the field of public administration, is adopted in
private sectors also.
➢ In these two administrations, public contact is necessary. If there is no public relations,
any administration will fail. It is very important for the public administration because the
purpose of public administration is to benefit the people.
➢ Both administrations also have research functions, by which new tools, principles,
processes are formulated.
Differences Between Public Administration and Private Administration
➢ There are many differences between the public administration and the private
administration, even though there are many similarities. The main points of inequality
between them are:
➢ On the basis of profit- the main objective of private administration is to earn profit while
the main objective of public administration is public welfare.
➢ On the basis of service spirit- private administration does not work for public service,
while in public administration, administration discharge their functions to serve public.
➢ On the basis of responsibility-Officers in private administration do not have responsibility
towards the public, while officers in public administration are accountable to the public.
➢ Based on uniformity of behavior- Bias or specific behavior may be performed in any
private administration
➢ Whereas, in public administration, uniformity in behaviour, that is, equality is found. There
is no discrimination against citizens.
➢ On the basis of monopoly- there is a monopoly of governance in public administration,
which is not in the case of private administration, for example, the same commodities are
produced by many traders.

➢ On the basis of financial control-public administration has effective control over finance,
which includes legislature, judiciary, political executive, public and NGOs and media, etc.,
while private administration does not control finances.
➢ On the basis of red tapism- The organization of private administration is on a business
basis, whereas the basis of public administration is bureaucratic in nature and there are
problems of red tapism, corruption, inefficiency, etc.
➢ Depending on the sectors- The area of private administration is limited, while the area of
public administration is more comprehensive.
➢ Based on rules and laws, the number of rules and laws is higher than the private
administration in public administration, while freedom is given in private administration
and necessary rules are followed.
➢ On the basis of different codes of conduct- The codes of conduct in public administration
and private administration vary, no goods and services in public administration can be
advertised in the manner in which private administration is given.
Public Administration and Private Administration under Liberalization
➢ The administration in which advice is provided to help in formulation of public policies
and better implementation and evaluation of the policy so that the maximum welfare of the
people is done is called public administration.
➢ It has public control over production, exchange and management. Private administration
means an administration in which work is done for profit purposes. It has the control of
one person, institution and company and not the people.
➢ Liberalisation is an economic policy in which rules and laws are relaxed by the
government in sanctions, tariffs, etc. That is, the unnecessary rules that hinder trade,
industry and investment are eliminated so as to make it easier to do business and also
attract investment.
➢ This liberalisation has had a cascading effect on public administration and private
administration. While the functions of public administration come down, the size of private
administration increases, as the process of industry, trade and investment has been made
easier, that is, incentives have been given to the private sectors.

➢ The private sector is invited to the public sector through liberalisation. Liberalisation in
India started since 1991. Efforts have been made to eliminate red tapism in public
administration through liberalisation.
➢ Also emphasized the Public Private Partnership (PPP) model providing better services to
citizens. In a developing country like India, liberalisation has seen a cascading effect. At
the same time, the information revolution has made the process of liberalisation easier.
Effect of Liberalization on Public Administration and Private
Administration
➢ The liberalisation undertaken by the Government has had a cascading effect on public
administration and private administration, which can be understood through the following
statements:
➢ Quotas, permits and licensing were abolished through liberalisation, except in a few
areas. It abolished red tapism in public administration, which reduced corruption. At
present, more emphasis is being given on marketization and privatisation.
➢ Liberalisation had a positive impact on private administration. The administrative
procedures of private administration were simplified, leading to increased trade, industry
and investment.
➢ The abolition of quotas, permits and licensing has reduced the scope of public
administration.
➢ That is, the reduction in rules and laws has simplified the administrative procedures.
Consequently, the role of the State is being reduced through liberalisation and
marketization and privatisation are being encouraged. Also, government services are
being provided to private management.
➢ In the era of liberalisation, a person or an institution is put on contract by the Government
to complete a project, which does not lead to lack of finance in the project and also
completes the project within the stipulated time through better management.
➢ The process of administrative reforms has been emphasized through the process of
liberalisation. The administrative reforms have increased quality, transparency and

accountability along with e-governance, citizen charter, digital platform etc. At the same
time, efficiency and effectiveness in public administration have increased.
➢ This has facilitated the private administration in government processes.
➢ Through liberalisation, the Government is handing over the public sector undertakings
which are incurring losses to private hands by disinvesting them so as to solve the
problems of the undertaking and earn profit.
➢ At the same time, private sector participation will enhance efficiency and effectiveness
through better management.
➢ Liberalisation is primarily aimed at facilitating efficient management of the private sector
in the public sector.
➢ In this context, the new public management was recognised by the public administration,
as it emphasizes on 3Es = Efficiency, Economy and Effectiveness. Consequently,
maximum services at low resource are to be provided to citizens.
➢ Efficiency, economy and effectiveness are the characteristics of private administration
which is being tried to bring it into the field of public administration.
➢ The process of liberalisation has created more job opportunities in the private sector.
➢ Candidates with higher technical or vocational education are being provided with more
attractive pay allowances and facilities than public administration but there is a sense of
insecurity in the private sector while people working in public administration have a sense
of security.
➢ In the era of liberalisation, public administration is working in a more complex social,
economic and political environment, which makes it difficult to measure programme
impact and organizational functionality. While the measurement of organizational
functionality in private administration is comparatively simple.
➢ In this era of liberalisation, there are many responsibilities like nation building by public
administration and giving a new direction to the future society, which leads to the
establishment of social values. While private administration has to adhere to the guidance
laid down by the Government.

➢ In the era of liberalisation, public administration is directly influenced by political

influence and pressure while private administration is not affected by it.
Challenges Between Public Administration and Private

Administration Under Liberalisation
➢ The process of liberalisation started from the 90s decade, which was to attract private
sectors in the field of public administration. The reform of the system through
liberalization was to enhance trade, industry and investment.
➢ That was to lead to rapid economic growth by addressing the problems of poverty,
malnutrition, corruption, gender inequality, etc., by providing better education and health
services in the country, but liberalisation continues to have many challenges between
public administration and private administration which are making it difficult to achieve
the objectives of liberalisation.
These challenges are as follows:
➢ Rules and laws have been liberalized in public administration but there is a lack of
coordination between public administration and private administration.
➢ In the era of liberalisation, there is no balance in public and private administration on the
extent of liberalisation, as the private sector can dominate the public sector by adopting a
highly liberal policy and a limited liberal policy does not give full support to the private
sector.
➢ There is no comprehensive change in the organizational structure, functioning, role,
accountability, etc., of public administration, thereby restricting private sector
participation.
➢ In this era of liberalisation, it has become difficult to decentralize the nature of Indian
administrative centralization.
➢ Consequently, there is red tapism in public administration. Private administration does
not see an effective role in the public sector.
➢ The main objective of public administration is to make public welfare, but the main
objective of the private sector is not public welfare but to earn profit.
➢ The tendencies of privatisation are increasing through liberalisation. The public

administration is facing challenges to protect the rights of consumers (citizens) and
protect them from marketism.
Important facts
▪ The administration for the purpose of making profit by a person or a private institution is
called private administration.
▪ Scholars like Henry Fayol, M.P. Follet, Urwick are supporters of equality of public
administration and private administration.
▪ Thinkers like Simon, Appleby, are supporters of inequalities in public administration and
private administration.
▪ The main basis for the distinction between public administration and private
administration is their objectives.
▪ The main objective of public administration is public welfare. While the main goal of
private administration is to earn profits.
▪ Both public administration and private administration require organization.
▪ In private administration, officers do not have responsibility towards the public while
officers in public administration are accountable to the public.
▪ There is a greater impact of red tapism in public administration.
▪ The field of private administration is the Committee whereas the area of public
administration is comprehensive.

New Public Administration

Meaning of New Public Administration
➢ It is generally believed that the new public administration was launched by young
scholars of public administration, H. George Friedricson’s published his book 'New Public
Administration' in 1980s.
➢ While efficiency, pricelessness, neutrality and efficiency were the principles of ancient
public administration, the new public administration emphasizes on morality,
accountability, fundamental neutrality, social commitment and committed governance.
➢ Under this, special emphasis was given to the foundation stone of values by scholars.
Thus, the new public administration is more people-oriented, less descriptive and more
indicative, less institution oriented and more customer-oriented and less neutral and more
value-oriented than caste.
➢ According to Waldo, "The new public administration is a kind of revolution in the direction
of Normative Theory, philosophy, social commitment and activism. "
Features of New Public Administration

The features of the new public administration are as follows:
➢ The political administration dichotomy has been rejected by the new public
administration. That is, the new public administration has emphasised on the integration
of political administration.
➢ The new public administration is positive and ideal and is directly accountable to the
people.
➢ The new public administration recognizes that policy formulation, policy implementation
and policy evaluation are always on the basis of morality in the administration. That is, it
emphasizes on morality.
➢ The new public administration believes in change and is sensitive to social problems.

➢ Decentralisation is promoted in new public administration.

➢ The new public administration emphasizes accountability, social commitment, elastic
neutrality and committed administration.
➢ The concept of hierarchy has been rejected in the new public administration.
Causes of Evolution
➢ At the end of the 1960s decade, when American society was seen to be passing through a
state of disintegration and wear & tear, the traditional public administration at that time
was not so competent to understand the crisis of American society.
➢ At the same time, when new demands and challenges arose due to socio-economic crises,
it was unable to cope with them. The terror caused by nuclear weapons, civil war, social
discrimination and undeclared war in Vietnam, etc., were striking the moral conscience of
the world.
➢ This kind of an environment had further disturbed the young intellectuals of America
because there was no movement neither in the centre established by the government, nor
in the recognised education.
➢ In this era of social upheaval, like other subjects of social science, the subject of public
administration was also completely shaken. The challenges faced by the society were
necessary to find new ideas and new slogans, as a result of which a new slogan, the new
movement, was called ' New Public Administration '.
Development of new public administration
➢ After the year 1968, new ideas were introduced in the field of public administration and
these ideas were termed as ' new public administration '.
➢ The new public administration was recognised with the publication of the ' Honey Report '
on higher education on public services in the year 1967. The Honey Report-1967, the
Principles and Practices Conference-1967 and the Minnobrook Conference-1968
contribute significantly to the development of the new public administration.

Honey Report, 1967

➢ John C. Honey is a professor at Syraruse University. Professor Honey was asked by the
American Society for Public Administration to submit a report on the possibilities of
studying as an autonomous subject of public administration.
The main suggestions of the report are as follows:
▪ The field of public administration should be widened.
▪ The National Commission on Public Service Education should be set up.
▪ The official process under the public administration-the executive, the legislature and the
judiciary should be included.
▪ Scholarships should be given to all the researchers who want public service to become
livelihood.
▪ Financial and non-financial assistance should be provided to persons engaged in
research on government and public affairs.
▪ Conference of Theory and Practices, 1967
▪ By The American Council of Political Science and Sociology, J.C. Charlesworth The
Theory and Practices Conference was held in the year 1967 under his chairmanship.
The conference is also called the Philadelphia Conference. The conclusions of this
conference are as follows:
▪ It is difficult to explain the area of public administration.
▪ The training of public administration and professional administration should be different.
▪ It is wrong to divide policy making and public administration.
▪ The concept of hierarchy was rejected.
▪ Prospective administrators should be imparted training in vocational training institutes.
▪ The study of public administration should be based on psychological, sociological
aspects.
▪ The subject and behaviour of public administration should be more focused towards the
social problems like urban impoverishment, unemployment, poverty, environment related
pollution level.
▪ The study of public administration should be based on psychological, sociological
aspects.
▪ The subject and behaviour of public administration should be more focused towards the
social problems like urban impoverishment, unemployment, poverty, environment related
pollution level.
▪ In order to reduce the chances of misbehavior, there is a proper need for administrative
ethics in education programmes.
Minnobrook Conference, 1968
▪ Minnobrook Conference held in 1966 made a paradigm shift in the nature of public
administration and proved to be a milestone in the new public administration vote. The
conference was a conference of the younger generation of public administration.
▪ The conference - emphasized what should be the role of public administration in a
changing society? New Public Administration and its supporters were dissatisfied with
the then prevailing state of public administration. They expect the public administration to
be conscious of social problems during this turbulent period.
▪ Proponents of new public administration insist on abandonment of absolute early efforts
and are supporters of accepting approaches in line with social justice. At present, three
conferences of Minnobrook have been held.
▪ First-in 1968, second-1988 and third-2008. The main focus of the Minnobrook Conference,
1968, was on relevance, value, social parity and change while the main focus of the
Second Minnobrook Conference was on leadership, constitutional-legal perspective,
policy and economic background.
▪ The main focus of the third Minnobrook Conference was the future of public
administration, public management and public service in the contemporary world.

Goals of new public administration

▪ It is often said that the changes in each sector in the 1960s-70s were represented only
through the new public administration, as it proved to be more people-oriented, customer-
oriented and value-oriented.
▪ In this context, in the words of the famous scholar Waldo, "the new public administration
proved to be a revolution in the direction of normative theory, philosophy, social
commitment as well as activism." "
Relevance: The new public administration lays more emphasis on the relevance of facts while
on traditional public administration - efficiency and austerity . Relevance means how 'relevant’, is
public administration, knowledge and research and theory in fulfilling the needs of the society.
▪ At present, the public administration is not only working as ‘POSDCORB', but the
researchers of public administration are also getting an opportunity to directly participate
in the basic problems and concerns of the society.
Value: The nature of new public administration is ideal. It does not accept the behaviour and
reactive neutrality of hiding the values of traditional public administration. Value means morality.
▪ At present, it is being emphasized that morality should be brought in the activities of
public functionaries so as to take proactive steps for the weaker sections of the society by
addressing the problems arising in the society.
Sociality Parity: The new public administration emphasizes on the adoption of the principles
of social equality and social justice by removing the disparities in society. Social parity also
emphasizes the need to understand the economic, social and psychological problems of the
weaker and backward sections of the society and take appropriate steps in this direction.
▪ Thus, the main goal of the new public administration is to emphasize social equity by
eliminating the privileged class.
▪ The main focus of the new public administration is on change to achieve social equality.
▪ It lays the foundation of a new society of egalitarian and eliminating the exploitative
situation, exploitation, social and economic disparities in the society. Consequently, the
new public administration acts as a means of transforming the society.
▪ Thus, the new public administration can also be called a coordinated administration, as it
combines politics and administration at the same time, the practical and structural
aspects of administration, policy-making and implementation of policies and social justice
and managerial objectives.
S Public Administration New Public Administration
No.
1. Public administration accepts the politics administration The new public administration rejects the political
dichotomy. administration dichotomy. That is, it emphasizes on the
integration of these two.
2. There is a lack of morality in public administration. Morality is emphasized in the new public administration.
3. Public administration promotes centralization. New public administration decentralization is promoted.
4. Emphasis is given on efficiency, neutrality and New Public Administration emphasis on Accountability,
effectiveness in public administration. Social commitment, elastic neutrality and committed
governance.
5. The concept of the hierarchy has been accepted by the The concept of the hierarchy has been rejected by the new
public administration. public administration.
Probabilities of New Public Administration

➢ Often, public administration now needs to be given aall rounder personality. Some of the
major problems that have to be faced by military forces, urbanisation, participation and
civil rights, development and environmental pollution.
➢ But, now, it is being invited to enter into new functional areas such as population
explosion and control, prevention of harmful production of prohibition and health,
development, protection and promotion of human rights, etc.
➢ For all this, the new public administration should have the capacity to develop new
organizations, structures, activities, etc. Ultimately, such a new public administration will
teach, flexible, moving, dynamic, goal oriented, empirical and creative. Therefore, in view
of the present development of public administration, its construction and development
has a reasonable potential.

Criticism of New Public Administration

➢ Many scholars consider the new public administration as a revised form of traditional
administration in the face of criticism. According to the famous scholar Campbell, non-
public administration gives a lot of emphasis on reinterpretation.
➢ But, despite these criticisms, the Neo have clarified that "ever since the emergence of new
public administration." Since then, the questions of morality and values have become the
basic destination of public administration. Further, the new public administration is
criticised on the following grounds, such as:
➢ This is towards management and theoritical.
➢ This is a temporary phenomenon in which technological changes take place.
➢ It empowers the content relating to political institutions, leadership and procedures in the
form of encroachments.
➢ It has made it a situation to propagate the change in the field of administration.
➢ Based on the analysis of the above facts, it can be said that the new public administration
has paved the way for progress in a way towards philosophy, social ideology and
activism.
Important Facts
▪ In the late 1960s, new public administration was born to address socio-economic
problems.
▪ The Honey Report, the Principles and Practices Conference, the Minnobrook Conference
is an important contributor to the development of the new public administration.
▪ The Conference of Principles and Practices, 1967 is also known as the Philadelphia
Conference.
▪ The goals of new public administration are relevance, value, social equality and change.
▪ The main focus of the 3rd Minnobrook Conference, 2008 was "The Future of Public
Administration, Public Management and Public Service in the Contemporary World".

▪ Decentralisation is promoted in new public administration.

▪ The new public administration emphasizes the integration of political administration.
▪ The goal change of the new public administration means to create a new society of
egalitarian and exploitative by eliminating status quo, exploitation, socio-economic
disparity in the society.

Theories of Public Administration

➢ The overall study of public administration makes it necessary to understand the principle
of public administration. Principles are interpreted by the expression of ideologies. Many
principles, approaches and ideologies are related to the structure of the organization and
its various functions.
➢ Which is implemented by officers and employees in many forms. These principles impart
analytical information from the experiences of thinkers and scholars and inspection and
monitoring of the administrative environment.
➢ The theory of public administration will study classical theory (Fayol, Gullick, Urwick),
scientific management theory (Taylor), bureaucratic theory (Weber), human relations
theory (Elton Mayo) and Organizational Management (Bernard).
➢ Classical Theory (Fayol, Gullick&Urwick)
➢ The most ancient ideologies of the organisation are called classical principles.
➢ It is also called a mechanical approach. It is based on traditional ideologies.
➢ Henry Fayol, Luther Gullick, LyndallUrwick is the leading supporter of classical theory.
➢ This principle lays more emphasis on impersonal, division of work, hierarchy and
efficiency.
Contribution of Henry Fayol

➢ French engineer Henry Fayol is considered the father of classical theory. His important
creation ' General and Industrial Management ' was published in the year 1916.
➢ He has said that now we have not many of the administration, but only a science which
can be equally implemented in all government and non-official matters. Henry Fayol has
enunciated 14 principles of public administration in classical theory, which is as follows:
1. Division of work should be ensured in the employees in accordance with the division of
work principle as per their ability and efficiency. This increases productivity and elevates
the level of technical and administrative performance.
2. Discipline means faith, obedience and reverence for the rules of the organization,
according to the discipline. It is discipline to obey the integrity and the order. Discipline
depends on the personality of administrators. In the absence of this, no organization can
prosper. In order to maintain discipline, better supervision, clarity of discipline rules,
award and punishment are necessary.
3. Unity of Command - should be followed by the principles of a person, an officer in the
organization. This benefits that the employee is responsible to the same officer and the
essence is clarity in the instructions.
4. Authority and Responsibilities: If a person is entrusted with the responsibility of doing
something, necessary powers should also be given for the orderly execution of the work.
Without authority, no person can efficiently ensure the discharge of his duties.
5. Unity of direction- according to this principle, if the objective of the organization is same,
the manager should follow the same instructions for all actions. This principle is
necessary to bring uniformity in the work, to give due attention to coordination and
efforts.
6. Remuneration: According to Henry Fayol, the remuneration rate of the employees and the
method of payment should be reasonable and satisfactory. He also stressed on adopting
non-financial motivations to encourage employees in the organization.
7. The subordination of individual interests to general interests- individual interests and
narrow views of members should always be given priority to the general (collective)
interests of the organization. Although skilled administrators should coordinate with
common and personal interests, if both conflict, general interests should be preferred
rather than personal interests.
8. Scalar Chain- 'Officer Contact Series' means the order of arrangement of contact between
the highest officer and the lowest officer. That is, a clear chain of relationship between
senior and subordinate should be determined and the chain should not be violated.
9. Centralization: Centralization should be adopted in the administration of the organization
or decentralisation should be determined by taking care of all things like the interests of
the institution, the emotions of the employees and the nature of the work, etc.
10. Equity- It is said that all employees engaged in equality work are treated properly. Equality
means a sense of right and generosity towards the employees, that is, it is a mixture of
justice and compassion.
11. Order of Placement: Each item should be in order to arrange a fixed space for the
employees as per their ability and efficiency.

12. Stability of tenure of personnel - as far as possible, there should be stability in the tenure
of the employees so that they can definitely work with dedication.The resignation from the
institution by the employees is also often the result of mismanagement. It is natural for an
employee to take time to learn and discharge the work efficiently.
13. Initiative- initiative capacity means freedom to think, propose and implement a scheme.
Every manager should awaken the spirit of the initiative among the persons who work
under him. Good suggestions and schemes of subordinate employees should be
appreciated, which will motivate the employees, provide an opportunity to learn and
develop a sense of responsibility.
14. Espirit de corps- the power of the organisation is in its unity, cooperation and harmony if
all of them do not work in a team, the organisation will soon be shattered and the
achievement of common objectives will not be possible. For this, the order requires
unwavering faith in the strength of unity, cooperation and harmony.
Contribution of Luther Gullick

➢ Luther Gullick formulated the general principles of the organization by coordinating his
experiences and studies. It was a supporter of neutral principles that raise the level of
organizational efficiency.
➢ Gullick composed a book titled 'Papers on The Administration' (1937). Gullick used the
five elements of Fayol's administration - planning, organization, command, coordination
and control as his neutral principles.
➢ Luther Gullick enunciated the organization's 10 principles, which are as follows:
1. Division of work or specialization
2. Coordination through hierarchy
3. Deliberation coordination
4. Bases of Departmental organization
5. Decentralisation
6. Unity of Command
7. Delegation
8. Line and Staff
9. Span of Control
10. Coordination through Committees
Gullick can understand the duties of the administration briefly termed the word ‘POSDCORB' of
the following:
➢ The Planning refers to determining the functions to be carried out and determining ways
to accomplish them to achieve the objective of the organization.
➢ Organization means setting up of a formal organization through which the functions and
purposes of the organisation are systematically, defined and coordinated.
➢ Staffing: It means creating a favourable position for recruitment and training of
employees.
➢ Directing- it means making decisions and giving them the form of specific and general
orders and instructions.
➢ Coordination: It has to establish a relationship in different deparments of the organisation.
This is the most important task in the organization.
➢ Reporting: The process of keeping the executive responsible for them aware of the
activities of the administration is termed as a report.
➢ Budgeting- Annual budget related works are edited for the income and expenditure of the
organization.
Contribution of Lyndall Urwick
Lyndall Urwick is also included in the important thinkers of classical ideology. He formulated 8
principles of the organization which are as follows:
➢ The principle of Objective- Urwickbelieves that clear definition of the objectives of the
organization should be given. There should be a clear difference between its subsidiary or
secondary objectives so that administrative functions are aimed at the main purpose.
To be made more effective. Consequently, the nature of the organization should be created in
such a way that individual efforts can be maximised in achieving the objectives of the
organization.

