Maths Student Resource

MODULE 01
Category B Licence
CASA B-01
Mathematics
Copyright © 2020 Aviation Australia
All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold or
otherwise disposed of, without the written permission of Aviation Australia.
CONTROLLED DOCUMENT
2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 2 of 239

CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only
Knowledge Levels
Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2
or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category
B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common
words and examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate,
typical examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and
apply corrective action where appropriate.

Module 1 - Mathematics - Topic 01 - Mathematics
Table of Contents
Arithmetic I (1.1) 9
Learning Objectives 9
Maths Fundamentals 10
Common Mathematical Signs 10
Mathematical Operations 10
Whole Numbers 13
What is a Whole Number? 13
Whole Number Addition 13
Whole Number Subtraction 18
Multiplication of Whole Numbers 24
Division of Whole Numbers 29
Factors and Multiples 41
Approximations 42
Estimation 44
Decimals 47
Introduction to Decimals 47
Addition of Decimals 47
Subtraction of Decimals 48
Multiplication of Decimals 49
Division of Decimals 51
Rounding Off 54
Fractions 56
What is a Fraction? 56
Numerator and Denominator 56
Types of Fractions 57
Simplifying Fractions 58
Converting Fractions 61
Addition and Subtraction of Fractions 64
Multiplication of Fractions 68
Division of Fractions 71
Cancelling in Equations 72
How to Convert a Decimal to Fraction 73
How to Convert a Fraction to a Decimal 75
Order of Operations 76

Further Order of Operations Examples 79
Directed Numbers 83
Arithmetic II (1.1) 87
Percentages and Ratios 88
Percentages 88
Converting Percentages 88
Using Percentages 90
Ratios 91
Mixtures 93
Proportion 94
Weights and Measures 103
Units and Measures 103
Fundamental Units 104
Derived Quantities and Units 106
Prefixes with Units 106
Conversions of Units 107
Converting Between Measuring Systems 110
Squares and Cubes 113
Square Roots 113
Estimating the Square Root 114
Cube Roots 114
Areas and Volumes 116
Calculating Area 116
Calculating Surface Area 118
Calculating Volumes 119
Evaluating Simple Algebraic Expressions and Equations (1.2.1) 121
Summary 121
Introduction to Algebra 122
The Missing Multiplication Sign 122
Terms 122
Different Terms 122
Like Terms 122

Coefficient 123
Alphabetical Order 123
Collecting Like Terms 124
Substitution 124
Transposition 125
The Basic Laws of Algebra 126
Introduction to Algebraic Laws 126
The Associative Law 126
The Commutative Law 126
The Distributive Law 127
The Distributive Law (Two Sets of Brackets) 129
Fractions in Algebra 132
Linear Equations, Indices, Numbering Systems and Logarithms (1.2.2) 134
Linear Equations 135
Introduction to Linear Equations 135
Using Linear Equations 136
Complex Linear Equations 139
Manipulating Formulae 144
Transposition of Formulae 144
Substitution (Using Formulae) 145
Factorisation 147
Index Notation 153
Introduction to Index Notation 153
Expressing in Index Notation 153
Expanding Index Notation 154
Negative Indices 154
Zero Index 155
Index Laws 155
Index Multiplication 156
Index Division 157
Indices with Brackets 158
Reciprocal and Fractional Indices 159
Negative Reciprocal and Fractional Indices 160

Exponential Expressions Involving Mixed Bases 161
Scientific Notation 165
Introduction to Scientific Notation 165
Decimal to Scientific Notation 165
Scientific Notation to Decimal 166
Working with Scientific Notation 166
Significant Figures 168
Numbering Systems 170
Decimal 170
Binary 170
Octal 171
Hexadecimal 173
Simultaneous Linear Equations 175
Introduction to Simultaneous Equations 175
Substitution Method 176
Elimination Method 179
Quadratic Equations 183
Introduction to Quadratics 183
The Quadratic Formula 187
Logarithms 192
Introduction to Logarithms 192
Application of Logarithms 194
Logarithmic Scales 196
Geometry (1.3) 198
Summary 198
Fundamentals 199
Angles 199
Circles 200
Trigonometry 208
Sine Waves 208
Triangles 208
Labelling a Right-Angle Triangle 210
Pythagoras' Theorem 210

Trigonometric Relationships 214
Table of Trigonometric Functions 216
Useful Triangles 220
Graphs 223
Introduction to Graphs 223
Pictographs 223
Pie Chart 224
The Bar Graph 225
Histogram 226
The Line Graph 227
Co-ordinate Systems 230
Introduction to Coordinate Systems 230
Cartesian 230
Equation of a Straight Line 233
Gradient 235
Y-intercept 236
Polar Coordinates 237

Arithmetic I (1.1)
Learning Objectives
1.1.1 Explain the use of arithmetical terms and signs (Level 2).
1.1.2 Explain the use of methods of multiplication and division (Level 2).
1.1.3 Explain the use of fractions and decimals (Level 2).
1.1.4 Explain the use of factors and multiples (Level 2).
1.1.7 Explain the use of averages and percentages (Level 2).

Maths Fundamentals
Common Mathematical Signs
These are some of the common mathematical signs you may see used in aircraft maintenance.
© Aviation Australia
Common Mathematical Signs Table

Mathematical Operations
These are the common mathematical operations which you will use during the course of aircraft
maintenance.
Basic Mathematical Operations Table
Addition is the combining of groups of objects and finding the total number.
Subtraction finds the remaining total after objects are removed.
Often addition and subtraction are described as inverse operations because one operation can
"undo" the other. Adding 3 and 5 to get 8 is the opposite of 8 minus 5, leaving 3.
5 + 3 = 8
Therefore, 8 is the sum of 5 and 3.
8 − 5 = 3
3 is the difference between 8 and 5.
This explains why the two operations are considered together.
The ordering of numbers in an addition equation will not affect the sum of the equation. That is 5 + 3
= 8 is the same as 3 + 5 = 8. The numbers in an addition equation may be referred to as an “addend”.

The ordering of numbers in a subtraction equation will affect the solution of the equation.
8 - 5 = 3 is not the same as 5 - 8 = -3, this is discussed further in direct numbers.
To avoid confusion there are different terms for these numbers.
The number from which the other number is subtracted is called the “minuend.” The number that is
subtracted from the other number is the “subtrahend”.
Multiplication and division are also closely related, given that division is the inverse operation of
multiplication.
When we divide, we look to separate objects into equal groups, while multiplication involves
combining groups.
2 × 6 = 12
Therefore, 12 is the product of 2 and 6.
12 ÷ 2 = 6
Therefore, 6 is the quotient of 12 divided by 2.
The ordering of numbers in a multiplication equation will not affect the product of the equation. The
numbers in a multiplication equation may be referred to as a “multiplicand”.
The ordering of numbers in a division equation will affect the quotient of the equation. For example,
the following two equations when rearranged are not equal.
12 ÷ 3 = 4
3
3 ÷ 12 =
12
To avoid confusion there are different terms for these numbers.
The number that is to be divided into smaller groups is called the “dividend.”
The size of the groups the first is to be divided into is called the “divisor.”
The final term related to multiplication and division is factors. Factors are whole numbers that
multiply together to give another number. As demonstrated above, 2 and 6 are factors of 12, however
there are other numbers that also multiply together to equal 12, these are 1 and 12, 3 and 4.
Therefore the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.
Factors are used extensively when reducing fractions, and in algebra.

Whole Numbers
What is a Whole Number?
Whole numbers are positive numbers, including zero, without any decimal or fractional parts.
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of whole numbers requires practice and to this end,
the exercises in the applicable student workbook will refresh your memory.
Positional Values
When considering the number seven hundred and forty-seven, what does this mean?
747 is a three-digit number, where each digit carries a different weighting. The lowest value, the one’s
column starts on the right, and each digit to the left increases its weighting by a factor of 10. I.e., ones,
tens, hundreds and so on.
Aviation Australia
It can be seen, that 747 is the value of each column, multiplied by the number in the column, added
together.
It is important to align the positional values when writing equations down for calculation.

Whole Number Addition
The first example shows how to add two whole numbers together, where each positional value once
added does not exceed the total value for the position. This is said to not produce a carry.
Example 1
Add the following numbers together.
36 + 51
Step 1
Re-write the equation to line up the numbers vertically to align the positional values.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
First add the digits in the one’s column.
6+1=7
7 is written below one’s column.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Next add the digits in ten’s column.
3+5=8

8 is written below ten’s column. Therefore, the sum is 87.
Aviation Australia
Example 2
Find the sum of the following.
75 + 14
Step 1
Aviation Australia
Step 2
First add the digits in one’s column.
5+4=9
9 is written below the one’s column.
Aviation Australia

Step 3
Then add the digits in ten’s column.
7+1=8
8 is written below the ten’s column. Therefore, the sum is 89.
Aviation Australia
The third and fourth example shows how to add two whole numbers together, where position values
when added now exceed the total value for the position which forces an addition in the next
positional value and is referred to as a carry.
Example 3
Complete the following whole number addition.
45 + 26
Step 1
Aviation Australia
Step 2
We add digits in one’s column.
5 + 6 = 11

Which is above the maximum positional value of 9 for that position. 1 is written below the one’s
column and the other 1 is carried over to the ten’s column due to the fact that the next positional
value is 10 times greater.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
In the ten’s column, 4 + 2 + 1 = 7.
7 is written below ten’s column. Therefore, the sum is 71.
Aviation Australia
Example 4
Complete the following.
57 + 38
Step 1

Aviation Australia
Step 2
We add digits in one’s column.
7 + 8 = 15
5 is written below one’s column and other 1 is carried over to the ten’s column.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
In the ten’s column, 5 + 3 + 1 = 9.
9 is written below ten’s column. Therefore, sum is 95
Aviation Australia

Whole Number Subtraction
Examples one and two demonstrate the process when the subtrahend of each column is smaller in
value that the minuend.
Example 1
Complete the following whole number subtraction.
76 − 42
Step 1
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Here, subtract the numbers in the one’s column first. 6 – 2 = 4
Write 4 below one’s column.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Next subtract the numbers in the ten’s column. 7 – 4 = 3
Write down 3 below ten’s column. Therefore, the difference is 34.

Aviation Australia
Example 2
Subtract 25 from 98.
25 − 98
Step 1
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Here, subtract the numbers in the one’s column first.
8–5=3
Write down 3 below one’s column.
Aviation Australia

Step 3
Next the numbers in the ten’s column are subtracted. 9 – 2 = 7
Write 7 below ten’s column. Therefore, the difference is 73.
Aviation Australia
The third and fourth examples highlight the process where a value in the subtrahend is larger in value
than the equivalent value in the minuend. By borrowing an additional group of ten from the next
positional value the subtraction can be completed. In the provided examples a 1 from the ten’s
column in “borrowed” representing 10 ones.
Example 3
Complete the following.
74 − 57
Step 1
Aviation Australia
Step 2
In the one’s column, we cannot subtract 7 from 4 as 7 is greater than 4.
To facilitate the operation, we borrow a group of tens from ten’s column.
Strike off 7 and write a 6 and put a 1 beside 4 in the one’s column to make it 14.

Aviation Australia
Step 3
Next, subtract the numbers in the one’s column.
14 – 7 = 7
7 is written down below one’s column.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
Next in the ten’s column, we subtract 6 − 5 = 1.
1 is written down below ten’s column. Therefore, the difference is 17.
Aviation Australia
Example 4
Complete the following subtraction.

53 − 39
Step 1
Aviation Australia
Step 2
In the one’s column, we cannot subtract 9 from 3 as 9 is greater than 3.
So, we borrow a ten from 5 in the ten’s column.
We put a 1 to left of 3 to make it 13.
Aviation Australia
We strike off 5 and write a 4 to its left.
Step 3
Next, subtract the numbers in the one’s column.
13 – 9 = 4
4 is written down below one’s column.