➢ Principle of span of control: According to this principle, the number of subordinates under
a senior officer should be on whose he can establish proper control over the work.
Consequently, the work can be done systematically.
➢ The principle of Definition- an efficient organization also requires that there is a clear
determination of the rights duties and responsibilities of each of the officers, thereby
creating some kind of confusion in the conduct of the work.
➢ Principle of coordination: The objective of the organization is to coordinate various
functions of administration and actions of individuals.
➢ Principle of specialization- through this principle, every person in the organization should
be allotted the same work for which he is physically and mentally capable so that he can
make his best contribution.
➢ The Scalar principle - according to this principle, the organization should be
interconnected with the order of seniority and subjugation from top to bottom. As far as
possible, the subordinate should not violate the power of his senior. This helps in
maintaining discipline.
➢ Principle of continuity / correspondence - the method of organization and reorganisation
continues to be operational. Consequently, specific arrangements should be created in
each unit. The organization system should be adequate not only for immediate actions but
also to maintain these actions in future.
➢ Principle of responsibility- according to Urwick, this principle means fixing its
responsibility towards the functions of subordinates by the higher authorities. That is, the
organization will be fully responsible for the work of the higher authorities, making their
commitment to achieve the goals of the organization.
The classical theory of the organization is criticized by scholars that this principle does not
explain which principles are worth giving importance in a particular situation. Simon has
criticised the principles of administration by merely saying the administration's sayings, because
it is a narrow idea that inspects the people by keeping them separate from their candidates.
➢ Even after these limitations, the contribution of classical theory in the field of
administration cannot be neglected. The limitations of this approach have inspired future
research of the organization and its behaviour.

Scientific Management Theory (Taylor)

➢ In the theory of public administration, scientific management has an important place in
theory, the traditional management approach was to address social problems. That is, no
steps were taken in advance against social problems.
➢ The traditional system of management in the 18th and 19th centuries was not able to solve
the problems of the industrial system in the 20th century. At present, the diversities and
complexities of the industrial system are increasing day by day. These problems resulted
in the birth of 'scientific management theory'.
➢ After the Industrial Revolution, heavy machinery was used in the production units but the
production target could not be achieved. Thus, the production units were suffering from
many problems. Taylor and his colleagues made significant contributions in solving these
problems.
➢ Thus, the managerial work is aimed at integrating, controlling and coordinating all actions
of any organization. The pro-management approach comes from scholars, Simon,
Smithberg, Thomson, etc. In the managerial approach, Luther Gullick believes that public
administration is concerned with the completion of the work and the fulfillment of the
targets set.
Meaning of Scientific Management
➢ Scientific management is composed of two words- scientific and management. 'Scientific'
means science and science means the attitude and management of specific knowledge by
systematically running a institution. Therefore, scientific management means to do
something in a systematic manner with specific knowledge.
➢ Instead, like traditional principle of improving and developing by experience, 'make
mistakes and improve’, while the management based on certain principles and rules are
called as scientific management.
➢ In Taylor's words, "The art of knowing what you want to do with individuals and seeing
that they are the most appropriate is called scientific management. According to Jones,
"scientific management is a set of rules to achieve a new discipline in the control and
methods of approach. "

➢ In the words of H.L. Persson: "Scientific management refers to organizations and systems
that achieve its objective with collective efforts and have been constructed on the basis of
scientific research and analysis and not arbitrarily or on the basis of a traditional error
correction system. "
➢ Therefore, in scientific management, events, research, experiments, conscience, etc., are
given more importance. Scientific management is clearly a scientific method of
management by which the resources are better coordinated and produced at a minimum
cost.
Features of Scientific Management

The features of scientific management are as follows:
➢ Scientific analysis and experimentation: Scientific management has a plan based on facts
and data for each task. These facts and figures are analysed and their merits and demerits
are examined through the results achieved.
➢ The program is implemented only after evaluating the experimental importance,
usefulness and relevance of the program in scientific management.
➢ Rules: are framed to implement the appropriate findings based on analysis and
usefulness. The rules are required for every officers and staff to maintain managerial
discipline.
➢ A roadmap for targets is worked out under the definite targets and planning-scientific
arrangements. How the necessary resources will be mobilized to achieve the target and
how they will be used are determined.
➢ Continuity of research- scientific management is used in managing improved actions.
Thus, timely studies were carried out to maintain its relevance and continuity of research.
➢ Dynamic in nature- Scientific management is a powerful and changing ideology in which
the principle of development and evolution is considered to be the best. The arrangement
that is not ready for continuous improvement and change has become irrelevant at the
present time.
➢ Austerity- is the basis of scientific management. Special efforts are made to remove all
kinds of waste and eliminate non-essential elements of production.
➢ Fixation of responsibility: The work in scientific management is fixed and the time of
execution, cost, wastage etc. are all decided first. Thus, responsibility can be determined
more certainly.
➢ In scientific management, a person cannot give his responsibility on any other person and
at the same time, no more responsibility can be handled beyond his work load limit.
➢ Effective control: In scientific management, the control becomes effective by
systematically and acting in accordance with certain rules. Improved control is a key
feature of scientific management.
➢ Team spirit- Collective effort for collective interest is a major feature of scientific
management. Under scientific management, management is to create team spirit among
all employees and officers and they are also collectively motivated to achieve the target.
➢ Increase in efficiency: One of the key features of scientific management is to increase in
efficiency. Saving time, reducing costs and continuous working makes officers and
employees to increase their efficiency.
Importance of Scientific Management
The main objective of the scientific management theory is to achieve maximum benefit at
minimum expenditure. Understand the importance of scientific management in such a way:
▪ Improvement and measurement is done in equipment, raw materials, procedure and
condition and direction of work.
▪ Work configuration, direction, schedule and time management, o productivity of goods,
storage and accounting methods should be improved.
▪ Percentage of employees and officers are provided in terms of greater efficiency in all
branches of work.
▪ Better coordination between labour and capital is possible.
▪ The individual decision is limited by the expert and advisory arrangement.
▪ Rules are framed on the basis of facts and analysis in place of rules framed on the basis
of assumptions and estimate.

▪ To provide opportunities for better coordination in institutions and branches as well as to

have proper control over them so as to reduce delays in work, errors, accidents and
neglect of work.
▪ Provides protection to employees from excessive workload, fatigue or risky actions. '
▪ Work, training and efficiency are enhanced based on the merit of the employees.
▪ Timely teaching arrangements and continuous guidance and rewards are also provided.
Contribution of Taylor in Scientific Management Theory
➢ Taylor contributes significantly to scientific management theory.
➢ It was a German engineer.
➢ He laid the foundations of scientific-industrial management.
➢ He had special achievements in two areas: first, in the field of mechanized engineering, he
found a new way of making steel firm and, secondly, in the field of management, he
enunciated the adjustment fund to bring the performance to perfection.
➢ In the future, it was called ' scientific management '. He conducted time and speed studies
and also presented salary as motivations for the employees. He developed scientific
management principles working as consultancy engineers in several industrial factories
between 1893 and 1901.
➢ The books written by them are as follows: Notes on Welting, 1893; In an article published
by The Institute of Wages to Efficiency 1896, Shop Management 1903 and in the year 1911
‘The Principles of Scientific Management’ in which Taylor used the word 'Scientific
Management'.
The principles of scientific management mentioned by Taylor are as follows:
➢ To develop science for each component of human work, which will replace the old Rule of
Thumb method.
➢ The employees should be selected from the scientific method and at the same time they
should be educated, trained and developed.

➢ Before the scientific management, the employees themselves selected a task and trained
themselves.
➢ To achieve the goal, there is a better coordination between the employees and managers
so that the work can be done in accordance with the scientific principles.
➢ There is a need to have a clear division of work and duties & responsibilities between
employees and managers. The manager should take the same work in his own hands
which can do better. Earlier, all duties and responsibilities were decided by the
employees.
➢ Science methodology that is, rule of thumb means the work should be done on the basis
of study and analysis and not on the basis of estimates and individual rules called ‘Rules
of thumb’.
➢ Not individualism, but cooperation. That is, to work in a spirit of cooperation among the
employees.
➢ Not inconsistency, but harmony that is, there is better coordination in the work.
➢ Maximum production in place of limited production
➢ To make every employees highly skilled and progressive.
➢ When the above four principles were practically applied to the industrial units, it yielded
positive results, that is, the production increased.
➢ Some techniques have been prescribed by Taylor to implement the principles of scientific
management, which are as follows:
Some techniques have been prescribed by Taylor to implement the
principles of scientific management, which are as follows:
1. Functional Foremanship
2. Measurement of work and Simplification
3. Mental revolution
4. Differentiation wages or incentive scheme
5. Scientific Management Techniques Methodology Study
6. Rate system
7. Fatigue Studies
8. Motion study
9. Time Study
Functional foremanship: In the industrial system, foreman is the manager who directly comes
in contact with the employees. Foreman is a low-level manager and a high level employee. It is
like a focal point around which production, implementation and control are done.
➢ Taylor was asked to keep the planning and implementation separate. The factory
(industry) manager had planning officers and production officers. Four employees were
working under the Planning Officer-
➢ Instruction card clerk, route clerk, time and cost clerk and sub disciplinarian clerk. These
four employees will prepare instructions for the employees respectively, prepare
production schedules, prepare time and cost lists and ensure discipline.
➢ The employees who will work under the production officer are as follows: Speed boss,
Gang boss, repair boss and inspection boss. These employees will be responsible for
properly preparedness, workers to keep machine equipment fit and check the quality of
work.
➢ The operational foremanship is a low level extension to the principle of division of labour
and specialization. Each employee will have to take orders from these eight foremans of
production work or related processes. Foremans must have education, judgment, wisdom,
fact, stability, specific knowledge, physical ability, energetic, honest and good health.
➢ Although all these qualities cannot be found in one person, Taylor has suggested to form
a team of eight (8) experts. These experts are given the work as per their ability.
Implementation of Work Measurement and Simplification: The measurement was
supported by Taylor. According to these, scientific principles should be adopted for study
and analysis of production practices under the ‘Rule of Thumb’ method. Measurement refers
to the standard setting process for each business action.
➢ In the measurement process; Raw materials, time, products, machinery, methodology can
be used. These are standard criteria which are applied in the production process. The
objectives of the measurement are as under:
➢ To determine the standards of performance of the person and the machine.
➢ To establish the ability to interchange manufactured goods and products.

➢ To limit any type of goods and products to permanent type, size and characteristics.
➢ Maintaining the quality of goods and products.
➢ Similarly, simplification is aimed at eliminating unnecessary size and dimensions. In
simplification, unnecessary elements of production is eliminated. Consequently, the cost
of labor, machine and equipment is saved.
Methodology study- methodology study means exploring a better system of working. There
are many methods of doing a task, to find out the best method. Every action is included under the
study from raw material to the finished product to the customers
➢ Taylor has introduced the concept of linking together a number of actions through
methodology studies. The main objective of the methodology study is to provide high
quality goods to the customers at low cost.
➢ Speed study: Under the speed study, the speed of different movements of the employees
which is done to perform a particular type of work is studied and analysed. Such as
getting up, sitting, keeping or changing the place etc.
➢ Unnecessary actions (unnecessary attempts) are eliminated during the task so that the
goal of the work can be achieved successfully. If the physical postures of the employees
are studied, the following are the points:
➢ Producer movement. Like to act.
➢ Relevant movement. Like going to the store room.
➢ Non-productive action. Like talking. A stopwatch, a number of colours and symbols were
used by Taylor to identify several currencies.
Time study-time study means to study and analyse how long it will take to accomplish a task.
It uses time measurement methods for each component of the work. The standard time of the
entire work is often measured several times.
➢ The system of time study depends on the volume and frequency of work, time cycle of
operation and cost of time measurement. The main objective of the study is to determine

the strength of the staff, prepare the above processing plans and determine the cost of
labour.
Fatigue study- fatigue study means giving employees 15-20 minutes of rest while working so
that they can do their job with new energy again. Every person experiences fatigue physically and
mentally while working.
➢ With the rest from time to time, the employee will re-act on the internal force. Under
fatigue study, the duration and frequency of rest intervals are studied and analysed to
complete a task.
Differential wage rate system: The differential wage rate system was given greater
importance by the Taylor. Taylor wanted the employees to get more production but they found
that employees are less interested in the production process.
➢ Differentiation wage rate system means that the employee (whoever achieves the
production targets in the stipulated time or produces more than that) should be paid
wages at a higher rate and the employee who is not able to achieve the production target
should be paid wages at a lower rate.
➢ That is, Taylor's main objective was to motivate workers to work in a more efficient
manner so as to produce more and more. For example, it has been stipulated that the
standard production is 10 units per person per day and those who will achieve or work
more than this standard will be paid wages from Rs 50 instead of Rs 40.
➢ Thus, a skilled employee will get a payment of Rs. 11 x 50 = 550 per payment while the
unskilled employee will get the number of units that have been created, i.e., Rs. 9x40 = 360
per day. The difference of Rs. 190 as to Taylor is sufficient motivation for an unskilled
employee to do the job more superiority.
Mental Revolution: Taylor believed that through techniques and differentiation wage rate
system to determine work measurements and eliminate wasteful operations, employees would
benefit from higher wages and managers would benefit that they would get more and more
production.
➢ Thus, there will be a ' mental revolution ' in both management and employees and they will
develop a sense of cooperation rather than an opposing nature towards each other. The
main essence of Taylor's scientific management lies in the mental revolution. This
includes a complete mental revolution in the attitudes of the employees towards their
work.
➢ It also includes a mental revolution in which, the management of their employees,
foremaneship and the manner in which they manage their daily problems. According to
Taylor, scientific management has no relevance without a complete mental revolution on
these two sides
➢ That is, the mental revolution can be called the essence of scientific management.
Employees and managers should work collaboratively for maximum production and
maximum wages as well as to achieve better decisions based on scientific studies,
analysis, research and knowledge instead of traditional personal decisions.
Criticism of Scientific Management Theory

➢ Taylor's scientific management theory has been criticized by various scholars and
managements, whose basis for criticism is as follows:
➢ The idea of separating scientific management theory planning from implementation
formulated by Taylor and handing over the planning work to functional foremans was
found to be impractical.
➢ The focal point of the study in Taylor's scientific management theory was the low level of
the organization.
➢ The scientific management principle disregards the organization's 'Unity of Command'
principle as each of the employees (workers) receives orders and instructions from many
people.
➢ The scientific management theory does not emphasize human aspects.
➢ It considers employees to be economic beings and emphasizes economic factors as a
factor of motivation. The mental revolution, which is the basic element of scientific
management, has never been fulfilled.
➢ Scientific management theory of autocratic and undemocratic nature
➢ It gives more emphasis to the employees to do difficult and challenging work.

➢ The approach of scientific management theory is not realistic in nature but utilitarian.
➢ In scientific management theory, the organization is conceived as a closed system.
Relevance of Scientific Management Theory

➢ The scientific management theory developed by Taylor and his colleagues continued as
an influential movement in many countries in the US and the West. This revolutionized
working conditions, working approaches and methods of work.
➢ The relevance of scientific management theory in the 21st century can be understood
from the identified points:
➢ The scientific management theory has significantly improved the productivity and
remuneration of the employees.
➢ At present, the concepts contained in scientific management theory are being adopted
both in public administration and private administration.
➢ Although man is not an economic creature, the employees of the organization are
influenced by economic factors.
➢ At present, recruitment and training is done on merit in any organization so that it can
function better.
➢ The new public management and scientific management theory shows the assignments.
Such elements such as efficiency, effectiveness are given more emphasis.
➢ The scientific management theory emphasizes the need to develop the 'best way' in
accomplishing any work that can save unnecessary labour, time and money.
➢ Scientific management theory emphasizes the need for functional specialization and
scientific performance evaluation.
➢ The scientific management theory emphasizes on providing more qualitative services at a
minimum cost. Collective participation in scientific management theory is emphasized.

Bureaucracy By Weber
➢ With the expansion of welfare activities in the 21st century states, there is an essential
need for a large administrative machinery for implementation of state policies.
➢ Entry of deserving people into bureaucracy, training and monitoring of people, proper and
timely solution to their problem and purposeful proper control over them remains a
challenge.
➢ Universally, in the world, we find some kind of bureaucratic system, which is of different
nature in different situations. Under the bureaucracy, the staff officers conduct a
particular type of conduct by discharging the responsibilities of their office.
➢ The institutional structure and organizational aspect of bureaucracy is also known as
personnel administration.
Meaning of Bureaucracy
➢ The term 'bureaucracy' was termed in 1746 by a French economist ' Vicent de Gourney '.
The English synonym of bureaucracy is taken from the word ' bureau ' of the French
language.
➢ In France, the word was used for a 'writing table'. the word ' bureau ' was used in
government business, the government shows arbitrariness, narrow attitudes and the
opinion of government officials, which is called bureaucracy.
➢ Gradually, it was used in strict adherence to rules, unresponsive complex processes and
vested interests. Bureaucracy is an important institution that runs and provides stability
to any regime. The needs and objectives of the State are easily achieved by this society.
➢ Bureaucracy requires experience, knowledge and accountability. The bureaucracy has its
right place in the democratic system of governance, and it rests on many responsibilities
and expectations.
➢ Various studies have shown that proper or unfair use of bureaucracy is most commonly
done in communist and totalitarian regimes. Thus, it can be said that bureaucracy is a
system of government which is fully controlled by the authorities and because of which
their power endangers the freedom of the citizens.
➢ It is necessary for an administrative organisation and a modern government. It works

under both public and personal relationships. The bureaucratic definitions presented by
various scholars are as follows:
➢ According to Carl Federick: "Bureaucracy is an organization with the footsteps,
specialization of functions and high capacity of those who are trained to work in these
positions.
➢ In the words of encyclopedia Britannica-"Just as dictatorship means the rule of the
dictator and democracy means the rule of the people, the bureaucracy means the rule of
the bureau."
➢ According to Michael Crozier: "Bureaucratic behaviour involves slowness, complexity of
the process, routine nature and a negative environment for administrative organization
members or serviced individuals.
Features of Bureaucracy
➢ Karl J. Frederick has described six bureaucratic features, which are as follows:
➢ Qualifications for the post. That is, the persons entering the bureaucracy are appointed on
merit.
ii. Plurality of tasks. That is, a variety of works are carried out under the bureaucracy.
iii. Objectivity of work ethics.
iv. Hierarchy in organization and discipline.
v. Confidentiality with respect to administrative functions
vi. Red tapism.
• In addition, other features are also seen, which are as follows:
• Bureaucracy has a strong faith in the regulators and laws. That is, the bureaucracy works
according to the rules and laws.
• There is a particular way of doing bureaucratic work. That feature is understood by those
who are part of the bureaucracy. Trained in a particular skill, repeating it again and again,

and the officer who considers his position to be lifelong becomes able to do a particular
job.
➢ The bureaucracy also works with the right to do that work from the government.
Obstructing the work of government officials and employees means violation of law.
• The bureaucratic members are recruited in the public service because they take care of
themselves and their families along with the social service.
• The management of the present office is based on written documents and files. No
decision relating to the office is personal, every task, decision and order is recorded in
writing.
Features of Indian Bureaucracy
➢ The Indian administration is a system of British heritage. The post-Independence British
bureaucratic system was accepted. At present, globalisation is a para digmorestation due
to the revolution of information and communication technology. The characteristics of the
Indian administration can be understood from the following points:
➢ Adherence to the post-public services organisation is based on the principle of hierarchy.
Hierarchy refers to the control of its subordinates by the higher authorities.
➢ Stability- In the Indian bureaucracy, the members of the public service remain in their
positions permanently and retire after a certain age limit.
➢ Being professional-members of public service are professionals. The main task of
government employees and officers is to work on the directions of the Government.
➢ Political neutrality- members of public service do not have their inclination towards any
political party. He is neither a member of political parties nor participates in political
movements and elections. However, there are many public servants who do not adhere to
political neutrality.
➢ Red Tapism : Red Tapism or unnecessary formality is found in the Indian bureaucracy.
The rules and laws are strictly adhered to by the public servants believing in the extreme
formality of any process.

➢ Superiority- the Indian bureaucracy has become a misconception that he is the master of
the people and not a servant.
➢ The emphasis on general administrators- the Indian bureaucracy is characterized by
greater importance to general administrators while less of expert administrators. The
general administrator can easily be appointed from one department to another. Therefore,
the general administrator is called the only drug of all disease.
➢ Political interference: The present Indian bureaucracy often shows that the politicians
obstruct administrative functions for selfish reasons. This includes harassment and
transfer of officers, improper use of administrative services, announcement of populist
policies, etc.
➢ For all these things, there is a nexus between bureaucracy and politicians. Consequently,
the public servant starts to work for politicians more than the public welfare.
➢ Three tier service structure: The Indian bureaucracy provides three-tier services with all
India services for the whole of India such as IAS, IPS, IFS, etc. Central services at the
central level such as SSC and state level state services such as-
➢ The dominance of the elite: In all the countries of the world the public services are based
on merit but, in India bureaucracy has been dominated by the elite andn does not
represent the masses. Indian society where caste, religion, region, language, etc. are
influenced by the boundaries.
➢ The public servant are maintaining their separate classes. If seen, some similarities are
found in the Public Servant of the Indian bureaucracy-
➢ High University Degree
➢ Urban Background
➢ Parents working in administrative services
➢ The nexus with criminals has become a nexus between politicians, criminals and
bureaucracy in the Indian bureaucracy. The Vohra Committee report has clarified that
criminals and mafia people are running a non-government and have the basic agreement
of bureaucracy.

Types of Bureaucracy
F M Marx has described four types of bureaucracy in his book 'The Administrative State'. The
form of bureaucracy exists in one country or the other, which is as follows:
➢ Guardian bureaucracy- learned officers who were proficient in traditional texts .
Examples of this are Chinese bureaucracy (in the first century) and German state
administration were found in the middle of 18th centuries. It was a bureaucracy that
considered itself a custodian of the people but was independent of public opinion.
Such bureaucrats did not adhere to the responsibility even though they were in a skilled and
altruistic nature. It has not been relevant in the modern age because modern bureaucracy is
based on legality.
➢ Ethnic bureaucracy- when administrative and political power is in the hands of a
particular class, ethnic bureaucracy originates. The basis of ethnic bureaucracy is a
particular class. This kind of bureaucracy is widely prevalent in countries with oligarchy
political systems.
In such a bureaucracy, only those who belonged to the upper classes or castes can be
government officials. Willoughby has called it a 'oligarchy'. For example, in ancient India, only
Brahmins and warriors were high officials.
➢ Patron bureaucracy- this is the form of bureaucracy in which public servants are
appointed not on the basis of their merit but on the basis of political relations between
employers and candidates. This bureaucracy prevailed in Britain in the 19th century and
later became a feature of the US bureaucracy.
In America, it is termed as ' loot system '. At present also, this system is going on in the
United States. Marx has critically stated that due to lack of legal skills, flexible discipline,
erroneous methodology, biased approach and lack of enthusiasm, the patron bureaucracy
criticises as a defective bureaucracy.
➢ Merit bureaucracy - merit bureaucracy means that qualified persons can be selected
in the public service, which has been tested on the predetermination criteria and that
criterion is objective. In a democracy, public servants are appointed to serve the people
and their appointment is based on intelligence, industry and other qualifications.

➢ All the functions of the administration are performed by the bureaucracy, in which some
specific qualities are considered to be required. At present, the recruitment of public
servants is not based on any kind of discrimination but is primarily the result of testing of
capacities.
Contribution of Max Weber in Bureaucracy

➢ The systematic study of bureaucracy is considered to be from German socialist Max
Weber. In his book ‘Theory of social and economic organization’ published in the year
1920, in which he described the " ideal form" of bureaucracy.
➢ The personal subjugation found in the management system at the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution by Weber developed the ideal form of bureaucracy due to nepotism,
cruelty and individualistic decisions.
➢ He believed that bureaucracy could become a better medium for using and providing the
human and mechanical energy that triggered the industrial revolution.
➢ Weber explains three types of bureaucratic dominance (power)-traditional power,
charismatic power and legal power. The key elements of the bureaucratic theory
presented by Weber can be understood as follows:
➢ Division of work: There should be a clear division of work between all officers and
employees of the bureaucracy so that the works are not overlapping and the officers and
staff should also ensure responsibility for their effective functioning.
➢ The hierarchial system is based on the bureaucratic system of hierarchy. It has a
superior and subordinate relationship between officers and employees. Any order is
transmitted from top to bottom. The administrative structure of any organization is like the
pyramid, in which a number of steps are found between the high and lower authorities.
➢ Defined procedure - A defined process of completing tasks in an organization occurs.
All the functions are completed through a prescribed procedure. The rules, laws and
procedures used for better execution of works are stable and comprehensive.
➢ A lawful arrangement for the completion of the work- The Consistent System of
obstruct rule is done to ensure regular completion of the work in bureaucratic theory. In

order to ensure that any work is done in full efficiency, only those who hold qualifications
according to law are appointed.
➢ Qualification -the principle of bureaucracy prescribes the qualifications for each post.
Thus, only those persons who are efficient and can perform administrative functions at
the full capacity are appointed in the organization. Recruitment on merit in bureaucracy as
well as their training is also done on the basis of their merit.
➢ The right to pay and pension- the salaries of the employees and officers are not fixed
on the basis of income of the organization in the bureaucracy, but salaries and pensions
are fixed keeping in view the level of employees and officers, responsibility of office,
social status, etc.
➢ Individuality- means that the relationship between officers and employees in the
bureaucracy is non-negliable, i.e., they are not influenced by individual values. The
bureaucracy is free from personal relationships, emotions and feelings and is not
affected. Decisions in bureaucracy are taken on the basis of accuracy and not on an
individual basis.
➢ Written Document- The official record is properly maintained in the bureaucracy, i.e.,
they are kept in writing. Bureaucratic decisions and activities are formally recorded. And,
at the same time, it is secured for the future.
The positive side of the bureaucratic principle are-

The positive side of the bureaucratic theory presented by Weber can be understood as follows:
• Clear division of work leads to clarification of roles between officers and employees,
which does not overlap the work.
• If there is no clear division of works, the officers will be very much interfering in the work
of their subordinates. Consequently, there will be unnecessary blockage in performance.
• Adopting a definite working process makes it easier to perform the work.
• The adoption of the hierarchial system brings uniformity in discipline and well-being in the
bureaucracy.

• Selection on merit ensures recruitment of qualified and skilled persons. That is, expertise
is achieved.
• The principle of bureaucracy gives more emphasis on fairness and commitment.
• Providing fixed salaries and pensions provides stability in the bureaucracy.
• Keeping a written record can be used for any irregularity in future.
The negative aspect of bureaucratic theory
• The criticism of the bureaucratic theory presented by Weber, is as follows:
• Red tapism- In bureaucracy, the public servant gives more emphasis on formality.
• It seems to give more emphasis on means, which is called red tapism. Thus, it can be said
that the public servant starts giving more importance to the rules and laws, rather than the
goal.
• Due to greater focus on formality in the bureaucracy, there is unnecessary expenditure of
money time through which the pace of work is slowed down.
• Lack of flexibility- There is a lack of flexibility among public servants in implementing
efficiency, which causes difficulty in adaptation in changing circumstances.
Consequently, the efficiency of public servants is reduced.
• In bureaucracy, public servants are recruited on merit. However, it is difficult to determine
the merit of a person.
• The bureaucracy is criticised by saying that there is indifference and nullity.
• The spirit of departmentalism- bureaucracy is often criticised for departmentalism. There
are different departments to carry out the work in the bureaucracy. These departments
begin to understand themselves as independent and separate from each other's as well as
in their jurisdiction.
• The bureaucracy is traditionally served. It has a certain style. Every day, doing the same
kind of work does not give them variability, which makes the bureaucracy conservative.

Human Relations Theory (Elton Mayo)

➢ The importance of human relations is increasing in managing the 21st century.
➢ The concept of human relations in an organisation is for the efficient operations in any
organisation.
➢ Human relations in the organization mean accepting a human approach to employees, so
that the administrative process can be streamlined in such a way that employees and
officers can work more efficiently and cooperatively.
➢ Human relations are the only way people achieve psychological, social and economic
satisfaction. In the absence of human relations, there may be difficulty in achieving certain
goals despite technical development and better communication management in any
organization. Elton Mayo has contributed significantly to human relationship theory.
Meaning of Human Relation in Management
➢ Human relations in management mean adopting a human approach towards employees in
any organization, thereby working in a spirit of greater efficiency and cooperation between
employees and employers by streamlining the functioning of the organization.
➢ Human relations are also considered as a process by which the support of the employees
to achieve the objectives of the organization through satisfaction of the physical, mentally
employees and social needs of the employees can be achieved.
➢ Human relations are a study of working employees, which aim to understand human
attitudes in a working situation and to clarify the idea of how such conduct can be
directed towards the desired goals. In view of the human relationship, many scholars have
presented their views, which are as follows:
➢ In the words of Keith Davis: "The human relationship is the integration of human beings
into a working situation in such a way that gives them the motivation to work productively
and collaboratively, along with economic, scientific and social satisfaction. "
➢ According to Norman Myer- "Human relations are to treat individuals individually or
collectively. "

Features of Human Relations in Management

➢ The features of human relationship in management are as follows:
• Human relations as a process.
• Human relations are the integration of human beings, which is possible only in a working
situation.
Evolution of the Theory of Human Relations
• It cannot be said with surity as to in which organization human relations emerged, but still
it is informed by the changes in the ideologies of management at different stages.
• In order to increase the volume of production before the Industrial Revolution, more and
more work was done by the employees and exploited by the industrial revolution, so the
production had a negative impact.
• Thereafter, in the Industrial Revolution, heavy machinery was used instead of human
beings, but still the desired target of production could not be achieved as human elements
were not taken care of.
• The industrial revolution was a scientific management movement by Taylor and its
partners to overcome the boundaries and to increase the volume of production, resulting
in the birth of scientific management theory.
• The scientific management theory also had fundamental deficiencies such as the
emphasis on working hard and challenging workers, motivation as an economic factor,
lack of human elements, etc.
• Thereafter, the human relationship theory was formulated by Elton Mayo to overcome the
limitations of scientific management theory and to accelerate the pace of production.
However, the human relationship theory also suffers from many limitations, which gives
impetus to the new principles.
Human Relations Theory (Hawthorne experiment)
• Elton Mayo was a professor at Harvard University in the United States. He studied the
impact of fatigue on production and the system of leisure and relaxation. The study was

conducted at the Western Electric Company's ‘ Hawthorne plant ' in Chicago, hence called
the ‘ Hawthorne experiment '.
• The experiment continued from 1924 to 1940. The Hawthorne experiment laid the
foundation for human relations in industries and proved that human and social elements
are more effective in terms of increasing productivity than physical elements.
Test Room Study
• Two types of studies were conducted in the test form study. First-light experiment and
second-relay assembly test room.
• Illumination Experiments: The purpose of light experimentation was to impact the amount
of light on the production of the employees. Create two groups of employees in this
experiment.
• The first group was placed in rooms where the light was identical, while the second group
was placed in a room where the light was more or less.
• The result of this experiment was that the production did not only increase the group
where the light was more or less, but also where the light was the same. Thus, it was
concluded that the atmospheric component like light is not important, which affects
production, some other elements also exist which help in increasing production.
• Relay Assembly Test Room: In this experiment, two groups of women employees were
formed and 6-6 women were taken to each group and assigned the same work. The two
rooms in which the clusters were kept have the same light to study the production at
different levels of light.
• Gradually, these situations were changed. This experiment revealed that the production of
both control and experimental clusters increased in different conditions of light. Thus,
Elton Mayo concluded that with more focus on the room under use, he (the group) became
a social entity and developed a sense of participation in the project of that unit.
• Then, Elton Mayo used the effect of relaxation on the amount of production. In this
experiment, 5 employees were selected, who were given a rest of 5, 10 and 15 minutes.
Consequently, the production increased but even without rest, there was more than
average production.

• Thus, by and large, Elton Mayo concluded that the volume of production increases when
the social conditions of the working people change. Their level of psychological
satisfaction is changed and social relations are revamped.
Interview Studies
• In 1928, the Harvard University team conducted a thorough study on human attitudes and
emotions at the same plant (Hawthorne plant). In this study, the employees were asked to
speak on the policies and programmes of the managers, the behaviour of the managers,
etc.
➢ The study revealed that the mental tendency of the employees changed, though some
reforms were not implemented in the organization. The findings of the study are as
follows:
• The employees were asked to take their views on the problems of the company.
• The observers also underwent a change.
• It was the knowledge that they themselves had the ability to behave and understand their
peers.
Observational Studies
• Elton Mayo and his team conducted observation studies at western Electric Company. The
study observed the work of groups of employees in the company's surroundings. It
looked at the study of work, methods, etc. The study brought out the importance of
informal social groups in the business organization.
Findings of the Hawthorne experiment
• The findings of the Hawthorne experiments are as follows:
• The environmental component is not a solitary component affecting productivity.
• The employee is not an economic creature, which can be motivated only by salary.
• The most important of the components affecting the conduct and emotions of the
employees is that of participation in the social group.

• Organization work is not an individual action, it is a collective action.
System Approach (Barnard)

• The system refers to units that are interrelated and affect each other. Under the system
approach, each arrangement consists of a number of sub-arrangements in which, if no
sub-system functions properly, it has a negative impact on the entire system.
• For this, the human body is formed consisting of five elements and is a subsystem of this
system located in the body.
Contribution of Barnard
• The principles of public administration also introduced the use of a system approach in
the analysis of administrative facts and events. Chester Bun contributes significantly to
the practice of this approach under public administration.
• Bernard has considered the organization a cooperative system, as it is a spirit of return of
people's cooperative efforts to achieve the objectives that he cannot achieve alone. The
Board believes that physical boundaries attract the group to cooperation and establish
participatory arrangements in a spirit of cooperation.
• Bernard considers the organization as an arrangement in which the behavior, personality
and aspirations of the employees and officers working are the interactions of emotional
development and consequently the development of collective action.
• Thus the organization changes as a list of people's cooperation. Although many people
are involved in collaborative behaviour, the process continues to change. Therefore, it can
be said that both organizations and individuals become important parts of this approach.
Features of the arrangement approach
• The features of the system approach can be understood in the following form:
• There are many subsystems under each arrangement.
• Each subsystem is of a non-related nature.

• Other major arrangements can be located at the top of each arrangement.

• All arrangements can be divided into two categories, an open-ended system and,
secondly, a lay system.
• Each system is goal-oriented and supports the goal in a systematic, systematic manner in
all the sub-systems.
• Each arrangement has both meansand production arrangements.
• The open system continues to be a counter-confirmation which continues to be necessary
social and modification over time. The system is affected and also affected.
• There is no connection in its environment under the closed system. That is, it is neither
affected nor affected.
• The above discussion can say that in the system approach, the administrative
organisation is also a system and its nature is open. Thus, the administration should
adopt an integrated system for the success of its organization.
• Five major factors are essential for the continuous flow of this system as an organization,
such as resources, conversion, communication system, production and feedback.
• The adoption of these factors seems to be more satisfactory in the system approach, as it
seeks to benefit from both formal and informal approaches, formal principles which give
importance to the structures, procedures, rules, etc., of the organization are also adopted
in the system approach.
• On the other hand, the formal principle, which ignores human behaviour, but this
deficiency has been overcome by behaviourist theory, has also been adopted in the
system approach. All the elements of this organization have been incorporated in the
system approach. The system approach is also criticised in many way.
• Firstly, the interdependence in this approach is emphasized more than the requirement,
which does not seem to be justified. At the same time, under this approach, the
administration organisation is put on a large scale to fully train the staff and
administrative officers in the technical relationship of this principle.

Important Facts
• In classical theory Henry Fiol has 14, Luther Gulic, 10, and Lindale Urvik have 8 theories.
• Henry Fiol's important creation ' General and Industrial Management ' was published in
1916.
• Work is distributed to the employees in order to achieve the objectives under division of
business as per their qualifications and efficiency.
• According to Luther Gulic, 'Poscoi' is Planing, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and
Coordination, Reporting and Budgeting.
• According to Taylor-the art of knowing what you want to do with those people and seeing
that they work in the most proper and cheapest way is called scientific management.
• The main objective of the scientific management theory is to earn maximum profit at
minimum expenditure.
• Taylor has techniques: functional formanship, certification and simplification of work,
methodology study, speed study, time study, fatigue study, differentiation wage rate
system and mental revolution.
• Mental Revolution is- Maximum Labour-Maximum Production-Maximum Benefit-Maximum
Welfare-Maximum Satisfaction
• The word 'bureaucracy' was first used by Vicente de Song, a French economist in Prayag
1746.
• According to encyclopedia Britannica-just as the word ' dictatorship ' means the rule of
the dictator and democracy means the rule of the people, the bureaucracy means the rule
of the Bureau.
• The type of bureaucracy is parental bureaucracy, ethnic bureaucracy, patron bureaucracy
and merit bureaucracy. According to McFarland, human relations are a study and
behaviour of the use of human relations by knowledge and understanding of the actions,
tendencies, emotions and interrelationships of the working people.

• Three experimented test room studies, interview studies and observational studies in
human relations theory (Hawthorne experiment) by Elton Mayo.
• Bernard has considered the organization a cooperative system, as it is a spirit of return of
people's cooperative efforts to achieve the objectives that he cannot achieve alone.

Administrative Concepts
➢ The changes in the nature and responsibilities of the modern state have proved the
administrative concepts to be mandatory. At present, every activity of individuals is
directed and controlled by the administrative agencies.
➢ The importance of administrative concepts has also increased a midst of increasing
complexities in the society, increasing state obligations and changes in administrative
practices.
➢ In the present circumstances, progress is not possible without a strong administrative
system, therefore, the importance of administrative concepts like power, authority,
legitimacy and responsibility in the administrative system is greatly increased.
Concept of Power
➢ The word 'power' called Power in English derives from the Latin-language word 'Potere'
which means for qualified. Power represents a particular situation in which a person
succeeds in complying with his will and orders even in the event of social opposition.
➢ The concept of power can be both positive and negative. If legitimacy is added to power, it
emerges positively, otherwise the power becomes directionless, which can also be
disastrous. Power depends on the ability of the individual.
➢ It is also considered to be a negative concept as it is likely to have the element of use of
force. The long-term existence of power depends on authority.
➢ According to Argeski, "power has the potential to influence other individuals to suit their
goals." Power is a relative word, such as political power, economic power, social power,
etc. According to Weber, "Power is an expression of imposition, this imposition is in a
binding form."
➢ According to Bernard Shaw, "Power never corrupts but increases the likelihood of being
corrupted only when it is rooted in the ignorant." According to Schuman, "Power is the
ability to control and influence people."

➢ According to Goldmayer and Shields, "a person has the power to the extent to which he
influences the behaviour of others according to his wishes." "The form of power is always
social.
➢ Power is an expression of social relations, but the force is called non-social element.
Power is a legal form of force and legally covered force. Negative power means the ability
of a person to get the work done by others who otherwise do not.
➢ Positive power emerges as empowerment. Power ensures the relationship between the
rulers and the ruled. By power, rulers command and the governed persons follow him.
Positive power emerges as empowerment.
➢ Power ensures the relationship between the rulers and the ruled. By power, rulers
command and the governed persons follow him. Power affects others and also regulates
their behaviour. Power is the means by which certain goals are achieved.
Features of power
The characteristics of power are the following:
• Power is based on the spirit of getting the job done.
• Power demonstrates merit.
• It is likely to have the presence of elements associated with the use of force.
• Power is temporary and personal.
• Power is a binding position.
• The important component of power is the influence, obligation and the practice of your
own interest in any way.
• The concept of power is legal, impersonal and formal.
• Power gives rise to control, such as control over others, control over facts or objects.
• Power is the concept of expression laws.

• Power is not aimless, but power is used for the existence, use and practically of certain
goals.
• Relationships in Power and Authority
• Authority is the use of power, which is considered valid while power is called the ability to
influence others. Persons exercising the power can come from different sources (law,
tradition, delegation, religion, etc.).
• Those who are using legitimate power will also get public sanction.
Types of power
The major types of power are the following:
Lawful power
➢ Lawful power is the power of a person who is received in lieu of fulfilling or discharging
certain obligations. This kind of power is achieved by a person as a result of his level of
power.
Knowledgeable power
➢ The knowledgeable power is the power that a person enjoys as a result of his skills. A
person can become an expert because of his ability, intellect, talent, expertise. The person
gets such power because of the knowledge.
➢ Direct power
➢ The power of instruction arises from a person attracting other people and creating loyalty.
➢ This power comes as a result of his skills to the recipient of that power, as the charismatic
personality makes people easily accept the leadership of a person. Mahatma Gandhi,
Nelson Mandela, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Lenin, etc., were similar personalities.
Reward Power
➢ Rewarding power is the power that a person receives in lieu of giving a few facilities as a
reward. In the existence of this power, people obey the person who has such power

because they will receive something instead or something will be taken away, which he is
going to get.
Concept of Legitimacy
➢ In general terms, the validity is a situation of conformity with the law. The legitimacy force
makes power and power to authority. Legitimacy is composed of the Latin word
Legitimare which means ‘to make lawful’. The word ' legtimare ' developed the word '
legitimacy ', which was called valid.
➢ As a result of legitimacy, power is converted into authority and the law-making power is in
authority. There is no assured definition of legitimacy. However, the relationship between
legitimacy and governance has been defined:
➢ According to Aristotle, "that regime is lawful which operates in the interest of the entire
society. “
➢ According to Rousseau, "that government is law-based which is based on normal will. “
➢ According to Max Weber, "faith in the right to govern is the only belief in legitimacy." "
➢ According to Lipase, "legitimacy means the capacity of the system by which the
confidence arises and stabilizes that the present political institutions are most appropriate
to the society."
➢ Based on these definitions, it can be said that "legality is a formula in which people accept
power and consider order adherence to a fairer commitment." “Legitimacy serves as the
basis for any government.
➢ It makes the people believe that the power holders exercise power legitimately and they
have a legal right to exercise power.
➢ Legitimacy in this form is the foundation of official power. In the absence of legitimacy,
any system can be in peril at any time.
➢ The stability and effectiveness of a political system depends largely on legality.
➢ Because of the legitimacy of the rulers, they have the right to rule.
Features of legitimacy
The salient features of Legitimacy are as follows:

1. Formula of Faith: Legitimacy is the formula of faith between rulers and the ruled. In the
minds of the ruled in legitimacy, there is a belief that the rule of those who rule them is in
their interest.
• It is the endeavour of every kind of political system to always have confidence in the
system in the public.
2. Recognition and acceptance: The concept of legitimacy involves recognition and
acceptance.
• There is recognition and acceptance of rulers in the thinking and behaviour of the people.
They believe that rulers have the right to obey and that it is their responsibility to fully
obey the commandments and orders of the rulers.
3. Law, Rules & Traditions: Laws, Rules and Traditions are very important in legitimacy.
In the ruled states, faith in rulers arises only as a result of established laws, rules and
traditions. This law, rules and traditions are absolute and strengthen public confidence
4. Effectiveness: legitimacy is characterized by effectiveness. The stability of a political
system depends heavily on its effectiveness. The effectiveness of legitimacy greatly
strengthens its acceptability.
• legitimacy gives rise to effectiveness and the elements of acceptance exist at its core.
• The Constitution, law, customs, values and faith, etc., are considered to be the main basis
of legitimacy.
1. Public consent and public interest: The consent or acceptance of the people and the
nature of public interest strengthen the foundations of the government.
• If the Government does not serve the interests of the people and the government does not
include the consent of the people, such a government cannot claim itself to be valid. The
existence of these elements is essential for legitimacy.
• The legitimacy force converts power and power into authority. Without legitimacy, power
is mere force. Without legitimacy, power is only purposeless power.