Aviation Australia
Step 4
Next in the ten’s column, we subtract 4 − 3 = 1.
1 is written down below ten’s column. Therefore, the difference is 14.
Aviation Australia
Multiplication of Whole Numbers

Multiplication can be considered repeated addition, and you can solve simple multiplication problems
by adding repeatedly.
For instance, say you are given the problem 4 × 3. This is really just another way to say, “4 groups of 3,”
or, for that matter, “3 groups of 4.”
Aviation Australia

Long Multiplication
For larger or more complex number it is generally faster to use long multiplication, which breaks the
process down into repeated simple multiplication and addition problems.
Example 1
Perform long multiplication on the following example.
167 × 53
This is equivalent to 167 × 3 plus 167 × 50 , this is essentially what long multiplication achieves.
Step 1
Re-write the equation to line up the numbers vertically to align the positional values, being sure to
place the larger number in the top row.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
The first line of working out is 167 × 3.
Working from right to left, starting with the one’s column multiply 7 × 3 = 21, as 21 exceeds the value
in the one’s column, this will create a carry.

Aviation Australia
Step 3
Continue working from right to left, with the ten’s column, multiply 6 × 3 = 18, then add the 2 carried
over from the one’s column 18 + 2 = 20, as 20 exceeds the value in the one’s column, this will again
create a carry.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
Continue working from right to left, with the hundred’s column, multiply 1 × 3 = 3, then add the 2
carried over from the ten’s column 3+ 2 = 5, the 5 can then be inserted in the hundred’s column below
the line.

This completes the first line of the calculation.
Aviation Australia
Step 5
The second line of working out is 167 × 50.
Again, working from right to left, however this time multiply by the value in the ten’s column.
To maintain the value of the 5, place a 0 in the one’s column.
Multiply 7 × 5 = 35 , as 35 exceeds the value in the ten’s column, this will create a carry.
Aviation Australia
Step 6

Continue working from right to left.
Multiply 6 × 5 = 30, then add the 3 carried over from the ten’s column 30 + 3 = 33, as 33 exceeds the
value in the hundred’s column, this will again create a carry.
Aviation Australia
Step 7
Continue working from right to left.
Multiply 1 × 5 = 5, then add the 3 carried over from the hundred’s column 5 + 3 = 8 the 5 can then be
inserted in the thousand’s column below the line.
This completes the second line of the calculation.
Aviation Australia

Step 8
Now that the first two lines of the calculation are completed, add the two products together.
The addition process is outlined in addition of whole numbers if required.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, the product of 167 and 53 is 8851.
Division of Whole Numbers

Division can be considered separating a number into smaller groups, as multiplication can be
considered repeated addition, division may be considered repeated subtraction.
It may also be considered, when you have 12 items, if you separated them into groups of a certain
value, how many groups would you have?
Aviation Australia
As the numbers get more complex it becomes faster to follow a process that is repeatable and faster,
this process is termed long division.
Long division follows a four-step process that is repeated in order, until the calculation is complete.

The process:
Divide
Multiply
Subtract
Bring Down
When dividing whole number, the answer will be left as a remainder (i.e. 18 ÷ 3 = 5 remainder 3).
Terms
When considering separating items into their smaller groups, the size of the group becomes
important, so with this in mind it is worth defining the terms used.
Dividend – the original number that is to be divided
Divisor – the number that the dividend is to be divided by, or the size of the groups mentioned above
Quotient – the result of the division equation.
In the equation below:
12 ÷ 2 = 6
12 is the dividend and 2 is the divisor.
Therefore 6 is the quotient of 12 divided by 2.
In the following example a three-digit dividend will be divided by a single digit divisor.
Example 1
Perform long division on the following example.
296÷6
Step 1
Re-write the equation with the divisor to the left of the dividend.

Aviation Australia
Step 2
Division differs in that the calculation is carried out working from left to right.
Starting with divide, 2 ÷ 6. As 2 cannot be divided into any groups of 6 the answer will be 0
This is inserted in the hundred’s column above the 2.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
The next step is to Multiply 6 by 0 which equals 0 (any value multiplied by 0 equals 0) with 0
remainder, this is inserted in the hundred’s column below the 2.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
The next step is Subtract with 2 - 0 = 2, this is inserted in the hundred’s column below the 0.

Aviation Australia
Step 5
The next step is Bring Down, here we bring the 9 in the ten’s column down in line with the 2.
Aviation Australia
This completes the first cycle of the process; this is then repeated until the calculation is complete.
Step 6
Next divide 29 ÷ 6, as we can fit 4 groups of 6 into 29 a 4 is inserted in the ten’s column above the 9.
Aviation Australia
Step 7

The next step is multiply with 6 × 4 = 24 , this is inserted in the ten and hundred’s column below the 29
which was just divided.
Aviation Australia
Step 8
The next step is subtract with 29 - 24 = 5, this is inserted in the ten’s column below the 24.
Aviation Australia
Step 9
The next step is bring down, here we bring the 6 in the one’s column down in line with the 5.

Aviation Australia
This completes the second cycle of the process; this must then be repeated once more before
calculation is complete.
Step 10
Next Divide with 56 ÷ 6, as we can fit 9 groups of 6 into 56, a 9 is inserted in the one’s column above
the 6.
Aviation Australia
Step 11
The next step is Multiply with 6 × 9 = 54, this is inserted in the ones and ten’s column below the 56

Aviation Australia
Step 12
The next step is Subtract with 56 - 54 = 2, this is inserted in the one’s column below the 54.
Aviation Australia

As this is division of a whole number, there is no need to continue the division further.
The 2 at the bottom represents the remainder.
Therefore, the quotient of 296 divided by 6 is 49 remainder 2.
In the second example a three-digit dividend will be divided by a two-digit divisor.
Example 2
Perform long division on the following example.
385÷24
Step 1
Re-write the equation with the divisor to the left of the dividend.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Start Divide with 3 ÷ 24, as 3 cannot be divided into any groups of 24 the answer will be 0.
This is inserted in the hundred’s column above the 3.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
The next step is Multiply with 24 × 0 = 0, this is inserted in the hundred’s column below the 3.

Aviation Australia
Step 4
The next step is Subtract with 3 - 0 = 3, this is inserted in the hundred’s column below the 0.
Aviation Australia
Step 5
The next step is Bring Down, here we bring the 8 in the ten’s column down in line with the 3.
Aviation Australia
This completes the first cycle of the process; this is then repeated until the calculation is complete.
Step 6
Next Divide with 38 ÷ 24, as we can fit 1 group of 24 into 38, a 1 is inserted in the ten’s column above
the 8.

Aviation Australia
Step 7
The next step is Multiply with 1 × 24 = 24, this is inserted in the ten and hundred’s column below the
38 which was just divided.
Aviation Australia
Step 8
The next step is Subtract with 38 - 24 = 14, this is inserted in the ten’s column below the 24.

Aviation Australia
Step 9
The next step is Bring Down, here we bring the 5 in the one’s column down in line with the 14.
Aviation Australia
This completes the second cycle of the process; this must then be repeated once more before
calculation is complete.
Step 10
Next Divide with 145 ÷ 24, as we can fit 6 groups of 24 into 145, a 6 is inserted in the one’s column
above the 5.

Aviation Australia
Step 11
The next step is Multiply with 24 × 6 = 144, this is inserted in the ones and ten’s column below the 145
Aviation Australia
Step 12
The next step is Subtract with 145 - 144 = 1, this is inserted in the one’s column below the 144.

Aviation Australia
As this is division of a whole number, there is no need to continue the division further.
The 1 at the bottom represents the remainder.
Therefore, the quotient of 385 divided by 24 is 16 remainder 1.

Factors and Multiples
Factors and multiples are associated with the multiplication and division processes:
Factors multiplied give multiples.

Multiples divided without remainders give factors.
Example
Factors
1 × 6 = 6, so 1 and 6 are factors of 6.
2 × 3 = 6, so 2 and 3 are also factors of 6.
Multiples
2 × 6 = 12, so 12 is a multiple of 6.
3 × 6 = 18, so 18 is a multiple of 6. And so on.

Approximations
Averages
For some students that have studied a mathematics in past, averages can be confused with three
different mathematical concepts.
Mean (statistically the most likely value to appear throughout the sample).
Median (the middle value between the highest and lowest sample).
Mode (the most common occurring sample).
Throughout this module, the average will always refer to the mean.
As applied in the aviation environment we are looking for the most likely value to appear, an example
of this would be calibrating a temperature sensor, we may take several samples, then average them
out (Mean) before making any corrections.
To calculate the mean average, add the numbers together, then divide them by the number of total
numbers provided.
Example 1
Find the average of 12, 15, 23, 21, 30, and 19.
First, add the numbers: 12 + 15 + 23 + 21 + 30 + 19 = 120.
Then divide by how many numbers we added, which is 6, 120 ÷ 6 = 20.
Therefore, the average (mean) value is 20.

Example 2
Find the average of the following dataset.
46, 30, 38, 41, 36, 44, 38, 39
Step 1
Add the numbers in the data set.
46 + 30 + 38 + 41 + 36 + 44 + 38 + 39 = 312
Step 2
Divide the total by how many numbers are in the data set (which is 8).
312÷8 = 39
Therefore, the average (mean) value is 39.

Estimation
Sometimes accuracy of a calculation is not required, for example if you were required to purchase a
piece of cable long enough to allow you to make 3 control cables of 4.738m in length. It is unlikely that
you would ask a supplier for 14.214m (which is 4.738 × 3).
It would be easier and more practical to round each cable up to 5m, then multiply and request 15m of
cable. Note that the application of the estimation is important in determining if you can round up or
down.
Estimation is finding a number that is close enough to the right answer (i.e. a ballpark figure).
Estimation is not trying to find the correct answer; however, it may be used to help you confirm that
you have the right answer; such as confirming the expected location of the decimal point in the
multiplication of a decimal.
Estimates must never be used as authoritative values during the course of maintenance. Always use
the full calculation with the appropriate accuracy.

Example 1
Estimate 987.62 x 77.85
987.62 can round up to 1000 and 77.85 is close to 80.
Therefore, an estimate could be 1000 x 80 = 80000.
Example 2
Estimate 7703.65 ÷ 42.98
7703.65 can round up to 8000 and 42.98 is close to 40.
Therefore, an estimate could be 8000 ÷ 40.
This can be simplified further by dividing both sides by 10 which = 800 ÷ 4 = 200.

Decimals
Introduction to Decimals
A decimal number can be defined as a number whose whole number part and the fractional part is
separated by a decimal point. The dot in a decimal number is called a decimal point, this may be
shortened to “dp”.
The digits following the decimal point show a value smaller than one. As with whole numbers, where
the positional value to the left increases by a factor of 10, each positional value to the right reduces
by a factor of 10, i.e., moving right from the one’s column it is tenths, hundredths, thousandths and so
on.
When considering the number 327.648, it may be expanded and seen as:

Addition of Decimals
The most important thing about adding decimals is that when you write them in a column you keep
numbers of the same place value in the same column. This can be done easily with decimals by
aligning the decimal points are in a column one under the other.
Example
Add the following values together.
25.2 + 3.546 + 0.31 + 16.02
Step 1
Step 2
Conduct the addition as previously covered in whole number addition.
Note: The decimal points are lined up in a column. As you add them, use the same method that was
used for adding whole numbers. Make sure that the decimal point in the answer is in the same column
under the other decimal points. This ensures that when a carry is created it is done with the correct
value. If there is no number in a column then treat it as a zero.

Subtraction of Decimals
This is done in the same way as subtracting whole numbers and again we ensure the correct place
value of the numbers by aligning the decimal points under one another.
Example
Subtract the following decimals.
28.37 − 9.526
Step 1
Step 2
Conduct the subtraction as previously covered in whole number subtraction.