Types of legitimacy
➢ The basis of the right to govern is legitimacy. Legality is a necessary condition of
governance. It is impossible to govern without legitimacy. Different types of legitimacy are
found in different political systems. German sociologist Max Weber has divided the
validity into three types, following:
Traditional legitimacy
➢ Traditional legitimacy has been the main feature of monarchical systems. In such
arrangements, traditions, practices, religions and stereotypes, etc., are considered to be
the basis for governance and are recognised as validity.
Charismatic legitimacy
➢ Charismatic legitimacy arises from the magical personality or more effective personality
of a charismatic leader. In such legitimacy, the personality of the leader takes the form of
legitimacy.
➢ The existence of such legitimacy remains with the charismatic leader and with the end of
the leader, the validity also ends.
Legal-prudential legitimacy
➢ Legal prudential legitimacy arises from laws based on discretion. Such legitimacy is often
found in democratic political systems. This validity is a permanent validity that expresses
public aspirations and indicates public consent. This type of legitimacy is considered
elevated.
➢ Many ideas are also prevalent in the context of the process of legalization of a power or
governance. The basis of legalization includes faith, religion, traditions, charismatic
leadership, law and constitution. The power of legitimacy and consent of the people in a
democracy is considered to be the best form of legitimacy by the Constitution.
➢ In the absence of legitimacy, the regime may face a crisis. The legal crisis is called a
situation when a political or administrative system, that is, the Government, is not able to
create sufficient legitimacy towards power in its people.

Concept of Authority
➢ The importance of power or authority in any organization is similar to the life element.
Power is considered to be the main key to management. In this form, a valid formula of
management is accepted between different groups or categories of the organization.
➢ Without authority, the existence of any organization is not possible. If an organisation is
without authority or loose authority, there will be chaos. In fact, power or authority is the
power to work and get work done into the organization. In simple terms, "the power to
work and get work done into an organization is called authority."
➢ Authority is the legal authority vested in the organisation, it is not voluntarily received by
a person but by the power associated with the office, therefore, the authority is also called
as rights associated with the office. In this form, authority is the prerogative of an office
bearers by which he orders the subordinates to function legitimately.
➢ Without authority, no command can be given or complied with it. Authority is the right to
ensure that decision making and compliance is necessary to meet organizational goals
and becomes meaningful when accepted by subordinates. In fact, authority lies in office
➢ According to Henry Fayol, “Authority is the right to order and the power to obey." “
➢ According to Herbert Simon, “Authority is the power of decision making that influences
the actions of others." “
➢ According to Peterson, “Authority has the right to command and obey the command."
➢ According to Koontz O'Donnell, “Authority in relation to managerial functions is the power
to command others. It may ask others to do or not to do anything to achieve the
objective.”
➢ Based on the above definitions, it can be said that authority is the highest coordinating
power of the organisation. This power has a legal basis. Authority coordinates between
the higher and the subordinate personnel.
Features of authority
Authority has the following characteristics:

• Delegation of authority from high to lower level.

• Authority has a legitimate right to take decision, command and comply with those orders
from subordinates.
• Authority lies in office. So, whoever takes the position, he also gets the authority and
rights associated with that post.
• The nature or authority or power is legal. Without legitimacy, there is no permanent
existence of authority.
• Authority can be limited, divided and delegated by the organization.
• Authority is formal, purposeful and prescriptive.
• It determines the relationship between the high officials and subordinates.
• Authority is the basis of building an organization and is the key to management work.
➢ In one organization, at top level authority is broader and became narrow when moving
towards the lower level.
Source of authority
There are three types of authority in public administration:
i. Law
➢ Under this, the supreme law of power of the country, i.e., constitution, Act, administration
and judicial decision, etc., are considered. It is also called source formal authority.
ii. Tradition
➢ The tradition is also considered source of authority. This includes organizational
practices, rules, conventions and evolving working habits.
iii. Delegation

➢ Delegation is also considered as the source of authority. It includes the authority, laws
and rules created by delegation at various levels from top to bottom. Delegation is also
done due to excessive workload.
Types of Authority
The types of authority in behaviour are the following:
Formula Or Line Authority
➢ Formula or line authority is the power to order and comply with the achievement of the
objective of any organization.
➢ Formula Or Line Authority
➢ The nature of this authority is coercive and binding. It exists between the higher and the
subordinates under an organisation. The primary objective of this authority is to make the
organisation functional. This authority comes from high to lower level.
Staff authority
➢ Staff authority is that authority that exists in the organization to advise, assist and provide
services to other departments. It is a kind of consultative power which deals with
providing counselling in order to achieve organizational goals or objectives. This
authority is unbound in nature. This authority flows vertically in any organization.
Functional authority
➢ Functional authority is the right to decide in a particular field of work. In other words, the
delegation of power to guide staff authority is functional power. The right to decide in
functional authority is confined to a particular action. It is also called limited authority.
Scattered Authority
➢ When two subordinate officers supersede and use the power of the Chief Executive
Officer with mutual consent, it is called a scattered authority. The personality of the chief
executive and managers, the environment of the organization and the risk arising out of
the use of authority limit this authority.

➢ The famous German sociologist Max Weber explains the following three types of power:
Traditional Authority
➢ Traditional types of power are based on traditional practices, beliefs, values and social
customs. This authority is followed by faith in the sanctity of long-term enforced
traditions.
➢ The general public, subordinate or follower obey the orders and commandments of a king,
ruler, officer, religious leader or senior officer because of tradition, self-devotion, respect,
loyalty and honourable status, all of which are also called symbols of traditional authority.
Charismatic Authority
➢ According to Weber, the charismatic authority is based on faith in the qualities and
abilities inherent in a person, not based on a position or rules. In this kind of authority, the
observance of subordinate orders is accepted as miraculous or magical power in the
leader.
➢ When there is a lack of this authority in the leader, he is ousted from power. The
charismatic power is a more temporary type of authority. The charismatic power is a more
temporary type of authority.
➢ Personality has a very high impact in this power. Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela,
Jawaharlal Nehru, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, etc., have been on the political scene for a
long time because of their unique and public-loving personality and have a very similar
place so far.
Rational-Legal Authority
➢ Legal authority is a authority based on rationality. The constitution or organization of a
nation is the source of this authority. The order in this power is due to rationality,
legitimacy and constitutional justification. This kind of authority can be delegated to the
organization.
Ideology of authority
Traditional Or Situational Ideology

➢ Classical thinkers such as Henry Fayol, Max Weber, Luther Gullick, Lyndal Urwick,
Mooney and Railley have supported the traditional or positional ideology of authority. This
ideology considers authority as a legal position.
➢ This type of authority is binding in nature and is punitive in case of violation. This type of
authority flows from top to bottom, so it is also called the top-down authority.
Acceptance Ideology
➢ It is an ideology supported by behaviourists like Chester Bernard, Herbert Simon.
Acceptance is the recognition of ideology that the source of authority is the acceptance of
subordinates or followers. According to Chester Bernard- Authority in the organization
stay at lower level.
➢ Authority will be meaningful only when the command is accepted and adhered to.
According to Bernard- The order can be divided into three sections-
• Command of totally unacceptable nature
• Command of a neutral nature i.e. orders which are neither acceptable nor unacceptable
• Undeniably acceptable command
• Competence Ideology
• Competence ideology believes that the emergence of authority is based on the personal
qualities, abilities, abilities and experience of the functionary. Subordinate authority is not
accepted because of any formal position but because of its abilities and experience, also
known as functional authority
• Authority is a positive concept which has the right to command, decide and comply with
them. Authority lies in a particular post. It is delegated and logical.
• The main sources of authority are laws, organizational rules, traditions, customs, rules
and delegations.

Concept of Responsibility
➢ Making an officer responsible for a particular job is called responsibility. The
administrative powers given to the officer in any organization are not misused and the
officer is made accountable or responsible for giving satisfactory reply in the context of
exercise of his powers and obligations.
➢ The functions in the administration are executed collectively and the person concerned
also has to take the responsibility. Responsibility means being responsible for the
success and failure of performance in the organization. In other words, an officer is made
responsible for a particular job.
➢ For example, if corruption is done by an accountant in an office, he is held responsible to
the Chairman of the office. Authority and responsibility are inter-related and inter-
dependent. Authority and responsibility should be proportionate, if there is no equal ratio,
there will be a situation of misuse of power and avoidance of accountability.
➢ According to George R. Terry, "A person's bond of doing the assigned work with his best
ability is called responsibility." According to Theo Heymen, “Responsibility is a bond with
regard to the use of power by subordinate towards the top authority. "
➢ According to Lord Acton, “Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely."
Responsibility is always associated with the post, it cannot be separated. According to
Henry Fayol, “Authority and responsibility must be inter-related and proportionately
equal."
➢ According to Heymen, “Responsibility is a bond on the subordinate to perform the
intended functions of their authority." "
Key features of Responsibility

The major merits of responsibility are:
• Responsibility is associated with power.
• Responsibility makes the organization accountable to perform.
• It curbs the misuse of power.

• It makes the control system of subordinates worthwhile by the top authority.
Features of responsibility
The features of responsibility are as under:
• Responsibility is a bond in terms of performing the task.
• This bond can be both moral and legal.
• It arises from the formal relationship between the officers and subordinates.
• The responsibility is of untransferable nature i.e., it cannot be transferred.
• Responsibility can be of general or specific type.
• It is necessary to have power or authority with responsibility.
Types of responsibility
The following are the following types of responsibility based on the theme:
1) Political responsibility
➢ The political executive is an institution which executes at the highest level.
➢ This institution is the work of law and policy making. The administrative system is
responsible to the political system and the political system is responsible towards the
legislature and the people.
➢ The responsibility of the administrative organisation is the political responsibility while
framing laws, policy and programmes.
➢ For example, the responsibility of the entire administrative machinery towards the
Cabinet.
2) Institutional responsibility
▪ The responsibility of an organization to do their own work to be accountable towards the
general public is called organizational responsibility.

▪ Any institution works among the public and therefore, if there is no synergy between
these two elements, it will be difficult to determine the responsibility.
▪ Institutional responsibility expresses the relationship between the general public and the
institution. For example, single window clearance, grievance redressal mechanism, etc.
3) Professional Responsibility
▪ Responsibility towards professional or professional criteria, rules, values and code of
conduct is called professional responsibility. Any organization has national, state, local
and international level linkages.
▪ In the present globalization era, every activity has an impact at all levels due to intensive
engagement of relations. So every person and personnel, who are related are
professionals.
▪ Social and professional responsibility towards all levels to keep their activity close to the
standards of morality. The Second Administrative Reforms Commission has submitted
this idea.
The following types of responsibility based on nature are:

• Final responsibility: The high authority of the organization has a general requirement to
complete the work of the organization. Delegation of this responsibility is not possible.
• Functional responsibility: This responsibility is indirectly related to work.
• It imposed legal obligations on the person responsible for the performance and can be
delegated.
Relation between Authority and Responsibility
➢ Responsibility is a moral and legal relation with regard to performing the work. It arises
from the formal relationship between the officers and subordinates. The responsibility is
of untransferable nature and in a specific or general form.
➢ The authority is associated with it. There is a close relationship between authority and
responsibility. The principle of compatibility says that authority and responsibility should

be in equal quantities because in the absence of authority, responsibility will prove to be

meaningless and without responsibility authority is dangerous.
➢ If the authority is more than the ratio of responsibility, the power will be misused and it
will spread chaos, arbitrariness and anarchy in the organisation. But if the authority is
less than the responsibility, the personnel responsible for the work will be in a state of
confusion and conflict and the organizational goals will not be achieved.
➢ In any organisation, authority and responsibility go together in accordance with the
principle of compatibility. In this form, the responsibility of doing something on a person
or not doing something or not working in a particular way is called responsibility.
➢ In order to ensure responsibility in public administration, the officers are entrusted with a
number of rules and laws, which relate to the functions and powers associated with their
office. In modern democratic governance, control over administration is imposed to
determine responsibility.
➢ Such as the responsibility of the members of Parliament or legislature to the general
public, liability towards court and law, etc. Therefore, balance between authority and
responsibility is necessary. A person who has authority but is not accountable to
anybody, it may not be possible to achieve the objective of the organisation
➢ The wider control of the people and the electorate over the administration, not in the
nations where democracy is indirect.
➢ In fact, authority is the means to fulfil any responsibility.
➢ Work and training and efficiency are enhanced based on the merit of the employees.
➢ Timely teaching arrangements and continuous guidance and rewards are also provided
Differences between Authority and Responsibility
➢ The major differences between authority and responsibility are as follows:
• Authority can be delegated, while the delegation of responsibility cannot be done.
• The flow of Authority is from top to bottom while the flow of responsibility is from the
bottom to the top.

• Authority relates to the performance of others while responsibility is a bond related to

performance.
• In general, authority is concerned with a high level, whereas, on the contrary,
responsibility is related to subordinates.
Relation between Responsibility and Accountability
• Generally, Responsibility and Accountability are used in the same sense, but there is a
fundamental difference between the two, which are as follows:
• The source of responsibility is authority while the source of accountability is
responsibility.
• Responsibility is moral and informal while accountability is legal and formal.
• Responsibility is towards work while accountability of subordinates are towards the
higher authorities.
• Responsibility is in individual and collective form while accountability is personal in
nature.
• Responsibility supersedes autonomy, while accountability supersedes control and
regulation on rights.
• Responsibility is in a personal form while accountability is in objective form.

Delegation
➢ Man is an intellectual and prudent creature but has some physical limitations of
intellectual ability and physical abilities. No one can go beyond these limits and perform
any work.
➢ In case of plethora of work, it is necessary to reduce the workload or to suit the capacity
so that the performance of the individual can be established at a higher level.
➢ In this regard, the requirement of delegation is ensured in any organization. Delegation is
also known as transfer of works or surrender etc. Delegation is composed of the English
word Delegate, Delegate means an authorized person expressing the views of others.
➢ In view of reducing the workload, it is called delegation to entrust other persons with the
necessary rights to entrust some part of their work. Delegation in respect of an
organisation means the process of handing over work power and responsibility to its
subordinates by high level officers.
➢ In other words, it is a delegation to entrust other persons with the necessary right to
reduce the workload, i.e., delegation is the process of giving power, responsibility and
powers to subordinates. In delegation, the work is done by dividing it with other persons.
➢ In the words of Theo Heymen, "delegation of authority power means empowering
subordinates to act within the prescribed limits." According to Millet, "delegation of power
means something more than handing over duties to others."
➢ The essence of the delegation is to entrust discretion to others so that it can exercise its
decision in solving specific problems related to their duty.
➢ Because of this process of delegation, the subordinate gets power from his high authority,
but the high authority still has a fundamental power, he does not completely renounce it.
According to FG Moore, "delegation means empowering other persons to do the work."
Features of Delegation
The characteristics of delegation are as under:
• Delegation rights relate to division of work and responsibility.

• The nature is doubled because the higher authority also holds some power with handing
over power to subordinates.
• The delegation has a partial authority transfer because the higher authority does not
entrust all its obligations to the subordinate but only a particular task.
➢ Delegation is merely a transfer of functional responsibility. The final responsibility is the
repatriator, i.e., the delegation.
• There is a change under delegation i.e., the power conferred can be reduced or withdrawn.
Delegation is carried out by three methods upward, downward and

horizontal towards achieving organizational goals.
Elements of delegation
➢ Based on the above definitions, it may be said that the following three elements are mainly
important in the delegation:
• Rights to be assigned
• Distribution of work
• Determining responsibility
Rights to be assigned
• Delegation means handing over rights and duties. If a higher officer has to carry out any
work with the subordinate personnel, necessary power should also be given to carry out
that work. In the absence of a transfer, the performance cannot be performed.
Distribution of works
• The higher authority alone cannot perform all the work. Therefore, distribution of
functions and obligations among subordinates is an essential process. This high authority
determines which person is to be entrusted with the task.
Determining responsibility

• It is also necessary to determine the responsibility after handing over rights and duties.
Subordinates are responsible for the higher authorities who have rights and duties.
Steps of delegation process

The major stages of the process of delegation are:
• To determine the work and result required from the subordinate.

• To entrust the work to the subordinate.
• Delegation of power for execution of work.
• To make responsible for completing the work provided.
• To establish a control regime to assess the results of delegation.
According to Newman, the steps of the process of delegation are as follows:
• To select subordinates near by and for delegated duties.
• To delegate power to fulfill the duty.
• To make every subordinate accountable to the Executive for satisfactory discharge of
these duties.
Need for delegation

The following reasons are primarily responsible for delegation:
• Workload: In the plethora of work, division of work or labour becomes very necessary
otherwise there is no efficiency in performing the works.
• Technical complications: Technical complications occur over time in organizations.
Experts are required to deal with these complications. It is necessary for the higher
authority to delegate technical subjects to experts.
• Induction: Delegation of power to subordinates by a higher authority increases their
morale and confidence and gives them an opportunity to learn and gain experience.
• Flexibility: In changed circumstances, flexibility can be brought about by removing

conservatism and inertia in the organization through delegation.
• Completion of important tasks: 'Policy-making' and planning are the key
responsibilities of the higher authority. These obligations can be successfully fulfilled by
the officer only if he delegates other functions to his subordinates.
• Develop functionality in subordinates: It is possible to evaluate the talent and
perseverance of the subordinates towards work as a result of delegation. It is through
delegation that the subordinates develop the qualities so that they become skilled
managers and experts in future.
• It is an important means of developing functionality among subordinates. After leaving his
office of a higher functionary, the experienced and qualified administrator is already ready
to assume the post. The most effective way of preparing a successor by any higher
authority is delegation.
Types of delegation
The major types of delegation are:
• Written and verbal delegation: Written delegation is a delegation of formal nature

which is duly and in written orders. On the contrary, oral delegation is informally unwritten
in nature such as giving some orders on the telephone.
• Full and partial delegation: Handing over the full decision-making power in an
organization to the subordinate is called full delegation but when a person delegate has to
take a decision in accordance with the counsel, opinion and guidance of the repatriate in
terms of the obligation or functions entrusted, it is called partial delegation.
• Formal and informal delegation: Delegation based on the laws, rules and codes of an
organization is called formal delegation. This delegation is of written nature while the
delegation made orally on the basis of informal traditions, customs, practices, work
culture and mutual goodwill and understanding of the organization is called informal
delegation.

• Direct and indirect delegation: In direct delegation, the repatriate entrusts the
repatriation directly to the work and responsibility whereas the indirect delegation
includes any other person as an intermediary between the repatriate and the repatriation
and through this the delegation is possible.
• Conditional and non-conditional delegation: In conditional delegation, the delegate
is entrusted with certain conditions and the repatriator controls in the context of the
prescribed conditions, while, on the contrary, handing over the decision power to the
delegate independently of work and liability without any condition is called a non-
conditional delegation.
• Permanent and temporary delegation: In permanent delegation, power and
responsibilities are permanently delegated to the subordinate. This delegation is long-
term whereas in temporary delegation, power and responsibilities are delegated for a
particular time as per the circumstances and time required and the delegation is
terminated after completion of the work.
• General and specific delegation: All activities related to work in general delegation
are transferred to the delegation whereas in specific delegation, only necessary and
specific activities related to the work are entrusted to the delegation by not assigning
complete activities related to the work.
• Simple and complex delegation: Simple delegation makes the delegation process
easier and does not require any formality while the process of complex delegation
requires a variety of formalities.
• Delegation based on direction: The following four types of delegation are based on
direction:
• Upward delegation: The obligation and transfer of power from subordinate to higher
place in an organization, i.e., from subordinate to higher level, is called upward delegation.
• Downward delegation: The level of top to bottom in an organization, i.e., the high
authority handing over the responsibility and power to its subordinates is a downward
delegation. Horizontal/even-level delegation: The transfer of responsibility and power
between the same level of officers in an organization is called equal-level delegation.

• External and lateral delegation: The assigning of responsibility and power to an

organizational unit by an organizational unit is external delegation whereas the delegation
made by the organization to an organization with a nearby identity is lateral delegation.
Importance of delegation
The importance of delegation is as under:
• Delegation reduces the burden of over-work over and establishes organizational efficiency
at the top of the organization.
• The managerial qualities are developed by assigning rights and responsibilities to the
personnel through repatriation and the second line of leadership is developed in the
organization.
• It enhances the responsibility and interest among the personnel and the morale of
subordinates at the moral level.
• It complements or collaborates on the limited intellectual ability and abilities of man.
• It prevents administrative confusion and red tapism and helps in diagnosing technical
complications.
• This makes the decision making process in the organization consistent with local
conditions.
• Delegation enhances the sense of responsibility and manpower in each personnel.
• This improves the services of the organization and serves efficiently, in need of work and
quickly.
• This clarifies the functions and responsibilities of each level of the organization, thereby
making effective control of the work done.
Obstacles in delegation
The main constraints of delegation are:
• Lack of well established and developed organizational methods and procedures.