Multiplication of Decimals
To multiply numbers which have a decimal point, first carry out the multiplication as if neither
number had a decimal point, then re-insert the decimal place in the right place.
Example
Multiply the following decimals.
7.962×21.4
Step 1
Re-write the equation to line up the numbers vertically, however when writing the equation
disregard the decimal points.
Note how many decimal points there are, i.e., 7.962 has three dp, and 21.4 has one dp, making a total
of four dp, this will be required at the end of the calculation.
Step 2
Carry out the multiplication as a long multiplication explained in whole numbers.

Step 3
Once the numbers are multiplied, add the results together.
Once the multiplication is completed, the decimal point must be re-inserted in the correct position. To
find the right spot, insert the same number of decimal places removed in step 1, that is to count back
that number of places from the last digit on the right.
Therefore, the product of 7.962 × 21.4 is 170.3868.

Division of Decimals
As with multiplication, the decimal point must be removed from the equation to simplify the
calculation.
To remove the decimal place, multiply both the dividend and the divisor by the same factor of ten to
leave the divisor as a whole number.
That is where the equation is 10 ÷ 0.5, both 10 and 0.5 would be multiplied by 10 to make the
equation 100 ÷ 5.
If the equation was 10 ÷ 0.05, both 10 and 0.05 would be multiplied by 100 to make the equation
simpler.
The key difference is that the decimal point does not need to be re-inserted after the calculation, this
is because is 10 ÷ 0.5 and 100 ÷ 5 will result in the same answer with no error in the decimal place.
In the following, Example 1 will show a simple equation where only the divisor is a decimal, Example 2
will be with both the dividend and divisor as decimal numbers.
Example 1
Divide the following whole number by a decimal.
18÷0.8
Step 1
Multiply both the dividend and divisor by 10 to make the equation and re-write the equation with the
divisor to the left of the dividend.
Step 2
Carry out the long division in the same manner as discussed in whole numbers (Divide, Multiply,
Subtract, Bring Down).

When working with a decimal number the answer should be a decimal, that is not as a remainder as
demonstrated in division of whole numbers.
Therefore, the quotient of 18 ÷ 0.8 is 22.5.
Note that when dividing by a divisor less than 1 the quotient will be greater than the dividend.
Example 2
Divide the following numbers.
6.356÷2.8
Step 1
Multiply both the dividend and divisor by 10 to make the equation 63.56 ÷ 28 and re-write the
equation with the divisor to the left of the dividend.
Step 2

Carry out the long division in the same manner as discussed in whole numbers (Divide, Multiply,
Subtract, Bring Down).
Therefore, the quotient of 6.356 ÷ 2.8 is 2.27.
You can use approximation for a quick check of the solution.
Note that when dividing by a divisor greater than 1 the quotient will be smaller than the dividend.

Rounding Off
Some long divisions can carry on for many decimal places before arriving at an exact answer. In fact,
some do not have an exact answer; they are called irrational numbers.
Where these number continue, the positional value becomes much smaller than the value we require.
For example, dividing $20.00 in coins between 9 people would result in 2.22222222222 recurring.
This would not be practical or necessary, it is likely that the figure would be rounded to the nearest 5
cents, as that is the smallest denomination of coin available in Australia, each person would be given
$2.20.
The required number of decimal places will be defined in the question, where this is not provided
standard convention is to use the same number of decimal places as used in the provided equation.
To round off, find the appropriate decimal place, then check the value in the next column to the right,
if this is ≥ 5 round up, if < 5 round down.
If rounding up the digit in the required column would increase by 1, if rounding down the value in the
required column will remain the same. If rounding up and the value in the required column is a 9 this
would produce a carry as it would in an addition.
Example 1
Round 687.6761563 to 2 decimal places.
Example 2
Round 687.6761563 to 3 decimal places.

Fractions
What is a Fraction?
A fraction represents part of a whole. When something is broken up or divided into a number of parts,
the number above the line shows how many of those parts you have, the number below the line show
how many parts the whole has been divided in to. A fraction must have whole number above and
below the line.
See the pictures below to see how the whole of a circle can be broken up into different fractions,
similar to how an orange can divided into pieces.
Aviation Australia
Notice that each time a piece is halved, there is double the number of total parts.

Numerator and Denominator
When writing a fraction there are two main parts: the numerator and the denominator. The
numerator is how many parts you have. The denominator is how many parts the whole was divided
into, which represents its denomination or ‘value.’
Aviation Australia
Fractions are written with the numerator over the denominator and a line in between them.
Types of Fractions
There are three types of fractions.
Proper fractions
A proper fraction is when the numerator is smaller than the denominator, therefore a proper fraction
will always have a value of less than one.
Aviation Australia
Improper fractions
An improper fraction is when the numerator is larger than the denominator, therefore an improper
fraction will always have a value of larger than one.
Aviation Australia

Mixed numbers
A mixed number, sometimes called a mixed fraction, is when a whole number is combined with a
proper fraction. As with improper fractions mixed numbers will always have a value of larger than
one.
Aviation Australia
Equivalent Fractions
Sometimes fractions may have different number and appear different, but they are equivalent or
have the same value.
One of the simplest examples of equivalent fractions is the number 1. If the numerator and the
denominator are the same, then the fraction has the same equivalent value as 1 or a whole.
Aviation Australia
Here are some equivalent fractions for 3/4. The equivalent fractions are all multiples of 3/4. Take
15/20 for example. 3 × 5 = 15 and 4 × 5 = 20.
Aviation Australia
As can be seen in equivalent fraction, it is possible to represent one value such as a half in many
forms, 1/2 is much simpler than 350/700 hence the term simplify is used.
It is standard practice to simplify fractions to the lowest possible denominator on completion of the
calculation. When you reduce a fraction, it does not change the fractions value. It simply reduces it to
an equivalent fraction in its simplest form.

Simplifying Fractions
Writing a fraction in its simplest form means that the top and bottom numbers can no longer be
divided by the same whole number exactly or evenly (other than the number 1).
For example, the fraction ⅔ is fully reduced. 2 and 3 do not have any common factors other than 1,
that is there is not any whole number, other than 1, that both 2 and 3 can be divided by without
having a remainder.
Other examples of fully reduced fractions include 7/8, 5/9, and 11/20.
An example of a fraction that is not fully reduced is 2/4. This is because both 2 and 4 can be divided by
2 to equal the fraction 1/2. The image below illustrates that these fractions are equivalent, but 1/2 is
the simpler of the two fractions as it has a lower denominator.
Aviation Australia
Other examples of fractions that can be further reduced include 3/12, 16/20, 8/24.
How to Simplify Fractions

One way to reduce fractions is to find the highest common factor of the numerator and the
denominator. Here are the steps to follow:
Step 1
Write down the factors for the numerator and the denominator.
Step 2
Determine the highest number that will divide into both.
Step 3

Divide the numerator and denominator by this number.
If you do not use the highest common factor, it is possible to carry out the process multiple times until
no further numbers will divide into both numerator and denominator. This may be used if both the
numerator and denominator are both divisible by 10, making further simplification easier.
Example
Reduce (simplify) the following fraction.
24
Step 1
Determine the factors of numerator and denominator.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Determine Highest Common Factor of numerator and denominator.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Divide the numerator and denominator by the Highest Common Factor, in this case 8.

Aviation Australia
Further examples
Aviation Australia
Converting Fractions

Converting Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers
Another part of writing the correct answer of a fraction problem can be converting an improper
fraction to a mixed number. All improper fractions can be converted to mixed numbers an vice versa.
To convert from an improper fraction to a mixed number is essentially calculating how many ‘wholes’
can be taken from the numerator, then leaving the remainder as a fraction.
Example
Convert 3/2 to a mixed number.
Step 1
Divide the numerator by the denominator, long division may be useful for more complex division.
Remember that a fraction will never be a decimal.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
The whole number component of answer will be the whole number component of the mixed number.
The remainder will be the numerator of the fraction component of the mixed number, the
denominator will not change.
If necessary, simplify the remaining fraction.
3 1
⟹ 1
2 2
Therefore, when 3/2 is converted to a mixed number it will be 1 and 1/2.
Further Examples

Aviation Australia
Converting Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions

The opposite of the above section is also true. To carry out some calculations, such as multiplication
or division of mixed numbers, it is required to convert from a mixed number to an improper fraction.
Example
Convert 1 and 1/2 to an improper fraction.
Step 1
Multiply the whole number component of the mixed number by the denominator of the fraction
component. This is essentially converting the “wholes” into a fraction. In this example 2 halves equals
1.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Add the number of “wholes as a fraction” to the original fraction component of the mixed number.
This results in 3 halves.

Aviation Australia
Step 3
To write the improper fraction as place the result of step 2 (addition) as the numerator, and the
unchanged denominator from the improper fraction as the denominator.
Therefore 1 and 1/2, when converted to an improper fraction will be 3/2
1 3
1 ⟹
2 2
Further Examples
Aviation Australia

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions
Many people have heard the saying “you can’t compare apples with oranges”, the same is true for
addition and subtraction of fractions, that is, you need to have pieces of the same size in order carry
out the calculation.
Addition and subtraction require a common denominator.
If the denominator is the same, the equation is done by simply adding or subtracting the numerators.
Addition
Aviation Australia
Note that the third example above resulted in an improper fraction. Using the technique discussed
previously this can be converted to a mixed number.
Subtraction
Aviation Australia
Note that the third example has resulted in a fraction where the numerator is the same as the
denominator. This is equivalent to 1.
When denominators are not the same, the fractions must be converted to equivalent fractions with a
common denominator before addition or subtraction can be done.
This is possible two using one of two methods detailed below.

If there are mixed numbers that you are adding or subtracting, convert them to improper fractions
before you start the process.
Note: The denominator of one or both fractions will change when you convert the fractions to the
same common denominator.
Example (Cross Multiplication)

The following example used different denominators, so cross multiplication is required.
Add the following fractions together.
1 3
+
5 7
Step 1
Cross multiply to get a common denominator.
When using the cross-multiplication method, each fraction is multiplied by the denominator of the
other fraction. Ensure both numerator and denominator are multiplied by this number, this results in
an equivalent fraction with a new denominator that is common, to both fractions.
In the example below 5 × 7 = 7 × 5 = 35.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Add the numerators together, the denominator will remain the same.
Aviation Australia
As 7 + 15 = 22, the sum is 22/35.

Step 3
Where possible, the final step would be to simplify the fraction. In this case the fraction cannot be
simplified any further.
Further Examples
Aviation Australia
Example (Common Factors)

When there is a clear relationship between two different denominators, such as the smaller
denominator is a factor of the larger. The fraction with the smaller denominator may be multiplied by
the appropriate factor to express the fraction as an equivalent fraction with a common denominator.
Subtract the following fractions.
7 5
−
8 16
Step 1
Determine the factors of the larger denominator. If the smaller denominator is not a factor of the
larger, cross multiplication is required.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
As 8 is a factor of 16, multiply 7/8 by the appropriate factor to make the denominator 16, is this
example that is 2/2.

Aviation Australia
Step 3
Now that the fractions have a common denominator, simply subtract the numerators.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
Where possible simplify the fraction.
Further Examples
Aviation Australia

Multiplication of Fractions
Multiplying fractions does not require the denominators to be common. When considering the
example of half of a half, it is quick to arrive at a quarter. To calculate this the numerators are
multiplied together to give 1, and the denominators are multiplied together to give 4 (demonstrated
below).
1 1 1×1 1
× = =
2 2 2×2 4
Example
Multiply the following fractions together.
2 6
×
5 7
Step 1
Re-write the equation.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Carry out the multiplication. If these numbers are larger or more complex it may require long
multiplication off to the side.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Where possible simplify the fraction.