• Reduction in coordination and communication tools.

• The problem of uniformity and duplication in work.
• Need for centralization due to various factors in specific programmes and areas of work.
• Small size of the organization underage and geographical scatter
• Ambiguity of competence between power and responsibility
Organizational risks and critical circumstances
• Weakening of control and feedback mechanism.
• The spirit of the ego of the repatriate, the authoritarian mindset of understanding yourself
superior and the dictatorial tendency.
• Doubts about lack of trust and merit of subordinates.

THEORIES OF ORGANISATION
Organizations and their Principles
➢ A group of individuals is called an organization under which efforts are made to integrate
the scattered powers. The organization is associated with every activity of man today.
➢ Its systematic functioning requires certain rules, procedures and all-accepted
cornerstones, in the absence of which the organization becomes directionless and
blocked.
➢ With the development of the concept of the organization, many of its universally accepted
principles (such as hierarchy, delegation, unity of order, span of control, centralization
and decentralization, coordination, supervision) were also discovered and these
principles are rules of conduct which are universally accepted due to detailed experience.
Organization: Meaning and Features
➢ In general language, organization means to perform the work in a planned form. That is, it
is called the organization to systematically perform a task.
➢ Thus, it can be said that the art of establishing effective cooperatives between labour,
requirements, management is called the organization. According to the Oxford Dictionary,
the word ' organization ' means to create a systematic structure of an object, to determine
the size of an object and to put it in a position to function.
➢ The organization consists of three elements- the work is done to serve a certain purpose,
it has a sense of cooperation and is functioned by a number of people. Many scholars
have defined the organization in different terms which are as follows:
➢ According to LD White, "The organization means the state of the employees, which is
established by dividing the functions and responsibilities for the attainment of the defined
subjects. According to Gladen, "the organization means to replicate the interaction of
individuals engaged in an enterprise that can accomplish the functions of the enterprise."
➢ According to Luther Gullick, "the organizational authority is a formal structure in which
actions are divided and determined to achieve a set goal."

➢ According to Urwick, “Organization means to determine the actions that are necessary to
serve a purpose and sort them into categories that can be assigned to different persons.
According to J.D. Mooney, "Every human community that is formed to achieve a common
goal is an organization. "
➢ According to Pfiffner, "The organization means the relationship between individuals and
individuals, between classes and classes, to be organized in such a way that systematic
division of labour can be done." According to M. Marx, "the organization is the structure
that is created to carry out the work assigned to the major proceedings of the Government
and its assistants."
Organization Features
Any organization should have the following features:
• The organization is a group of different individuals, this group can be small and large.
• It establishes the nature of responsibilities and duties of the group.
• It function under the direction of executive leadership.
• In the absence of this, the management cannot do its job systematically because the
organisation is an instrument of management.
• It is a functional concept where many goals are set and implemented.
• Division of rights and obligations and division of labour are organized in the organization.
• Formal relationships between individuals are created through the organization.
• The organization helps in meeting the set goals of formal relations.
• The organization is built diagonally, horizontzally and upward-and-downward
relationships. It also prepares the basis of order and compliance.
• There is continuous exchange of messages in the organization.
• Structural relations are established in it.

Types of Organization
Scholars belonging to the organization consider two types of organizations- formal organizations
and informal organizations.
1. Formal organization
• Formal organizations are organizations in which rights and responsibilities and positions
at each level are clearly defined.
• The rights in these organizations are at a lower level and delegated from the high level and
the organization strives to achieve the objectives of the organization. The formal nature of
the organisation is known by many names, such as bureaucratic organizations,
mechanical organizations, traditional organizations, post-hierarchical organizations and
classical organizations, etc.
• The supporters of formal organizations are Urwick, Luther Gullick, Mooney, Henry Fayol
Frederick Taylor and Max Weber, etc.
• According to Bernard, "When the actions of two or more persons are deliberately
coordinated towards a given purpose, it is called a formal organization. "
Features of formal organization
• They are completely non-personal.
• These are based on the rights of Principle of delegation.
• Emphasis is given to the right ways and means of working in the organizations.
• These emphasize on division of work.'
• Its internal departments are decided by the higher level authorities of the organisation.
• These are permanent organisations.
• The 'unity of commands' is followed in these organizations.
• The nature of the organisation is hierarchy, therefore, the entire knowledge about the
organization remains only at the edge of the hierarchy.
• For the creation of an organization at the government level, parliament or assembly has to
enact a law because these organisations get legal recognition.
• The levels of office, work and management of officers under these organizations are
clearly determined.
• These organizations work in accordance with the well-considered arrangements and rules.
Merits and Demerits of a Formal Organization

Merits
• There are no mutual differences between these organisations.
• There is a lack of initiative power in the organisation.
• These organizations are a simple means of achieving objectives.
• They do not have duplication of works.
• Opportunistic and Impartiality are eliminated in the organization.
• These emphasize the spirit of security of the employees.
Demerits
• The officers sometimes use the rights in self-interest.
• These organisations give more importance to rules and bye-laws than human beings
because they are mechanistic organisations.
• The sentiments of other organisations are neglected.
• These are organizations that create hurdles in informal communication.
2. Informal organization
• Informal organization implies interpersonal relationships that influence the decisions of
the organization, which are not mentioned or as part of the formal plan. These are
organizations that are automatically created when individuals are organized together.

• These organizations are also known as competitive, natural, open models etc. According
to Simon, "informal organization means interpersonal relationships in the organization,
which influence its internal decisions."
• According to Bernard, "An organization is considered informal when a group of
interpersonal relationships is inadvertently established for a common purpose. "
Features of informal organization
The informal organization has the following features:
• There is a scattering of responsibility in these organisations.
• These organizations are automatically generated.
• This organization is a social structure that is created for individual needs.
• The structure of these organizations is flexible.
• Organizational knowledge in these organisations is at every level.
• The prestige in these organizations is determined on the basis of practical and personal
efficiency.
• The integrity and responsibility of each member in these organizations rests with the
entire organization.
• These organizations develop from the habits, customs and interpersonal relationships of
social groups.
• They value the dominant role of man in the organization and do not consider man to be
rooted like machine parts.
Merits and Demerits of an informal organization

Merits
• They give stability and satisfaction to the working group.
• Meet the deficiencies prevailing in the formal organization.

• These are important and useful routes of the communication process.

• The presence of these organizations, i.e., encourages the executives to plan and act
cautiously.
Demerits
• These organisations are rebellious in nature.
• False news is telecast from these organisations.
• These organizations work according to the psychological spirit of the group.
• They address the lack of qualifications of the manager.
Basis of Organization
Studying different organizations reveals four different types of organizations. These bases can be
explained from the given:
Purpose: An organization is created on the basis of purpose because the purpose means
achieving the ultimate purpose or goal that the organization is created for achieving.
• Governments of different countries currently create various organizations to achieve
different types of objectives like defense, traffic and education etc.
Process: Process means the skill of a technical profession or a particular task. When the
organization is created on the basis of the process, all those who work the same process are
brought under the same organization.
• 'Specialist employees' are kept in such departments. Examples of these organisations are
The Department of Atomic Energy, the Law Department, the medical department, etc.
Person: Sometimes departments created on the basis of a particular person, group or

providing special services to them are called person-based departments. The special class
groups for which such organizations are created strive to uplift and progress and provide them
with a variety of special services.

Place or Area: The area, that is, the place where the work is done, is the basis of the
organization. This premise recognizes that each particular region has its own different problems.
• To solve these different problems, each particular area needs a separate department.
Thus, when an organisation is formed on the basis of the needs of a particular region, it is
called a regional organisation. Districts have been constructed on area basis in India.
Structure of Organization
➢ A better organizational structure is required to perform the functions of any organization
smoothly and to meet the objectives and goals. This organizational structure is like that of
the human body.
➢ Just as it is necessary that all body parts should function properly to stay healthy, in a
same way, it is necessary to work together with better communication and coordination at
various levels to meet the interests of the organization.
Meaning
➢ The structure of the organisation means the various levels of the organisation and its
duties and responsibilities. It is an organizational structure and its levels are determined
by the functions and goals of the organization. The structural size of the organization is
depend upon the functioning of the organisation.
➢ Thus, the structure of the organization, displaying all the organizational arrangements of
an organization and the relationship between the working officers and employees. Vertical
and horizontal relationships are in different levels and functions of the organization.
➢ The organization has a completely formal relationship in which managerial and functional
procedure are performed. In the context of the structure of the organization various
scholars have presented their views as follows:
➢ According to Fred Luthes, "the organization structure reveals the skeletal structure for
organizational behavior." In the words of Theo Heyman, "This is a structural framework
under which various efforts are coordinated and related to each other." According to

Alberts Henry H., "The organization structure is the collection under which managerial
and functional functions are carried out. "
Features
• The structure of the organization through various scholars and definitions has the
following features:
• An organizational structure is created to meet the objectives of the organization.
• Executive relations between various rights, employees and managers are established in
the organization.
• The structure of the organization acts as a means to achieve the objectives of the
organization i.e. the goal of the organization is feasible and the structure instrument.
• Relationships between officers, employees and managers in any organization are
invisible, their relationships Is revealed through a chart and manual.
• Having a better structure in the organization makes it easier to carry out the administrative
processes.
• Having a better organizational structure leads to efficient communication and better
coordination.
• The assessment of the organization's levels posts clarifies the duties and responsibilities
of the officers and employees.
• The principle of 'unity of command' is easily followed by the creation of a better
organizational structure.
Types
• The organization needs a better structure to meet its objectives and goals. The
complexities of any organization are increasing over time and in its size and its functions.
• The structure of the organization was divided into different types to understand the
organization and to establish communication and coordination in its functioning.

• In terms of organization structure, Frank has said that if it becomes difficult for a
particular person to inspect his actions because of the increase in size, such a person
should hand over some of his work to another person. The following are the major types
of structure of the organization:
Hierarchical structure
➢ Hierarchical structure is the most popular form of organizational structure in which all
officers, employees and managers are grouped together
➢ Such a structure explains the duties and responsibilities of each of the officers and
employees. It controls from top to bottom and the responsibility is from bottom to top.
Such a structure is easy to establish better communication and coordination.
Matrix structure
➢ In this organizational structure, the relationship between officers and employees is
revealed as a grid or matrix. It is designed to carry out the work of people with equal
qualifications.
Network Structure
➢ This organizational structure reveals the internal and external relationships between
managers and high-level management. It is more decentralized and flexible than other
organizational structure.
➢ Its communication depends on better structure and reliable participation. The network
structure is a bit complicated which explains its downside.
line structure
➢ Line organizational structure is the oldest and simplest form of the organization. In this
structure, the right is flowing from top to bottom in a line while the responsibility runs
from the bottom to the top line.
➢ This structure has a clear, direct and formal relationship between officers and employees.
Each employee receives orders from his/her nearby officers and the employee is liable to
him.

Mc Kinsey '7S' model

➢ Any organization can have different models of structure based on which functional and
managerial functions are carried out.
➢ The 7S' model was developed in 1980 by The Mckinsey Consultancy in organizational
structure.
➢ This model is a tool that analyzes the design of an organization.
➢ This model includes 7 elements that are required for a successful organization, these
seven elements are classified into two categories-
➢ The above graph attempts to state that all the elements of the organization are connected
to each other.
➢ As a result, better communication and coordination is established in the organization,
making it easier to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. These models can
be applied in many situations in the organization, which are as follows:
Elements
Hard Element
▪ Strategy
▪ Structure
▪ System
Soft Element
▪ Staff
▪ Skill
▪ Style
▪ Shared Value
▪ To facilitate organizational change.

▪ To help implement the new strategy.
▪ To indicate how each region may change in the future.
▪ To facilitate merger of various organizations
Approaches of Organisation
➢ The approach is to refer to what is taken or omitted in the study materials on a theoretical
subject basis in the context of a subject or question or event. There may be many
approaches or vision defects to study any event or subject.
➢ The approach and theory are often used in equal terms, but in fact the approach has to be
interpreted whereas the principle is the next stage. The organization has been studied by
many thinkers and scholars through various approaches, which are as follows:
Scientific management approach
➢ Scientific management is an important place in the organizational approach. In the 18th
and 19th centuries, heavy machinery was used in place of human labour for production,
which is termed as the Industrial Revolution.
➢ But, after some time, it was assessed that the desired targets of production could not be
achieved. At the same time, Taylor made a significant contribution to making human
labour efficient in the field of industrial management, known as the scientific management
theory. The important points of scientific management theory are as follows:
➢ The employees in the organization should be selected on scientific basis.
➢ The development of a better management should be clarified.
➢ The spirit of friendly relations and cooperation between managers and workers should be
developed.

• Training should be imparted to the employees and their progressive development should
be done.
➢ Taylor made significant contributions in the form of time studies, formanship,
humanization of instruments and actions, consideration of bonus, etc., in scientific
management theory.
➢ The main objective of the scientific management principle is to achieve maximum
expenditure at the lowest cost.
➢ Considering the scientific management approach as a criticism, Taylor mainly considered
man a machine and stressed on the difficult and challenging task.
➢ Taylor believed that giving high salaries to employees could increase their production
capacity but did not take care of human values.
Bureaucratic approach
➢ Max Weber has contributed significantly to the bureaucratic approach. When individuals
are given power through technical qualification and competitive examination in the
administration and the legality of that power, it is called bureaucracy.
➢ Bureaucracy plays an important role in policy formulation, implementation and evaluation
of the Government. The bureaucracy shows arbitrariness, red tape, narrow approach and
discretion of government officials. The salient features of Weber's bureaucratic approach
are as follows:
➢ The employees of the organization should be divided on the basis of their merit so that
they can get skills in that work.
➢ A clear division of work between each of the employees can avoid interference in the work
of another.
➢ In each bureaucratic system, a clear administrative order is established, through which
the lower authorities are controlled by the higher authorities.
➢ The selection of employees in the organization is done on the basis of technical
qualification.

➢ The functioning of the managerial system of any modern organization is written.

➢ Employees working in the organization are paid a fixed salary.
➢ Weber believes that every employee should perform their tasks without being influenced
by individual values.
➢ There are some rules and principles for better management in the organization that every
employee is aware of.
Human relation approach

➢ The human relationship approach is formulated by Elton Mayo. Mayo conducted a
comprehensive study of the behaviour and production capacity of the workers.
➢ The study was conducted at the Western Electric Company in Hawthrone, near Chicago,
Central America, from 1927 to 1932, which was called the ‘ Hawthrone Experiment '. The
following experiments were carried out in the Hawthrone experiment:
➢ Illumination experiments: Two working groups were formed in this experiment.
➢ In one group, condition was kept the same while the amount of light in the other group
was reduced and more.
➢ Relay test: In this experiment, the women was selected and asked to include four women
of its choice.
➢ These two groups were given different environments and were given freedom in their
functioning and were asked to look into the problems.
• Interview programme: An interview was conducted in this experiment wherein the choice
or choice of employees was tested.
• Evaluation study: The experiment observed the working systems, moods, environments,
etc. of the employees. The findings of the experiments are as follows:
• The illumination experiment concluded that light does not have any effect on production,
whether the light is increased or reduced or kept stable.

• The employee of the organisation is not an economic creature who works only for
salaries. That is, the employee is also a human being who should not neglect the
organisation.
• The behaviour and aspirations of the employees of the organization are influenced by
participation in the social group.
• The functioning of the organization is not an individual activity. It is a collective action in
which everyone contributes.
Behaviourist approach
• Decision making is the process in which one of the many options is selected and worked
out. Simon has made a significant contribution to the behaviourist approach. It is not
enough to know an organization in the behavioural approach but also requires practical
knowledge of the organization.
• In this approach, an attempt is made to explain the process of doing any work or before
deciding. According to Simon, the manager's position in any organization is most
important, as the decision is taken by him.
➢ The decision-making process mainly covers three actions:
• Intellectual action: An attempt is made to crack the opportunity to take decisions in this
action. To find an opportunity, the organizational environment has to be understood and
the circumstances in which decisions are required.
• Structure action: Options are developed to perform a particular task in this action. This
option is evaluated by the decision-maker and the problems in common are identified.
• Selection Action: This action is the most important action. It selects one of the many
options that is the best option and thereby fulfilling the interests of the organization.
Socio-psychological approach
• Social psychological approach is a means of understanding an organization and human
relationships. This approach emphasizes human values. Douglas McGregor and Abraham
Maslow have contributed significant self-analysis requirements to this approach.

• In this approach, Maslow's significant contribution to the 'Principle of Human Motivation'

is an ambition requirement. Maslow studied the relationship between the organization and
the individuals (employees) from the point of view of human needs.
• Maslow is a well-known behaviourist and psychologist in the five hiearchial social
psychological approach of human needs.
Ecological approach
• Prior to the Second World War, the administration served as a managerial administrator,
but after the Second World War, many countries in the continent of Asia, Africa and South
America gained independence, emphasizing welfare governance.
• The administrative qualities and defects of these countries were evaluated by the
administration of developed countries, which was called comparative approach. Rigs have
played an important role in the comparative approach. The society between
multifunctional and underfunctional is called the ‘Prismatic Society'.
Riggs studied the contemporary societies. According to Riggs, there are three features of the
contemporary society:
• Heterogeneous: Heterogeneousness is seen to be more in the homogeneous society.
Heterogeneousness means the presence of a variety of arrangements, behaviour, actions
and approaches, etc. There are conflicting tendencies in societies that include new-old,
east-west, rural urban, socialism-capitalism, etc.
• Formality: Formalism means rules and laws, government, constitution, etc., in a society,
but there is a lot of difference between principles and practices. In such a society, the
officers follow the rules according to their conscience.
• Overlapping: A new or modern organization is established in the contemporary society,
but the impact of the old organisation remains on the new organisation. In this society,
legislatures, offices, schools and colleges, markets, etc., are influenced by their
traditionalist ideas like family, religion, caste, race, region, etc.

Hierarchy
• Hierarchy is the most basic and important principle of formal organization. It is also
known as the 'principle of the post chain’, ‘the principle of the ladder process', 'theory of
hierarchy' etc.
• Each organization is set up to serve a certain purpose and with its establishment, the
entire executive power of the organization is vested with its Chief Executive Officer.
• Since the Chief Executive officer in a single form is not able to discharge all functions and
responsibilities, the division of work and responsibility is done on the basis of
specialization between several units and sub-units.
• These units and sub-units are arranged in a higher subordinate chain to streamline the
organization and conduct the work smoothly. This creates multiple levels of ordering,
complying and accountability in the organization,
• As a result, a series of high-subordinate relationships develop between officers working at
different levels called ‘Hierarchy'. The number of employees at the top of the organisation
is low and more at the bottom is due to the hierarchy.
Meaning of Hierarchy
Hierarchy is the Hindi metamorphosis word 'Hierarchy' of English, which literally means "control
or power of high on low" according to the Oxford Dictionary. Many scholars have tried to
systematically define the customs, which are as follows:
• According to LD White, "the hierarchial structure is the universal use of high and
subordinate relationships by several echelons of responsibilities from top to bottom. “
• According to J.D Millet, “Hierarchy is a method, which combines the efforts of various
people.
• According to Earl Latham, "He is a well-planned arrangement of high and bottom
positions, which extends from bottom to top. "

Features of hierarchy
➢ The hierarchy theory has the following characteristics:
• Under this, all activities are divided into units and sub-units on the basis of division of
labour and specialization.
• This principle follows the principle of unity to the command.
• The basis of the organization is pyramidal.
• It is a principle that coordinates responsibility and power at all levels of the organization.
• This principle vests adequate punishment in each level of the organization.
• It connects all employees at different levels of the organization to the high-subordinate
chain.
• An organization based on hierarchy adheres to the principle of work through proper
means.
• The hierarchical system can easily be understood by the hierarchy system prevalent in the
police department through an example, which is as follows:
Types of hierarchy
➢ Pffifner and Sherwood have given four grounds or types of hierarchical, which is as
follows:
• Functional Hierarchy:
➢ In this system, a person who performs more responsible and important work.
➢ His office is arranged at a higher level and in a declining order as the importance and
responsibility of the work decreases. Under this, the work is made the basis for arranging
the work and the hierarchy is also related to responsibility and authority.
• Rank Hierarchy:

➢ In this system, positions are arranged on certain predetermined reputations as the

position is based on predetermined assumptions, not work and responsibility. This
system is mainly followed in military organizations but is also prevalent in civilian
organizations nowadays.
• Efficiency Hierarchy:
➢ The basis of the term sequence in this system is to create efficiency. Under this, more
skilled employees are arranged at higher levels and less skilled employees at lower levels.
Pay based posting
➢ In this system, the assigning system is constituted on the basis of salary. Thus, higher
salaried are arranged in higher positions and low salaried in lower positions.
Qualities of Hierarchy
The quality of the post can be explained as follows:
➢ Pro. M.P. Sharma has rightly said that “Hierarchy is the thread by which the various
organs of the organisation are threaded together. "
➢ According to Urwick: “hierarchy is a means of organizational coordination and solidarity.
It relates to the structure of the organisation in the same way that cement or slurry is
related to the structure of a building. “
➢ This makes decentralisation and delegation of power possible.
➢ This assures rigorous adherence to the working procedures.
➢ It prevents short functioning by ignoring intermediary contacts.
➢ It establishes a systematic system of communication in the organization.
➢ It makes them accountable by making them responsible in every level and post of the
organization.
➢ The organization is divided into different levels by the post and ensuring who will lead and
who will be responsible. That is, the leadership is determined.
➢ This makes it easier to implement the principle of unity of command in the organization.
➢ The units of the organization are mutually integrated and well-organized in the hierarchy.
Demerits of hierarchy
➢ The following defects are in the hierarchy theory:
• This principle disregards dynamic human relations and also brings unnecessary stiffness
to the organization.
• Hierarchy brings unnecessary delay in performance.
• This principle encourages red tapism under organizations.
• It encourages strict rules and conservatism in the organization, which hampers the spirit
of initiative.
• This system unsuitable for urgent and casual actions
• It provides mechanical format to the organization.
• Due to lack of flexibility in the organization, the people's relations are not developed.
'Gangplank' to remove the demerits of Hierarchy
➢ In a way to remove the defects of hierarchy, Fayol introduced a concept called
‘Gangplank'. Gangplank refers to Level Jumping.
➢ It is also called the bridge system. This ensures better coordination in the organization. In
‘Gangplank', an employee of a department or sub-department can also directly contact the
employee of the Department or sub-department. These contacts can be installed in two
ways- Horizontal or Vertical.
➢ In the rule of ‘Gangplank', an employee named C can contact C and A. An employee
named D can also establish direct contacts.
➢ An employee named A can contact B with C. However, Fayol says that this system can be
implemented only under special circumstances, as the implementation in each case will
eliminate the importance of the organization.