Further Examples
Aviation Australia
Multiplying Different Types of Fractions

The examples above multiplied proper fractions. The same process is used to multiply improper
fractions.
For mixed numbers, first convert an improper fraction. For example, 1 and 1/2 would become 3/2.
Both concepts are demonstrated below.
The standard convention is to return your answer to the same format as provided, unless otherwise
specified.
Example
Multiply the following mixed numbers.
3 1
1 × 2
4 2
Step 1
Convert mixed number to improper fractions.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Multiply the improper fractions.

Aviation Australia
Step 3
Convert to a mixed number and simplify.
Aviation Australia
Therefore;
3 1 3
1 × 2 = 4
4 2 8
Division of Fractions
Dividing fraction is best done by manipulating the equation and using multiplication of the reciprocal
of the divisor.
The reciprocal of a fraction is swapping the denominator and the numerator, this may also be referred
to as inverting the fraction.
Dividing by one number is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal, that is 10 ÷ 2 which is 5, is that
same as 10 × 1/2 which also equal 5.
3 1
÷ ⟹ ×
1 3
As with multiplication, convert mixed numbers to improper fractions prior to calculating.

Example
Solve the following.
2 2
÷
5 3
Step 1
Invert the divisor to establish its reciprocal.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Carry out the multiplication.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Where possible convert to a mixed and simplify the fraction.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, the quotient of 2/5 ÷ 2/3 is 3/5.

Cancelling in Equations
Where possible, ensure that fractions are simplified before calculating the equation. Where the same
number is above and below the line, the value is equivalent to 1.
3
⟹ 1
3
9 × 3 9
∴ ⟹ × 1
5 × 3 5
Example 1
Aviation Australia
In the second example the cancelling out in still possible, this is due to the numerator is being
multiplied by 5, and the denominator also being multiplied by 5.
To help with this concept it may be useful to rewrite the equation, such that the 5’s are lined up,
making it easier to see the equivalent fraction.
Example 2
Aviation Australia

How to Convert a Decimal to Fraction
Some measuring systems, such as the imperial units for length (inches) are often expressed in both
fraction and decimal form. Conversion between the two form is required to work effectively with
system.
As discussed earlier in “What’s in a number” as digits move further to the right of the decimal point,
their weighting or value is decreased by a factor of 10.
This essentially means that depending on the place value it can represent a value in the tenths (1/10),
hundredths (1/100), thousandths (1/1000) or some other factor of 10.
To convert a decimal to a fraction, insert the decimal as the numerator, and a one as the denominator.
As it is not allowable to have a decimal in a fraction, the fraction must be multiplied to create an
equivalent fraction that removes the decimal. One option to achieve this is to multiply both the
numerator and denominator by a factor of ten to remove the decimal point, then simplify.
Example 1
Convert decimal 0.25 to a fraction.
Step 1
Rewrite the decimal as the numerator, and a 1 as the denominator.
Step 2
Multiply by a factor of 10, to remove the decimal in the numerator, in this example it is 100/100.

Step 3
Where possible convert to a mixed and simplify the fraction.
Therefore, 0.25 expressed as a fraction is 1/4.
The second option is, if there is another number that the numerator can be multiplied by easily to
equal one, multiply the fraction by this number.
Example 2
Convert 0.125 to a fraction.
Step 1
Step 2
Multiply by both the numerator and denominator by a factor that leaves the numerator as 1, in this
example is it 8. This will leave the fraction in its simplest form.

How to Convert a Fraction to a Decimal
When converting a fraction to a decimal, divide the numerator by the denominator.
Example
Convert 5/8 to a decimal.
Re-write the equation with the divisor to the left of the dividend. For full division explanation refer to
previous section.
Industry Example
If required to cut a piece of aluminium 6 inches long, with a bilateral tolerance of 3 thou. It may be
necessary to convert 3 thou to a decimal for establishing an upper lower limit on a digital measuring
device.
Note: one thou is one thousandth of an inch.
Therefore, to meet the required specifications the final piece of material must be between 6.003 and
5.997 inches.

Order of Operations
We are often presented with complex problems with several of operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring, etc. To know which operation to perform first is a
matter following a few simple rules or a "system".
Consider a student, who is looking at a maths problem for the first time. At first glance, there might
appear to be two possible approaches to the same problem.
The first time the student approaches the problem below, they perform the addition first and then
the multiplication (from left to right). This results in an answer of 21. This is incorrect!
INCORRECT method
The student is told they have the incorrect answer, so they go back to solve the equation again (as
shown below). This time the multiplication is conducted before the addition. This results in an answer
of 11. This is the correct answer!
CORRECT method
Arithmetic have a defined set of rules to ensure that the same equation will always produce the same
answer. There should never be more than one correct solution.

This set of rules defines a precise order in which all operations must be performed.
To remove this ambiguity, we use the acronym BODMAS. Other acronyms may exist, but the essence
is the same.
This hierarchy of operations is listed below. Where more than one operation exists, the highest
operation must be performed first.
When the level of operations are equal, such as an addition and subtraction, carry out the calculation
working from left to right in the order presented. If you return to the previous example, the correct
solution follows the BODMAS principle and performs the multiplication before the addition.
The following section contains several examples demonstrating the application of BODMAS.
Example 1
Solve the following using BODMAS.
5 + 2 × 3
Step 1
There are no brackets or “orders of,” so division and multiplication are performed first.

Step 2
The final step in the example is to carry out the addition.
Therefore, 5 + 2 × 3 = 11.
In the following example the numbers and operations are the same, however brackets have been
included.
Example 2
(5 + 2)×3
Step 1
Operations inside of brackets are performed first.
Step 2
The final step in this example it to carry out the multiplication.
Therefore,
(5 + 2)×3 = 21
The following section demonstrates the use of the Brackets and “orders of” functions, further
explanation of squares and indices are provided in section 1.2 (Algebra indices).

Further Order of Operations Examples
To further your understanding of the order of operations you can work through and read the
additional examples below.
Example 3
Solve 2 x 32 using BODMAS.
Step 1
There are no brackets so “orders of", or powers are performed first
Step 2
The final step in the example is to carry out the multiplication.
Therefore, 2 x 32 = 18.
Example 4
Solve (2 × 3)2 using BODMAS.
Step 1
There are brackets so the operation inside of the brackets is performed first.
Step 2
The final step in the example it to carry out the multiplication.
Therefore, (2 × 3)2 = 36.