UNITY OF COMMAND
➢ The unity of command literally means having an order, that is, a person is an owner. This
principle stipulates that orders at every level in the organization should be received by an
employee only from one officer and the employee should be responsible to him.
➢ In the organization, if an employee receives two conflicting orders, there will be confusion
before him which will ultimately create inefficiency in the work. Being the source of
orders, it is called the 'principle of unity of command'.
➢ According to Simon: “The unity of the command is to determine a certain person in the
event of a conflict between the two authority orders, which is a subordinate command.”
➢ According to Henry Fayol: "This is the principle that assumes that an employee should be
commanded only by a higher authority. "
➢ According to Dimmock and Dimmock: "The property of a series of instructions is the unity
of the directive, the principle of which is that every employee should have only one
senior.”
➢ According to Pffifner and Presthus: “The concept of unity of command implies that every
member of an organization should be responsible to one and only one leader.”
Features of Unity of Command
The features of unity of command are as follows:
• This principle determines the responsibility of each employee towards the higher
authority.
• It emphasizes compliance with the order of only one determining person in the event of
two mutually contradictory orders.
• This principle is fully linked to the hierarchy system.
• This principle establishes effective control in the system of employer-employee
relationships.
• It makes it easier to effectively inspect, supervise and control the employees.
Merits of Unity of Command

• Henry Fayol has explained the importance of the principle of unity of command, saying
that "the two-headed organism is considered unlucky in the human and animal world and
it is difficult to live life."
• Similarly, in violation of principle of unity of command, power becomes weak, discipline is
in peril and the stability of the organisation is threatened. This principle benefits the
organization in many ways, which are the following:
• This principle makes 'one person one owner’ principle effective for establishing a
systematic system of discipline and control in the organization.
• While this principle helps in the solidarity of the organization, it also facilitates the work of
the organization.
• It can reduce contradictions under the organization.
• It is through this principle that the organization has efficiency and effectiveness.
• Who will follow this principle, who will give the order and which employee will be
accountable to whom, etc., also determines the questions.
Demerits of unity of command
• This principle is opposed to specification, as Simon has said that "the unity of command
and specialization are two different conditions."
• This principle brings rigidity to the organization as this principle emphasizes strict
compliance with the order.
• This principle is not feasible as this principle is not uniformly applicable to all places.
• The hollow usefulness of this principle has been eliminated by the development of
subsidiary agencies.
• This principle does not develop the feelings of initiative in the employees of the
organization.

Elements affecting the principle of unity of command

➢ The following are factors affecting the unity of the command.
• The technical trend of the works and the growing need for specialist agencies have
encouraged specialization instead of unity of command.
• The growing capacity of the subsidiary agencies has given the goods to its usefulness.
• The external relations of an organizations has greatly influenced the principle of unity of
command.

Span of control
➢ The area of control is the Hindi conversion of the 'Span of Control' of English, which
consists of two words span i.e. expansion and control i.e. control.
➢ Span literally means the distance that is formed by spreading a person's thumb and small
finger, while the word control means the power that regulates the order or the conduct
and functioning of the employees.
➢ The span of control in public administration means the number of subordinate employees
over whom the higher authority can effectively control. Many scholars have tried to define
the span of control, which are as follows:
➢ According to Dimmock, "direct and regular communication contact between its principal
officer and its chief-co-officers in an enterprise is called the span of control. “
➢ According to Hamilton, "Normally a human can effectively control the brain by three to
six. "
➢ In Urwick's words, "a person can successfully control the actions of more than five or six
supporting employees." “
➢ According to Henry Fayol, "managers must be at least five or six subordinates under the
supervisor's control."
Features of Span of control
The characteristics of the span of control are as follows:
• The span of control is based on the unity of command of the organization's and is closely
linked to it.
• This sector is influenced by many formal and informal elements.
• This area is directly related to the quality of work.
• This area relates to the formal boundary lines of ordering and complying with the
organization.

• The number of victims (in terms of objectives of the organization) is determined by the
span of control.
Determination of span of control
• Various scholars are not unanimous about the number of subordinates in the
organization. Various scholars have expressed their different views on how many
subordinates can have good control at a time in the higher authority organization, which
are as follows:
• According to Hamilton 3–4
• According to Fayol 5–6
• According to P Devaraj 8 – 10
• According to Ramaswamy Shekharan 12
• The span of control is interpreted by the renowned scholar Urwick by the degree of
responsibility. According to them: "High responsibility reduces the span of control and
the lack of responsibility broadens the span of control. That is why they have clarified the
area of control at different levels of the organisation. According to:
• High Level - 4 – 6
• Mid-level - 6 – 8
• Low Level - 8 – 12
• While the ideal number of controls considers 4, the Grakunaz is 5.
Factors affecting the span of control

The following factors affecting the area of Nikon are:
Personality
• The span of control affects the personality of the higher authority. If the higher authority is
of an influential personality, he can control more persons and if the higher authority is of a
less influential personality, the lower persons will be controlled.
Period
• The span of control also affects the organization of age i.e. The older the organization, the
higher the capacity to control the higher authority, the higher the capacity, the more the
old organisation will be well-known to the working, the rules and the procedures and the
subordinate employees will be fully acquainted with them, while in the new organisation,
the situation will be totally opposite.
Place of origin
➢ If the units are located nearby, the limit of control of the higher authority increases or if
the units are far and away to the organization, the control capacity is limited or reduced.
Nature of work
➢ If there are functions of the same nature under the organisation and subordinates do the
same kind of work, the higher authorities can easily control them and the number of
subordinates will also be higher.
Family Circumstances
➢ The high officer also affects family conditions. If there are adverse family conditions
➢ The high authority will not be able to control his subordinates or if there are favourable
conditions, the control area is increased and he can also control more subordinates.
Technique of supervision
If all the high modern techniques are received by the higher authority, it also increases its area
and also controls more subordinates.
Facility Of Delegation
➢ If the facility is available to the higher officer, he can transfer some of his works and rights
to others. This reduces his workload and can easily control the subordinates.
➢ On the contrary, in the absence of delegation facility, the span of control is reduced
because all the work has to be done by itself.
➢ Greycoonaz ideas on the span of control

➢ Renowned scholar V.A. Grekunaz in his articles, has analysed the theory of control based
on the psychology theory 'the limits of attention'.
➢ He said that there is a limit to take care of various activities. Controlling subordinates in
the organization means taking care of the different relationships that arise between the
upper subordinates. According to Grakunaz, three kinds of relationships develop between
the high officer and the subordinate working in any organization. They are-
➢ Direct single relation
➢ Direct group relationship
➢ Oblique relationship
➢ Number of direct single relationships
➢ Grakunaz recognizes that there is a geometric increase in the number of relationships that
develop between high-subordinates when there is a numerical increase in the number of
subordinates. Through his sources, he clarified that 5 subordinates of any higher
authority are increased to 6
➢ So there is a 122% increase in the number of relationships that develop between high-
subordinates. It supports only 23% of the work of the sixth subordinate higher authority
while the high authority increases the work by 122%.
➢ Automation has started to be used in offices as a result of the growth in the technical
sector in recent years. The administration receives proper and pure facts and information
through computer and electronic machines at a very fast pace. Of course, mechanical
automation has increased the range of control and it is now possible for an officer to
control the work of more employees.

Centralization and decentralization

➢ Centralization and decentralisation is an important concept of the principle of
organization. In the 21st century, there is a challenge before any government to promote
centralisation or decentralisation, as it determines.
➢ How is the nature of decision-making power? Centralization emphasizes power and
dominance while decentralization emphasizes competition, self-determination and
participation, etc.
Centralization
➢ Centralization is the principle of an organization in which rights and powers are central to
the high level of the organization. That is, any policy formulation, decision making,
implementation of policies, evaluation of policies, etc., are done by high level officers.
➢ The lower level of decision-making in any organization, the organization will be more
centralized. Centralization mainly emphasizes authority, power, dominance, increasing
discretionary powers, etc. Centralization is essential for security and defence, economic
planning and national integration.
➢ Centralization by scholars is defined as follows: "Local units act only as caretaker
agencies in a highly centralized system, according to Willoughby's view. They have no
power to act through their initiative... All the work is done on behalf of the Central Office."
➢ According to Henry Fayol, "all the steps that are taken to reduce the role of subordinates
in the organization are covered by centralization. According to Luis A. Alan, centralization
means that most decisions in terms of the work to be done are not taken by individuals
who are working, but are taken at a higher point of organization. "
➢ In the words of L.D. White, "the process of shifting of high-level and administrative power
from the lower floor of the government is called centralization, decentralizing is its
opposite process."
Merits of Centralization
The properties of centralization are as follows:

• Centralization has the quality of effective control over all rights and powers that
subordinate did not work as per their discretion.
• The process of centralization brings uniformity in the administrative structure.
• Centralization promotes austerity as the number of officers and staff in the administrative
organization is low.
• It is easy to cope with emergency situations and crises through centralization.
• Through this, secrecy of schemes and proposals can be maintained.
• It is easier to have better communication and coordination through centralization.
• The process of centralization facilitates citizen services and facilitates all administrative
processes.
• The national interest in centralization is given top priority as it is necessary to maintain
security and defence and unity and integrity of the nation.
Demerits of centralization
The drawbacks of centralization are as under:
• Centralization is more likely to make mistakes in any decision or policy making and also
lacks prevalence.
• The process of centralization leads to delay in work as various types of work are collected
at the central level which are not properly implemented.
• The principle of centralization is becoming irrelevant in the 21st century as it weakens
democratic values.
• At the same time, complications are increasing in the work of the organization.
• The process of centralization lacks flexibility in administration and promotes red tapism in
the organization. The centralization keeps all the powers gathered in one place so that the
benefit of the citizens at the local level is not available to the organization.

Decentralization
• Decentralization is also an important concept of the principle of organization. It has many
levels of policy formulation and decision making in a association. Decentralization is
necessary to promote people's participation and local autonomy in the organization.
• That is, decentralization is the process in which transfer of rights and powers is done from
a higher level to a lower level to ensure greater participation of people in decision making,
policy formulation, implementation and evaluation. It emphasizes the values of
competition, self-determination, participation, etc.
• Decentralization has been adopted in India, the ideal example of which is the
establishment of Panchayati Raj. At the same time, it is imperative to adopt
decentralization to strengthen Indian democracy. At present, there are four forms of
decentralization which include administrative, functional, political and geographical.
• According to Henry Fayol, "whatever steps are taken to enhance the importance of the
role of the subordinate class, they all come under decentralization. In the words of Koontz
and O'Donnell, “Decentralization of authority is the primary aspect of delegation and the
extent to which rights are not delegated are centralized."
Merits of Decentralization
➢ The qualities of decentralization can be understood as follows:
• The adoption of decentralization can achieve flexibility in administration.
• The process of decentralization does not delay the functions of the organization as local
and regional organizations are set up for implementation of policies.
• The decentralized administration transfers the work which reduces the pressure of work
on the higher authorities and gives more attention to important issues.
• The process of decentralization does not delay the functions of the organization as local
and regional organizations are set up for implementation of policies.
• The decentralized administration transfers the work which reduces the pressure of work
on the higher authorities and gives more attention to important issues.
• Decentralization is necessary to strengthen democracy because it has more and more

people's participation.
Demerits of decentralization
The drawbacks of decentralization are as follows:
• The process of decentralization is a lack of effective control at a low level of high level.
• The process of decentralization involves more and more people in the administration or
organization, resulting in a huge increase in administrative expenditure.
• The plethora of people in the organization is seen to be better coordinated and lack of
communication.
• The process of decentralization lacks uniformity in the organization.
• One of the drawbacks of decentralization is that it promotes local interest instead of
national interest.

Co-ordination
➢ Coordination is an important principle of the organization. Henry Fayol has regarded
coordination as an act of manager. According to these, coordination can easily simplify
the actions of an organization and the administration can succeed in achieving its
objectives.
Meaning
➢ Coordination means establishes proper relationships, adjustments and synergies in
various activities to meet the objectives of an organization. It is the function of managing
to integrate different departments, employees and groups in an organization.
➢ To provide maximum services at a minimum cost. Coordination is the determinant
principle of the organisation which incorporates all other principles. This is the beginning
and end of all kinds of efforts.
➢ It starts from the stage of planning to the direction, control, budgeting, etc. of the
organization. The following definitions of coordination are stated by various scholars: In
White's words, "Coordination means adjustment of various parts and also timely
adjustment of its activities so that each part can contribute its maximum to full
production. "
➢ According to Mooney and Railley, "coordination is to coordinate collective efforts with a
view to harmony and maintain synergy in various actions to be undertaken to meet a
common objective. “
➢ In Newman's words, "coordination is concerned with systematically linking and uniformity
to the actions of a group of individuals." "
➢ According to Charlesworth, "coordination implies integration of different parts into a
systematic way to achieve the purpose of the organization."
➢ According to Henry Fayyol, "coordination is to coordinate all its actions to facilitate and
succeed the functioning of an institution. "

Features
The features of coordination are as follows:
• Coordination is a function of management.
• It is a collective action involving all officers, employees and managers.
• Coordination is a continuous and dynamic process as there is a need for coordination in
any organization.
• Coordination brings uniformity in the activities of the administration so that the work
becomes simpler.
• Better coordination makes it possible to establish an effective communication in
administration.
• Coordination avoids duplication in administrative activities.
• There is also a need for internal coordination as well as external coordination in an
administration.
• The process of coordination encourages collaborative sentiments in the organization.
Methods of Coordination
There are several methods of coordinating administration, which are as follows:
• In any administration, high officials order and coordinate with their subordinates through
administrative procedures.
• Coordination between officers and staff is done through planning.
• Committees are constituted to carry out special functions of the administration. These
committees play an important role in establishing coordination in administration.
• The Cabinet and Cabinet Secretariat coordinates the administration.
• The establishment of a better communication system promotes coordination in the
organization.

• High officials supervise the functions of their subordinates. Coordination in

administration is achieved through this process of supervision.
• Coordination is established through personal contact. The role of a district collector in a
district.
• The organization is also coordinated through a sentimental appeal.
Barriers to coordination
• Coordination is necessary for any organization which leads to the development of work
and a collaborative spirit. It is challenging to establish a better coordination in the
organization. Some of the constraints are as follows:
• Greater increase in the functions of any organization causes difficulty in coordinating with
various officers and employees.
• The larger the size of the organization creates obstacles in establishing travel.
• The expansion of control creates hurdles in the coordination.
• Due to lack of decentralization in the organization, coordination is created.

SUPERVISION
➢ A number of levels have been fixed for smooth completion of the work in any
organization. These posts also include supervision which play an important role in the
organization. Liberalisation, privatization the organization's actions are increasing in the
age of globalisation.
➢ Also, complications are increasing in the organization's methods, procedure, tools,
techniques, etc. The importance of supervision is increased.
Meaning
➢ Supervision means inspecting the functions of the other. That is, directing others with
power is called supervision. For their subordinates and by their subordinates and lower
officers by the high officials in an organization or administration.
➢ The work of officers and staff is inspected. This inspection can be both positive or
negative in nature. It performs superintendent, communication, control and leadership,
etc., towards the functions of subordinates to establish better coordination in the
organization.
➢ Through supervision, the high authorities establish control over the officers. At the same
time, he is a friend, philosopher and a guide to the personnel. It can thus be said that
supervision is such a process.
➢ Under which the employees are assisted by a higher authority in learning according to
their needs and aspirations, making the best use of their knowledge and skills and
improving their abilities so that they do their work more effectively and they can get
satisfaction with themselves and the organization.
➢ The following definitions are given in the context of supervision by various scholars:
• According to Terry & Franklin: "Supervision means guiding and directing the efforts and
other resources of employees to achieve the desired work outcome."

Importance
The importance of observation is as follows:
• Control over the lower officers is established by the higher authorities through the
environment.
• The supervisor acts as a link between managers and employees.
• The person is a friend, philosopher and guide to his employees.
• The supervisor motivates their employees to achieve the goals of the organisation.
• Better communication coordination is achieved in the organization through supervision.
• Better supervision helps in determining policies for the organization.
Techniques of supervision
Technology helps in accomplishing a task. Millet has outlined the following techniques of
supervision:
• Prior approval of the schemes: It is the duty of any supervisor to obtain approval from his
senior officer before working in the context of any scheme.
• Setting a certain level of different services: This technology determines a level of
employees working in the organization by the supervisor to meet the objectives of the
organization.
• Appointment of subordinate staff: In this technology, the work should be done with
supervisory technology in the context of appointment of employees so as to provide
better communication and coordination.
• Control income and expenditure: It should control income and expenditure to ensure
smooth functioning of the organization. The minimum expenditure for execution of works
by an observer should be determined.
Seeking a report: It is necessary for the supervisor to continue to seek the progress report
of the work of the organization so as to fix the accountability of the subordinates as well
as to know the status of work progress.
• Inspecting: This is the most effective technique of environment in which the supervisor
inspects the functions of the following officers and provides appropriate suggestions.
Duties and Responsibilities of the Supervisor
➢ The supervisor plays an important role in the organization, towards the work of the
organization, towards the colleagues of the employees and its duties and responsibilities
towards its senior officers. H. Nissen has stated the following duties and responsibilities
of the Supervisor:
➢ The supervisor should take care of his duty and responsibility and work under it.
➢ To plan for better doing the work of the organization.
➢ To improve the functioning and procedures of the organization.
➢ To distribute and instruct the work among their subordinate employees in the
organization.
➢ The supervisor is expected to evaluate the work of the employees in the organization to
improve their knowledge as a technical expert.
➢ To impart training to their subordinates by the supervisor.
➢ To impart training to their subordinates by the supervisor.
➢ To correct the mistakes of subordinates and employees in the organization and to solve
their problems, as well as to maintain discipline in the organization.
➢ To act as a partner of employees in the organization as well as to seek their advice and
assistance if required.
➢ To provide information to subordinates and employees about the policies and procedures
of the organization by the supervisor.
➢ A skilled supervisor is expected to effectively deal with the suggestions and grievances of
his subordinates and employees.
Important Facts

➢ According to G.D. Mooney, "the structure of every human community that is formed to
achieve a common mission is called an organization. "
➢ The basis of the organization is purpose, procedure, person and region.
➢ McKinsey ‘7S' model is politics, structure, system, skills, style, employee and shared
value.
➢ The gradual series of posts and levels of an organization is called Hierarchy.
➢ According to L.D. White, "the process of transfer of administrative power from the lower
floor of the government to the higher floor is called centralization, decentralizing its
opposite process." “
➢ According to Simon, "informal organization means interpersonal relationships in the
organization, which affect its internal decisions." "
➢ Direct and regular communication contact between its principal officer and its chief-cum-
officers in an organization remains an area of control.
➢ The factors affecting the area of control are personality, duration, location, nature of work,
family conditions, technique of supervision and facilitation of delegation.
➢ Centralization makes it easier to cope with emergency situations and crises. According to
Hale, the organization is a structure of relationship between different situations of the
structure and between the individuals who take up different positions.
➢ Coordination is concerned with systematically linking and uniformity of the functions of a
group or individuals.
➢ Greater increase in the functions of any organization creates difficulty in coordinating with
various officers and employees.
➢ Delegation means empowering and other persons to do the job.
➢ Directing the other's actions in collaboration with power is called supervision.

New dimensions of public

management
➢ The concept of management is very old, because even in ancient times, scholars and
thinkers have been expressing their views on management. According to them, the
principle of administrative management is appropriate for the efficient functioning of the
human organization and the administrative functions of the State.
➢ Ultimately, the concept of continuity and change in human civilization as well as
management changed. The concept developed as a modern management is becoming
prevalent in today's developing era.
Management : Meaning, Features, Nature and

Importance
➢ Management is the process in which all the activities of the administration are adjusted,
planned and analysed. The success and failure of an organization depends on
management. A manager plays the role of leadership in the organization. He performs
policy making, decision making, coordination, etc. in the organization.
Meaning
• Management is the process of successfully carrying out various activities for production
in any organization. Through this, the organization is streamlined, organized and sorted
out.
• At the same time, the targets are achieved by planning, coordinating and controlling the
necessary activities. In addition, management refers to the need to visualize and achieve
the goals required by collective efforts for human skills and use of resources.
• Theo Heyman has given three meanings of management: firstly, management means the
work of the management officers under which control of the work of the people working in
the organization concerned.

• Secondly, management means science in which scientific analysis of the principles of

business planning, organization, operation, coordination, motivation and control is done.
• Thirdly, the manager refers to a process under which emphasis is given to work together
with others. In addition, the views of various scholars are as follows: "Management is the
dynamic and life-delivery element of every business," in the words of Peter F. Drucker.
➢ In the absence of its leadership, the means of genesis are only the means, never become
production.
• According to Henry Fayol, "Managing means forecasting and planning, organizing,
directing, coordinating and controlling."
• According to Joseph L. Messi, "Management is the process by which a cooperative group
directs the work towards a common purpose."
• According to McFarland, "Management is the process by which managers create purpose-
backed organizations through systematic, coordinated and cooperative efforts.
Features
▪ Analysis of definitions of management shows the following characteristics:
• Management is a social process which relates to the common man.
• Management is an action that is accomplished by man. This is a continuous process.
• Management has both art and science characteristics.
• Under management, importance is given to the group by not giving importance to a
particular person.
• It is required at all levels. Such as high-level, middle-level and low-level.
• Management is a profession because it also has its own principles, policies and rules.
This knowledge is used by the manager to achieve the objectives of the organization.
• Managerial principles and functions are uniformly applicable in all types of organizations.
• Management is ecological, it is influenced by both internal and bound environments.

• The results, arrangements, discipline and production of the organization's efforts are
carried out through management.
• Special qualifications are required to complete the management process. A technically
skilled and experienced person can conduct the system of an organization.
Nature
Management as Art
Art means a method of doing anything in the best way to achieve the objectives efficiently. Theo
Heyman says that art is a way of working and a method of behaving.
➢ From the following points we can understand management as an art, as-
• Personal ability: The personal qualities of the manager such as confidence, creativity,
foresight, optimism, mobility, leadership and decision-making are very helpful in
achieving the objectives of the organization.
• Practical use of knowledge: Management makes practical use of its managerial knowledge
to solve the problems of the organization.
• Transfer is not possible: Transfer of management art is not possible as it is subjective.
Each manager develops it with their own efforts.
• Success: The basis of success of management art is the manager's personal tact,
knowledge and experience.
• Coincidental approach: The style of management and the technical conditions vary. The
approach and method of management is always according to the problem.
• Need for practice: Management arts depend to a large extent on practice and experience.
Peter Tuker believes management is a behavior. Its development is from behaviour and it
focuses on behaviour.
• The art of getting the work done: Management is the art of actually certifying and
motivating the employees to do the work.

• Elastic principles: The principles of management can be developed but their chances of
standing up to 100% depend on the circumstances.
Management as Science
Science is a group of organized and systematic knowledge based on facts, tests and
experiments. Science explains the causes and consequences of related events. Science has
universal laws, findings and foundations that are authentic and tested.
➢ It is possible to test and transfer a scientific knowledge group.
➢ The nature of the science of management can be understood by the following reason:
➢ Development of principles: After various experiments and observations, scholars have
developed management principles, methods and techniques. Such as the administrative
principle of Fayol, the scientific management theory of Taylor, the human relationship
theory of Elton Mayo, etc.
➢ Organized and orderly knowledge: Knowledge of management is organized and orderly.
Which can be duly studied. It is divided into various branches such as production
management, finance management, marketing management, etc.
➢ Universality: The principles of management are equally applicable in different countries
and organizations.
➢ Managerial knowledge is needed in all working groups and human society.
➢ Reason and Outcome Relationship: At present, the management system is based on
ideology, which emphasizes the cause and outcome of every situation. Performance,
decision making, motivation, control, morale, cost-benefit analysis etc. by any manager
are based on the cause and outcome relationship.
➢ Use of scientific methods: The working methods of 21st century managers are based on
experiments, tests and observations, not based on intuition or traditions. The managers
use logic, analysis and many scientific analyses, etc., in a decision.

Both art and science

➢ The findings of various thinkers, definitions, meanings, etc., indicate that the management
shows the characteristics of both art and science.
➢ Stanley Teeli believes that at present management is 90 per cent art and 10 per cent
science and science is developing day by day in the modern era. According to Taylor, the
management has 75 percent science and 25 percent art.
➢ Thus, it can be said that management is a combination of both art and science and its
ratio varies according to the circumstances. Many a time, the manager needs not science
but managerial art such as creative, inference belief, tactful use of knowledge, etc., in
solving the problems of the organization.
➢ The nature of management is not art and science, but it complements each other. The
development of science also leads to the development of art. Robert N. Hilkert believes
that both art and science in the management field are two sides of the same coin.
➢ Similarly, a manager who works without principle has to depend on luck, intuition and
earlier functions. But with organized knowledge, he can find a practical and robust way of
managerial problem.
Importance
➢ Often, any kind of business in which ownership is private, cooperative or state requires
management, i.e., if any work is organized and collectively done, there is a need for
managing the direction, integration and success of collective efforts.
➢ Management is probably considered to be the functional power of the organization. The
economic welfare of the society in the India Management Organisation also depends on
efficient management. For the same, the national government in India adopts a policy of a
mixed economy for economic development.
➢ A scholar has rightly said that "management is the brain and soul of the body without
which it is impossible to operate the industry."
➢ The characteristic of managing in administration can be understood through the following
facts:

➢ Management is mostly related to the performance of a task, which provides proper

guidance for others to work.
➢ Management helps to work on a platform in a particular area.
➢ The managerial work for management is entrusted to the middle class and lower class
executives.
➢ Management enables employees to achieve leadership, motivation and control tasks and
objectives and make the business life and functional.
➢ Management is generally proven as the brain and breathing organs of the executive
institution. Public administration as well as private and public industries in India also
provide managerial training at their own level.
➢ The Government of India established an Industrial Management Association in 1957 to
meet the demand of managers at the high level. In this context, an All India Management
Council in New Delhi and the Indian Institutes of Management set up at Ahmedabad and
Kolkata are imparting managerial education.
➢ The All India Management Council organized by the All India Management Council in 1971
acknowledged that management plays an important role in the structure of social changes
taking place in the country. Therefore, a high level of management can be considered
helpful for addressing industrial and commercial and administrative complexities in India.

New Public Management: Meaning

and Features
➢ The changing global environment of the 21st century is witnessing a change in the field of
public administration. The changing paradigm of pause, such as the neo-liberal system, is
limiting the nature of the state and the rise of marketism.
➢ In the era of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation, the relevance of the beliefs of
public administration has been reduced and new principles and beliefs have developed. In
this context, the new public management was born in the decade 1990. Christopher Hood
first used this word.
Meaning
➢ The concept of public management is not a new concept, public management has been a
matter of discussion for the last three decades.
➢ While new public management reduces the role of the State in society and economy while
seeking to establish an enterprising government. The main focus of new public
management is on management, performance and efficiency.
➢ Efforts are made to achieve the goal of 3Es of innovative public management- efficiency,
economy and effectiveness. The new public management depends on public choice
ideology and management theory.
➢ It is a concept based on the importance of private sector and market management. It
incorporates a competitive element in public administration. New public management
supports market domination over the state. Through this, the vacancy that will be created
by the shrinking of the public officer machinery will be filled up by the market.
➢ New public management criticizes Weber's bureaucratic paradigm and rejects monopolies
while the market is committed to prices.

Features
▪ Mohit Bhattacharya has features of innovative public management:
• Instead of policy, the management is focused on executor evaluation and work efficiency.
• Dissolution of public bureaucracy into agencies which work on contract basis.
• The use of semi-markets and competition by contract are encouraged.
• To make public administration frugal by reducing expenditure.
• A system of management which provides output targets, short-term contracting,
economic incentives and management autonomy.
From traditional public administration to innovative public

management
• Emphasis on managing rather than policy
• Market-oriented rather than state-oriented
• Decentralization rather than centralization
• Maximum public participation rather than public neglect
• Flexible organization rather than rigid organization
• Simple task process rather than complex task process
• Emphasis on cuts rather than increases in public expenditure
• Neglect of hierarchy instead of insisting on hierarchy
• Preventing the problem from occurring instead of insisting on diagnosing the problem
• Emphasis on facts rather than values
• Emphasizing practical and functioning administrative systems rather than idealistic and
legal administrative systems, Osborne and Gabler mentioned 10 features for the

Entrepreneurial Government (Government Entrepreneurial) in their famous masterpiece

'Re-inventing Government' (1992), which is as follows:
• Catalytic Government
• Government of Community Ownership (Community owned Government)
• Competitive Government
• Service Sponsored Government
• Result oriented government
• Customer oriented government
• Working government
• Forecast Government
• Decentralized government
• Market oriented government
• Christopher Hood explains the following features related to 'New Public Management'
Awadh Garna in his famous research essay A Public Management for AII Seasons:
• Emphasis on adopting professional arrangements in the field of Public Administration.
• Following the management style of the private sector in the field of public administration.
• To be oriented towards competition, to cut costs and to increase the level of product and
service.
• Emphasis on standard setting, work measurement and targeting.
• Concerns about the product related to resource allocation.
• Discipline and economy in consumption of resources.

Principle
• The bureaucracy should be converted into a result oriented organization in which the
manager will be accountable for achieving the goal and results.
• Words like reduction in the size of the government, reducing the workload of bureaucracy,
speedy performance, results, productivity and accountability are beginning to reverberate
in the field of public administration.
• It was a response to the public bureaucracy and its dismal performance, as the public
bureaucracy became a currency of severe criticism due to the rigour of the rules, the work
latency, the dryness of the administrators, the inadequacy of services and corruption.
• At present, the new paradigm, which is addressed in the name of 'New Public
Management' paradigm, has been accepted. This paradigm emphasizes the role of public
managers in the public sector to provide a high level of services for citizens
• For which they should be given managerial autonomy to work to reduce the control of the
central agency. It emphasizes on early diagnosis of personal and organizational problems
and rewarding achievements.
• It has focused on the dimensions of 'service oriented government' and 'market oriented
government'. The slogan is 'first service'. Reorienting Governance of Resilience and
Governance.
Following are some key idea components of the 'New Public Management'
paradigm which is totally different from the traditional style of administration:
1. To provide high level service to the citizens who respect them.
2. To provide autonomy to managers for providing high level standard service.
3. Rigorous evaluation of achievements of individuals and organizations and measurement
rewards or salary structure will be the basis of performance.
4. To provide appropriate human and technical support to successful managerial
achievements.
5. To decide with an open mind what is possible to be done properly in the public sector or
in the private sector.
▪ The principles of having important links in new public management are as follows:
• Professional management of humanity determination and achievements.
• Conversion of large public sector units into small units.
• Output control.
• To promote greater competition in the public sector.
• Discipline or over force.
• Adoption of manageable systems of the private sector.
Criticism
• The main focus of 'New Public Management' is towards market-oriented and privatisation,
but its critics are of the view that public management is of a specific type which cannot be
achieved by the market.
• In developing countries, it is being seen as neo-colonialism and social justice, eradication
of social disparities, etc., are some of the subjects where the state can play a positive role
rather than market forces.
• While the new public management is also ready to accept the negative features of private
management, it does not appreciate the great contributions and positive side of public
administration. It is not sensitive to concepts like public interest and welfare state. It does
administrative in matters relating to public.
• In fact, the new public management considers the market as the right choice of the
government and insists on adopting the values and techniques of private administration,
while private administration can never become an alternative or approach to public
administration.
• Thus, the new public management tries to take the public administration in a neo-tailorist
direction. It commercializes the public sector by norms such as semi-market competitive
tendering, work measurement, selection by the consumer.

• New public management offers an alternative to the state as a market. It accepts

privatisation and all the assumptions contained in it. It is to influence the functioning and
culture of the private sector on public administration.

New Dimensions of Public Administration

➢ This question arises between the traditional bureaucratic monopoly and the diversity of
public administration, reflecting globally, social, economic, political and technological
changes, complications and the collapse of socialism, including the information
technology revolution.
➢ Can today's public administration live up to the aspirations and expectations of the
society? Though the movement of the new public administration also arose with these
questions, the movement of new public management is timely and logical.
➢ According to Richard Common, new public management is a movement synonymous with
occasional administrative changes.
➢ Thus it can be said that the life of the 21st century exposes the following characteristics:
➢ Having high aspirations of the people.
➢ People are becoming impatient, that is, patience is decreasing in the people.
➢ Consciousness or awareness is increasing in people.
➢ High level technical skills are being disseminated.
➢ Flexible and friendly structures are being created.
➢ Simplified but goal-oriented procedures are being followed, which can achieve higher
goals.
➢ At the global level, there is a growing proximity and harmony in economies.
➢ Important issues like human rights, human resource development, tackling environmental
terrorism and freedom from gender discrimination are emerging.
➢ The features described above indicate that in a changed environment, the public
administration of developing countries is not competent enough to solve these problems.
Warren Bennis' idea here also seems relevant.
➢ That in the next 25-30 years, we will become partners in the collapse of bureaucracy and a
new system will be born. However, this prophecy of Bennis has not been entirely true.
However, it is also true that the discussion of Debureaucratisaton is being emphasized

today.
➢ This is the central thinking of new public management.
➢ In fact, the 21st century is synonymous with a knowledge-based society that underlines
Winston Churchill's statement: "The emperor of the future will be the emperor of ideas. '
➢ The report of the National Performance Review (1993) constituted by the President to
control red tapism and over-bureaucratization in the United States was as follows:
➢ The supervisory staff should be reduced and the technical personnel working at the
grassroots level (who actually carry out the work) should be given more freedom to re-
appropriation the departments internally.
➢ The performance evaluation system should be made more effective.
➢ The number of personnel should be reduced by 50%.
➢ Agencies providing services to children, minorities and the unemployed should provide
services in an integrated and effective form.
➢ The Department should publish standards for the services of its subscribers and ensure
proper and immediate redressal of grievances.
➢ Annual performance agreements may be entered into between the President and
departments or agencies.
➢ The Departments should survey the views of the consumers and take care of the cost
norms of the response received in all activities.
➢ Each department should provide a separate budget for innovation.
Changes in public management began to emerge in the 1980s-

90s, especially in western countries.
The following elements were the result:
• Information Revolution

• Seeking high quality service in society

• Intense competition
• Liberalization, globalization, etc.
• Thus, the liberalization policies that existed in the 1990s are bound to result in the trend of
public administration and its impact on the subject sector.
• This innovative revised change in public sector managements was termed as New
management which is also analysed as market-based public administration or business
governance. Therefore, in the context of new public management, priority was given to the
interaction of public administration and external economic environment.
New public management lays special emphasis on three objectives which
are termed as 3E's which are as follows:
• E- Efficiency
• E- Economy
• E- Effectiveness
New public management beliefs are emphasized towards achieving these
objectives:
➢ To focus on emphasis and achievement assessment and administrative efficiency on
management rather than policy.
➢ The public officers' machinery is to be divided under various agencies which can conduct
their operations on payment basis.
➢ The contract work is to be conducted using semi-market factors to promote competition.
➢ Special emphasis should be given on cost reduction to make public administration less
expensive.
➢ Measures such as production targets of management, monetary incentives, limited
contract and autonomy of management will also have to be focused.

➢ Western countries have decided to move towards the following changes in behaviour by
cautiously addressing this innovative dimension of public management:
• Improving public management by performance measurement and evaluation
• Reducing budgets
• Reducing the size of the government
• Privatizing public enterprises
• Award of Contracts in selected service areas
• Empowerment of Citizens
• Limiting the role of the state
• Bring transparency and openness
• Optimisation of Information and Communication Technology in Administration
• Encouraging Government Employees to Produce Maximum
• Solving problems such as administrative and political corruption
• Providing a high level of service
• Emphasis on efficiency and effectiveness by reducing excess of rules
• Preparing for competition in the market
• Focusing on achieving profit by preserving public interest
• The 'New Public Management' concept emphasizes the adoption of techniques in public
administration that are being adopted in the private sector. It emphasizes the growth of
competition and decentralization for public sector agencies.
• Improving the management of human resources, ensuring work control and
accountability, emphasizing outcomes in place of procedures, deviating from policy
management and austerity in public expenditure, etc.

Management of Change in Public Management

• Change and development are the basic principles of nature. Every human being has to
undergo a constant dynamic process of change. It is necessary to adjust itself according
to the changed circumstances and environment.
• If not, he may face many actions and challenges in his group and society.
• Like human beings their is a constant change and development in a world.
• Organizational effectiveness in a dynamic environment requires changes and adjustments
in the policies, programmes and decisions of the organization. Do not recognize human
attitudes to the changes that occur under the organization and never even be aware of
them.
• We can also resist those changes and sometimes the change is so fast that we don't
recognize them for years and sometimes the wave of change is so intense that we are not
able to breathe before it.
• It is necessary to take constant care of the change and adjust the organization
accordingly. According to Kotter and Silinger, portfolios of most companies or large
corporations must adopt revised organizational changes once a year and every four-five
years.
• Change is not only necessary for organizational survival but also a challenge.
• The concept of planned change that is applied to such a change is known as
organizational development.
The forms of changes can be understood as follows:
✓ There is a mechanical change in the organization.
✓ There is a change in the technical and methods of work.
✓ There is a change in the size of the organization.
✓ There is a change in the employees, that is, they are made more efficient and effective.

✓ There is a change in formal and informal organisations.

✓ Organizational change is in any form, their objectives are difficult to define in full, but they
are naturally associated with the objectives of the organization. Graver and Bannes have
described the following features of organizational change:
▪ Changes in the organization make better execution of tasks possible.
▪ New methods and rules are approved.
▪ There is an increase in the motivation of the employees.
▪ Development of Concepts.
▪ There is an increase in collaborative tendency in the completion of tasks.
▪ Since then, the labour turnover is harmed.
➢ It is a difficult task to change the environment of the organization. The uncertainty and
social imbalance that arises due to change sometimes leads to a situation of disruption in
change.
➢ Van and Suchman have outlined the following reasons for their opposition to organization
changes:
• Over-decentralization of power and control
• Having a relaxed communication system.
• Lack of planning.
• Having limited integrity.
• Spread of fear and discomfort.
• Creation of small states.

Patterns used in the transformation of the organization

➢ Organization is an ongoing process in which continuous change take place. Management
of change supports the progress of predetermined objectives by making the organization
structure dynamic. Although change is often opposed
➢ Thus, it is absolutely necessary for the manager to have knowledge of the proper process
of change.
➢ It is very important to adopt a constructive approach to end the opposition to change.
➢ It may be beneficial to focus on a group in place of a person as a fundamental unit of
change under this approach. This is because adaption of change is not entirely an
individual element.
➢ Certainly, the power of this element and its direction are influenced by the social
conditions of the group in which it exists.
➢ Everybody is a social creature and he is a member of some group or the other.
➢ Thus, his actions, attitudes, aspirations and actions have the effect of the beliefs and rules
laid down by the group.
➢ Kurt Levin has presented the effective transformation process as a three-tier arrangement.
These are three levels-
➢ First, to highlight the problem, make necessary changes and re-cover the various
equipment's of the organization simultaneously. In the first phase, the person experiences
the need for change.
➢ Therefore, it is necessary to create some of the circumstances by which individuals try to
find a new path to satisfy their need. New routes are found for change.
➢ Thus, some efforts are made to ensure that the new methods of work have necessarily
been accepted. But the state of change is considered to be a semi-sedentary equilibrium
position

➢ Which has both favorable and unfavorable powers of change. All these powers are vested
in groups. Levin has first pointed to the concept that his conduct as a member of the
group should change rather than convert a person into a private form.
➢ Because as long as the group's beliefs and criteria remain unchanged, it will continue to
resist the change of everyone concerned. On the contrary, when the recognition and
criteria of the group will be changed.
➢ Then, because of the close relationship between the person and the group, the conflict
will automatically ends. Thus, conflicts with planned changes can be eliminated.
The principles of having important links in new public management are as follows:
➢ Professional management of humanity determination and achievements.
➢ Conversion of large public sector units into small units
Important Facts
• According to Henry Fayol, "Managing means forecasting and planning, organizing,
directing, coordinating and controlling."
• Management is the process of successfully editing various activities for production in any
organization.
• Management has the characteristics of both art and science.
• Under management, the importance of a group is given by not giving importance to a
particular person.
• The nature of management can be art, science or both.
• The knowledge of management is organized and streamlined which can be duly studied.
• The word ‘ New public management ' was first used by Christopher Hood.
• The main focus of new public management is efficiency, economy and effectiveness.
• More emphasis is given on discipline in new public management
• Change from the organization makes better execution of the works possible.
• Kurt Lebin has described a three-tier system of effective transformation process-

identifying the problem, making necessary changes and covering the various equipments
of the organization simultaneously.

Development Administration
➢ The concept of development administration is a reflection of modern public
administration. The emergence of the newly independent states (especially Asia, Africa
and Latin America) after World War II expanded its territory and obligation.
➢ Under its obligation, the work of nation building, social, economic, political and public
assistance has been given primacy, thereby reducing the distance between the
administration and the citizens.
➢ At the same time, a comparative study was conducted from the administration of
developed countries for reforms in the administrative structure of the newly independent
nations, and the most credit goes to Riggs.
➢ The first use of the term 'development administration' was the first use by the U.L.
Goswami. He used this word in one of his articles 'The Structure of Public Administration
in India'. The credit for a detailed interpretation of this word goes to American scholars.
➢ A comparative administrative group was formed under the American Society for Public
Administration to test administrative trends in developing nations. The group made the
developing nations of the Third World their study point for research in the field of
development administration.
➢ Also focused on the study of the administrative problems of these nations (in terms of
social, political, economic and cultural environment). The group was created by Fred W.
Riggs, who, by his own effort, established the Development Administration as a study
subject.
➢ The exponents of development administration are George Gant (pioneer), Weidner, Heady,
Riggs, Pai Panindikar and Montgomery etc.
Meaning of Development Administration

➢ Development or developmental administration means administration related to

development. It is a sense of upgradation, a special programme and a particular ideology
to serve a particular purpose.
➢ At the same time, development administration is also seen as a party to change which is
planned and intended and guided by administrative functions. Developmental works are
carried out to serve the people in development administration.
➢ It is not as much related to the administration as its nature, expression, behaviour,
attitude, etc.
➢ Many scholars have defined development administration in their own ways, which are as
follows
According to Montgomery:
• "Development is generally understood to be a normal part of change that is predetermined
or planned and administered or at least influenced by government action.
• From this, he has kept the development administration in a very limited area, saying that
"development administration brings a planned change in the economy (in the capital
infrastructure for the cooperation of agriculture or industry or either of them) and to a
lesser extent in the social services of the States (especially in the field of education and
public health). It is generally not related to efforts to enhance political capabilities."
According to Fred Riggs:
• "Development administration deals with concerted efforts to complete programmes and
projects that are enforced by individuals engaged in meeting development objectives."
Pro. According to Weidner:
• "Development administration is a means of choosing and fulfilling progressive, political,
religious and social objectives in which these objectives are officially set in one way or
the other."
In the words of Donald Stone,

• "Development administration is a combination of all elements and instruments (human

and physical) as a joint effort to achieve the goals set. The objective is to achieve pre-
development objectives under the stipulated time order."
Features of Development Administration

• Development administration is the functional aspect of the Government which is goal-
oriented, that is, development administration is not just an administration for the people,
but it is an administration working with the people. Its salient features are as follows:
Changeability:
➢ Development administration is a change-oriented administration. Change means moving
of any system from one position to another. Because of its characteristic of this
variability, development administration always remains active and moving.
➢ This can be seen more and more in developing countries as the administration in these
countries has to undergo continuous changes.
Goal Oriented Administration:
➢ According to Weidner: "Development administration is a goal-oriented administration. All
these goals are naturally forward-moving and progressive."
Change in established practice:
➢ Development administration emphasizes new programmes, structures and practices to
address a variety of problems. CDA, DRDA in India etc.. programmes are examples of
these innovations.
Importance of Planning:
➢ Most developing countries have adopted planning as a strategy for socio-economic
development. Because, planning helps in the optimum utilization of time and means that
make the entire process of development effective to achieve certain goals over a given
period.
Progressiveness:

➢ One of the key features of development administration is the dynamism of goals, which
means greater participation of people in governance.
➢ For this, the administrative mechanism of development is expected to create conditions
that help make people more participative in the development process.
Beneficiary Convergent administration:
➢ This development administration prioritizes the needs and needs of its beneficiaries and
strives to formulate its policies and programmes as per these needs. The main objective is
to benefit the people for whom organizations are formed.
People-to-people governance:
➢ "People's participation" in development administration is an important element as
development works can be carried out smoothly through the participation of the people.
➢ In view of this, participation in the development work of the people is being promoted
through local self-government institutions (such as Panchayati Raj etc.) in India.
Coordination or Integration:
➢ Another feature of development administration is coordination or integration.
➢ The administration can achieve developmental goals only While it will have the ability to
coordinate or integrate between the officers and various groups.
➢ Failure to do so is likely to adversely affect the development process.
Flexibility and creation of new options:
➢ The development administration is not tied to the Conservatives rules. Being development
oriented, it gives importance to mobility and change according to the circumstances. On
this basis, the development administration emphasizes the adoption of new programmes
and new practices.

Objective of Development Administration

The objectives of development administration are as follows:
• The objective of development administration is to manage programmes and projects.
• The political, social and economic structure has to progress.
• To evaluate the results obtained.
• To establish proper coordination between development policies and goals.
• To ensure public participation in developmental activities.
• The administrative organisation and the process have to be reconstituted.
• To improve the quality of life of our citizens.
• To ensure transparency in administration.
• Modern scientific and technical tools have to be used efficiently.
Public participation in development administration
• Public support is indispensable for the development of any country, as well as a better
administrative framework that successfully implements policies and programmes. Public
participation in development administration can be understood through the following
points:
• This is a very essential element for creating better policies and programmes.
• The successful implementation of policies and programmes for development requires
public participation.
• To establish effective control over the administration, which does not spread red tapism
and corruption in the administration.
• For the success of the administrative leadership, because public participation in the
administration gives public support for the administrative leadership.

• Public participation is necessary to ensure accountability and transparency in

administration.
• Public participation in development administration strengthens democracy.
• Public participation is necessary for speedy resolution of problems.
• Decentralisation of administrative power requires public participation.
Difference between Development Administration and Administrative
Development
• Development administration means administration of development programmes. It relates
to a process by which the public administration system conducts political, social and
economic changes in the society.
• While administrative development enhances the capacity and strength of the
administrative machinery to achieve the set of progressive innovation goals. Many
scholars have acknowledged that both development of development administration and
administration are functionally related to each other.
• Like - Fred Riggs has said the relationship between development administration and
administrative development, is like the relation of egg and hen on the basis of which it is
difficult to say who came into existence first? Development administration is associated
with social administrative change, with mutual emphasis between administrative system
and its environment.
• Under this, the administration undertakes the development works of the State.
• Emphasis is given to all kinds of development, such as social, political, economic cultural
development.
• All the work related to the development of the people is involved.
• Its nature is goal-oriented, work-oriented, public-utility and welfare.
Administrative development
• Under this, administration itself is developed.

• Administrative development, is part of development administration.
• In this, the administration is made efficient and effective.
• Its nature is administrative reforms and development.
Area of Development Administration
➢ The area of development administration is increasing day by day.
➢ The objective of development administration is to bring about political, social, cultural,
economic transformation in collaboration with the development programme and the
people.
➢ It maintains a constant relationship with the environment to meet development objectives.
It affects and affected by the environment.
➢ The area of development administration can be understood in the following way:
➢ The relationship between development administration and culture: governance and
culture are closely related, as culture provides a framework for administration to function
and both cultural and administrative practices can transform each other.
➢ The commitment towards the development of administration and the ideology of change
can definitely start cultural change.
➢ To meet this goal, it is necessary to prepare appropriate plans, programmes and projects.
➢ Development administration acts as a driving wheel that leads the society to
predetermined objectives that are in accordance with the resolve and dexterity of the
leaders and functionaries engaged in the development system.
➢ It removes latency between development needs and administrative development.
• Detailed description of development programmes: A description of development
programmes, which is the main theme of development administration.

• It extends from industrial system and compulsory development programmes to

agricultural development, communication, education, social services and social
reconstruction, etc.
• For example, social development, family planning, etc., thus, development administration
gives a detailed description of multilateral activities for the conduct and governance of
development programmes.
• Nation-building and social treaties: Another task of development administration is nation-
building and social treaty. It relates not only to the work of creation or the expansion of
the development structure, but also to the formation or reconstruction of the social
structure.
• The main function of development administration is to expedite the processes of
industrialization, education, urbanization and democracy. The objective of development is
to address economic and technological development, fairness, justice, unemployment and
other social and economic problems.
• To improve the social customs that hamper the development work. Thus, the work of
nation building can only be successful if development activities bring about social
change.
• POSCORB theory; An important area of development administration is POSCORB.
POSCORB means planning, organization, employees, direction, coordination, report and
budget. Building schemes in the field of development administration to build
organizations, appoint employees.
• Work instructions, coordination, submission of related reports and formulation of budget.
• Use of innovative managerial techniques: The important area of development
administration is to research and use innovative managerial techniques to enhance
efficiency and effectiveness in development administration and also to deal with
innovative challenges.
• Study of human elements: The study of human elements in the field of development
administration is necessary, as human beings are the operational, source, base, guide of
the entire administrative system.

• Planning and Programmes: Many small developed and developing countries have adopted
development planning to meet their developmental objectives, as such plans and
programmes emphasize proper assessment, planning priority assessment, formulation,
implementation, minimum time, low expenditure and tangible results.
• So, it includes a number of activities which are being implemented in collaboration with
the public as seekers and practicable. All these activities try to implement the objectives
of development, the provision of basic needs, the preamble to social change.
• There is a complete effort to restructure social structure and work and achieve public
cooperation as a deterrent and tool.
• Thus, the development objectives in planning and programming can be met in adequate
quantities.
• Development Administration and Ecology: The administration related to development
works under the constitutional, political and legal framework. This highlights that it is not
difficult to acquire foreign information in a country.
• But the socio-cultural, economic and political environment of the country is also not ready
to adopt the beliefs and innovations used in developed countries.
• In other words the nature of development administration is ecological. It affects the
environment around you and in turn affects it. Development models, sophisticated,
technology-developed schemes on a development method cannot be exploited
thoughtlessly.
• A system should be ready for change and change should suit the circumstances.
• Development administration should be improved: Development administration cannot be
conceived and functionally like parts or machines, as every aspect and activity of the
society is affected and comes under the development programme.
• Therefore, development administration should be conceived as a culture that is dominated
by economic resources and technology that can take the responsibility of creating a new
suitable culture.

• Affects and affected by the technical administration. Human element development is an

important part of administration. This administration covers mankind at all levels. The
organizers try to fulfil developmental objectives with the help of the people.
• The cooperation plan of the people is necessary at the time of fixation of priority, plan
capitalization, evaluation of schemes and programmes through various development
branches. The goal is to reach out to the people as far as possible. Therefore, a proper
and orderly planning system is an important part of development administration.
Meaning of administrative development
➢ To develop an administrative system to achieve the objectives of a country and to make it
efficient and effective, all efforts are called 'administrative development'.
➢ Under administrative development, many changes from organization to functioning are
able to meet the present challenges. The process depends on administrative reforms,
modernization of the administrative process, changes in the attitudes of administrators,
real changes in faith and conduct.
➢ The importance of administrative development in development administration can be
understood as follows:
• Increase the efficiency and effectivness of the administration.
• Policies and schemes are better implemented.
• Administrative reforms are necessary to better communicate and coordinate in
administration.
• Helps in establishing a welfare state.
• Corruption and red tapism are reduced in administration.
• The morale of officers and employees increases in administrative reforms.
• They are able to deal with the immediate challenges.

Comparative Public Administration

➢ Comparative public administration is an innovative concept of public administration. Prior
to World War II, the administration was of a democratic nature, but after World War II, the
democratic administration saw a shift from Rule based administration to welfare
administration as new states emerged.
➢ The need for structural reforms for social, economic and political development was felt.
Comparative public administration was emphasized on the reform process.
➢ It aims to broaden the scope of public administration from the limits of traditional study
and ancient study systems and develop innovative beliefs and principles in line with
solving new problems.
➢ The importance of comparative public administration is increasing in the era of
liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation of the present. In comparative public
administration Richard Gabble, Ferrel Heady, etc., contributed more importantly to Fred
Riggs.
Meaning
➢ Comparative public administration means a comparative study of the structure and
functionality of units of two or more public administrations.
➢ This comparative study may also be national and international. Such as the comparison of
the Madhya Pradesh administration with the Gujarat administration, ' comparison of India
and UK and India and US administration, etc.
➢ That is, Comparative public administration conducts a comparative study of public
administrative institutions of different States working in different cultures or
organizations. Comparative public administration may have various administrative
component departments, sections, corporate processes, etc.
➢ These administrative components may be located in the same administration or part of
culture or organization or between different administrations or cultures or organizations.
This comparative study is carried out on the basis of theory, planning or framework and
innovative administrative reforms or principles are developed.
➢ The definitions of public administration are given by various scholars:

• In the words of T.N. Chaturvedi, "Comparative public administrative institutions working in
different cultures are studied comparatively under comparative public administration. "
• According to Robert H. Nixon, "Comparative public administration is the aspect of public
administration that makes cultural comparisons to the structures and processes related to
activities related to the administration of public affairs."
Factor motivating comparative public administration studies

The factors that induce the study of comparative public administration are
as follows:
• Exploring a more comprehensive area of comparative public administration. That is, in
comparative public administration, the nature of the study is to be removed from the
narrow view and studied on a large scale:
• It emphasizes on theoretical studies.
• In comparative public administration, there is a discovery of realism, which aims to go
beyond the study of rules and laws, institutions and test all structures and realistic
administrative procedures that can play an important role in determining public
administration and policies.
• The aspiration to make public administration scientific is to give impetus to the study of
comparative public administration.
• The purpose of studying the administrative systems of developing countries is to motivate
the study of comparative public administration.
• Aspiration to establish the content of the study of public administration in an orderly
manner.
• The desire to organize public administration as an autonomous study subject.

Nature of comparative public administration

• At present, the nature of comparative public administration is constantly changing. Fred
Riggs has mentioned three natures of comparative public administration in his
composition 'public administration comparative study trend,' which is as follows:
• Ideographic to nomothetic: Idealistic nature refers to the principles that give more
importance to the circumstances that are actually before us and affect the public
administration more than the principles or rules.
• It lays more emphasis on 'what should happen' and focuses on all actions, while the
nomothetic nature emphasizes the reality of public administration that considers human
behaviour important.
• Gives more emphasis on what is it instead of 'what should happen’?
• Specialised to generalise: In this nature, one organization, institutions, administrative
problems, historical events or cultural fields, etc., are studied.
• This study incorporates uniqueness and narrowness, while general principles and
concepts are created in general terms of an organization, administration, historical or
cultural areas.
• Riggs believes that the comparative public administration is adopting the general nature
by abandoning its specific character.
• From non-ecological to ecological: The traditionalist study of comparative public
administration in this nature was primarily non-ecological.
• It did not have special emphasis on the relationship between the administrative system
and the environment, while the study began after World War II.
• That is, the social nature of public administration, values, political conditions, historical of
its surroundings.
• Economic references, etc., not only affected but also affects the social, economic, political
and cultural factors.

Importance of Comparative Public Administration

• On the basis of comparative studies, public administration can come under the category
of science. The role of comparative public administration has been important in making
public administration more scientific, effective and purposeful.
• In the studies of comparative public administration, the public administration has been
made vast, deep, useful and popular by eliminating the narrowness. The difference
between the social, economic, geographical, cultural conditions of different countries also
varies between their administrative arrangements.
• Through comparison, information about different cultures and environments is obtained
and it is made known on which part and particular type of factor of an administrative
system.
The importance of comparative public administration can be understood as follows:
• Due to comparative studies, the area of social research has been wide and
comprehensive, which was previously limited, narrow and macroscopic.
• Comparative public administration has eliminated the gap between administration and
political science, which has led to close linkages and administration has been associated
with a wider field of other social sciences.
• Comparative public administration has given more emphasis on the formulation and
social reason of the principle.
• The area of administration was expanded due to analysis in comparative public
administration.
• Comparative public administration has adopted a scientific approach thus a
comprehensive approach to the place of self centered approach.
• Accepting comparative public administration helps students, scientists and
administrators to understand the administrative arrangements of other countries.
• The comparative public administration has emphasized on the study of environment
(social, economic, cultural, political system) which gives information about other social
sciences and other factors which affect the administration.
• Comparative public administration has played an important role in eliminating the

promiscuity like provincialism and regionalism.
According to T.N. Chaturvedi, the importance of comparative public administration is as
follows:
• The area of social research has been widespread due to comparative public
administration. Earlier it was bound by narrow cultural bonds.
• Comparative public administration broadens vision.
• Due to which the world does not have the narrowness of autism or self-culture.
• Comparative public administration encourages the process of increasing the field of
social analysis.
• The revolution of comparative studies has brought more scientifically into the theory
creation.
Riggs's contribution in comparative public administration

• Fred Riggs contributes significantly to comparative public administration. He conducted a
serious study on the polarisation of interactions between administrative arrangements
and their surroundings.
• Riggs major works are the Frontline of Development Administration-1971, administration
in developing countries-the Theory of Prismatic Society-1964, The Prismatic Society
Revisited-1973, and the Ecology of Public Administration-1961.
Fred Riggs' contribution can be understood as follows:
i. Ecological Approach: It belongs to biology which means the interaction of all living
communities with the environment. According to Riggs, the administrative process is a
system. Which has its own environment in which all administrative actions are carried out.
Riggs's approach was, on the one hand, to the administrative subsystem, and on the other
hand, to analyse the interaction between the political, economic, cultural and social
subsystems of the society.

That is, this component affects the process of administration. Thus, it can be said that the nature
of public administration of any country is influenced by its environment (social, economic,
political, technology and communication) under which it works.
ii. Agraria - Industria Model: The agraria-industria model was formulated by Fred Riggs to
study the governance of developing countries based on the ecological outlook.
In this model, the society was classified into two categories, the first- the agrarian society
(Krishka) and the second-industrial dominated society (industrial). Such as China and the US,
India and Britain, etc.
▪ The characteristics of the agrarian society are as follows:

• Limited social and regional mobility.
• Differentiation of different sections in the society.
• Primacy of charged values.
• Simple and permanent business specialization.
• A unique society.
▪ While the characteristics of the industrial dominated society are as follows:
• High level of social and regional mobility.
• Similarity between different classes.
• Achievement oriented standards.
• Better developed business system.
• It moves from unique to universal.
This model of Riggs has been criticised on the following grounds:
• No society is fully industrial-dominated nor fully agrarian.
• In modern societies, there are often some agricultural elements.
• Reduces the emphasis on administrative arrangements.
• While more emphasis is on ecology.

• This model is abstract and imaginary.
iii. Paradigm of fused-prismatic-diffracted societies: This paradigm discusses the problems
and variability of developing societies by Riggs. Between fused and diffracted, society is
called a prismatic society.
The main focus of Riggs study has been the contemporary society. These three societies can
be understood as follows:
• Fused Society: Riggs chose China and Thailand in the study of multifunctional society.
• There was no classification of work in a fused society and the same structure
(administration) performed a variety of functions. It was an agrarian society which did not
industrialise and modernise.
• The royal family was more important in this kind of a society. The administrators chosen
by him used to do all kinds of economic and non-economic work. The Government and
the people were concerned only at the grassroots level. The people expressed their
respect for the king by giving their services or things.
• Though the Government was not accountable to the people, all the orders of the
Government were binding on them.
• Diffracted Society: The diffracted society is based on universal principles. And there is no
difference in its behaviour. This society is specialized and each of its structures performs
a particular function.
• This structure is of an open class in which various institutions contribute. The market is
directly or indirectly affected by this society. In a under-working society, the Government
is sensitive to the people and protects its rights.
• Prismatic Society: The focal point of the study of Riggs has been the contemporary
society. It is a society which has achieved specialization in the exchange of modern
technology but has failed to add to their roles.
• Between fused and diffracted, society is called a prismatic society.
• Riggs outlined three features of the prismatic society.
• Heterogeneity: Heterogeneous means having different kinds of arrangements, behaviour,

actions and approaches, etc. in an prismatic society. The change caused by the
coexistence of a totally hostile approach in this society is inconsistent and incomplete.
• In such societies, new-old, north-south, village-city, capitalism-socialism, etc., run
simultaneously.
• Formalism: Constitution, rules and laws, system of governance etc. are formally present
in the prismatic society.
• But disparities are found between their practical principles and realities. The year-old
officer never cares for the rules and laws strictly. That is, it is difficult to know the
behaviour of the officers.
• Overlapping: Modern or new organizations are established in a contemporary society.
• While the actual old and non-discriminatory organizations continue to have their influence
on the social system.
• In this society, Parliament, government offices and departments, markets, schools, etc.,
do administrative, political and economic work, but their behaviour is influenced by
religion, caste, family, community, etc
➢ In the prismatic society, some elements appear under overlapping, which are as follows:
iv. Sala model: Sala is a Spanish word used in government offices in Latin American
countries. The Sala model has the characteristics of both old and new administrations.
The impact of corruption and nepotism is seen while selecting the sala officers. This officer works
for personal gain and not for the purpose of public welfare. They are influenced by prejudice and
conservatism.
v. Bazaar-canteen model: According to Riggs, the economy of a society is called the Bazaar-
canteen economy.
The main features are non-certainness of prices, group of values, elite intervention, etc.
There is no accumulation of money in this society, if it happens, it is not enough for
investment.
At the same time, bargaining in the society also gives an impact to bribery.
vi. Nepotism: There are many disparities in the ideals and practices of the contemporary
society. It emphasizes the general interest by enforcing stringent rules and laws.
The administrative structures in this society operate on the basis of familism and blood relations.
Also, personal relations are given preference in selection of officers.
vii. Poly-communism or Clects: In a homogeneous society, different religions, castes, sects,
lineages, races, etc. reside together. These organs work influenced by their traditionalist
views in the organisation. In this society, it has been found that the officer must favour the
community.
In a prismatic society, families, castes, communities, etc., have an important role to play and new
groups are also developed in the society, which Riggs have termed as ‘clects'. Clects is such a
group. Those who use the institutional measures of the modern organisation, but they continue to
have conservatism and narrowness.
viii. Poly Normativism or lack of consensus: There are different values or pricelessness in the
prismatic society. It does not have the same values and conduct, and at the same time,
there is a plethora of conflicting and delusional values, that is, the sala officers say to the
public something else.
ix. Separation of authority and control: A highly centralized and collected authority structure
is found in a prismatic society. There is a division between authority and control in this
society. That is, the authority remains with the year-old officers and its control remains in
the hands of a non-administrative person.

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Administration: Meaning, Features and Importance

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➢ Therefore, it should require the purpose of various organizations, cooperation of many

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Public Administration: Meaning, Features, Nature,

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Nature of Public Administration

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PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS ART OR SCIENCE

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• In giving continuity to public policies- when there is a change in the government, it

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The limitations of public administration can be understood from the following

Administration is a general terminology, with a The perspective of public administration is

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broad perspective. narrow, as it relates to public policies.

Administration is a universal activity, which Public administration is specifically

The administration is concerned with the Public administration is a double-nature. It is

Administration is an collaborative task done Public publications are the implementation of

The Study Method of Public Administration

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▪ The system theory mainly contains three qualities-

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Evolution of Public Administration as

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Evolution of public administration in modern age

▪ The implementation of these principles requires improvement in administration.

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▪ Riggs emphasized on a comparative study of public administration, which created its

Role of Public Administration in Developed and Developing

▪ In these societies, effective control of bureaucracy is established by political institutions.

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Role of public administration in developing societies

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New Dimension of Public Administration

• In which the culture, methods and procedures of public administration, better

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The innovative trends of public administration are as follows:

• In public administration, emphasis is being given on comparative studies of two or more

• Emphasis is being given on sociological and psychological studies in public

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• Most of the developing countries: undertakings are running into losses.

• Continuous budgetary deficit in developing countries etc.

• Law and order is a task which cannot be entrusted to the market.

• The market cannot be trusted at the time of crisis.

• Market friendly intervention of state

• In the era of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation, market intervention is

• The market is of competitive nature, which lacks equality.