Where the operations are at the same levels such as division and multiplication, simply work from left
to right.
Example 5
Solve 18 ÷ 2 × 3 using BODMAS.
Step 1
The operations are at the same level, in this case work from left to right, so the division is performed
first.
Step 2
The final step in the example is to carry out the multiplication.
Therefore, 18 ÷ 2 × 3 = 27.
Example 6
Solve 18 ÷ (2 × 3) using BODMAS.
Step 1
There are brackets so the operation inside of the brackets is performed first.
Step 2
The final step in the example is to carry out the division.
Therefore, 18 ÷ (2 × 3) = 3.

Example 7
Solve 5 × (12 - 2 × 4) using BODMAS.
Step 1
There are brackets so the operations inside of the brackets are performed first. Apply BODMAS to
the operation inside the brackets, multiply 2 × 4 first.
Step 2
Now only one operation remains inside the brackets so this is carried out next.
Step 3
Once the brackets have been removed, multiply 5 × 4.
Therefore, 5 × (12 - 2 × 4) = 20.
Example 8
3×(25 − 2×(15 − 3×4))
Step 1
In this example there are two sets of brackets. Always work from inside to outside. The equation
inside the innermost brackets (15 - 3 × 4) is solved first. Then the second set of brackets are solved.
The working below has replaced the outer brackets with { } for clarity.
Step 2

Solve the equation inside the () brackets using BODMAS. Once solved, apply this to the larger
equation.
Step 3
Having solved the equation inside the () brackets. The equation now is 3 × {25 - 2 × 3}.
Using BODMAS again, solve the equation inside the {} brackets and apply to the larger equation.
Step 4
The final step of this equation is to complete the final multiplication.
Therefore,
3×(25 − 2×(15 − 3×4)) = 57

Directed Numbers
Addition and Subtraction
From your secondary schooling you should have experience with the use of negative numbers. Some
basic ideas with which you should be familiar are illustrated below.
If a number is positive we typically write the number without a sign, but a negative number must have
the sign. For example: 4 and -4.
A number line is positive to the right of zero and negative to the left.
Rules:
If adding positive numbers, you move in the positive direction (i.e., to the right).
If subtracting a positive number, you move in the negative direction (i.e. to the left).
If adding a negative number, you move in the negative direction (i.e. to the left).
If subtracting a negative number, you move in the positive direction (i.e. to the right).
It is worth noting that brackets are not required, however they are used throughout the examples for
clarity.
Examples of Simple Addition and Subtraction

Examples of Complex Addition and Subtraction
Using BODMAS, work from left to right.
Consider the following multiplication and division rules of directed numbers.
Multiplication and Division Rules

If multiplying or dividing two positive numbers, the answer will be positive.
If multiplying or dividing two negative numbers, the answer will be positive.
If multiplying or dividing a positive number by a negative, the answer will be negative.
If multiplying or dividing a negative number by a positive, the answer will be negative.
Examples of Simple Multiplication and Division

Examples of Complex Multiplication and Division
Using BODMAS, work from left to right.

Arithmetic II (1.1)
Learning Objectives
1.1.5 Explain weights, measures and describe the use of conversion factors (Level 2).
1.1.6 Describe the use of ratio and proportion (Level 2).
1.1.7 Explain the use of averages and percentages (Level 2).
1.1.8 Explain areas and volumes (Level 2).
1.1.9 Describe the use of squares, cubes, square roots and cube roots (Level 2).

Percentages and Ratios
Percentages
Percent essentially means per one hundred. A percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction
of one hundred.
Percentage is often denoted using the percent sign "%".
Some common percentages represent equivalent fractions, such as 50% is 50 per 100 or 50/100
which can be simplified to 1/2 or half.
There are several options when manipulating percentages, to fractions or decimals, or finding a
percentage of another number. These are explored below.
Converting Percentages
Convert a Fraction to a Percentage
When converting a fraction to a percentage, the fraction must be converted to an equivalent fraction
with a denominator of 100.

Example
Convert 3/5 to a percentage.
Multiply the fraction by the appropriate factor to make the denominator 100. In this example so
multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 20.
Therefore,
3
= 60%
5
Convert a Percentage to a Fraction Example

To convert a percentage to a fraction, recall that percent is essentially a fraction with a denominator
of 100. Express in this form, then simplify where possible.
Convert 90% to a fraction.
Rewrite the percentage as a fraction with, 100 as the denominator and simplify.
Therefore, 90% as a fraction is 9/10.
Convert a Decimal to a Percentage Example

Convert 0.875 to a percentage.
Rewrite the decimal as a fraction, then convert to an equivalent fraction with 100 as the
denominator.
Therefore,

0.875 = 87.5%
Convert a Percentage to a Decimal Example

Convert 46.5% to a decimal.
Step 1
Therefore, 46.5% as a decimal is 0.465
Using Percentages
There are many uses of percentages in everyday life such as discounting for sales or marking up
prices by a certain margin to ensure financial returns. In aviation one of the common applications of
percentage is allowable error, or tolerances. One example is the accuracy of resistors, where a gold
band represents ± 5%. This indicates error relative to the value of the given resistor.
Example: Find the Percentage of another number

At the Awesome Aircraft Maintenance Company, apprentices are entitled to a 15% pay rise on
completion of their apprenticeship.
If Apprentices were on $42000 per annum (p.a.):
1. How much would the pay rise be?

2. What would be the new annual salary?
Step 1
To find the value that 15% of $42000 is, multiply 42000 by 15% expressed as a fraction. In this
example the 100 cancels out to give 420 × 15.
Therefore, the apprentice would receive a pay rise of $6300 p.a.
Step 2
To establish the apprentice’s new salary, the pay rise would be added to the starting salary.

Therefore, the apprentice’s new salary would be $48300 p.a.
Find Value in Terms of Percentage

Example 1
What % of 100 is 18? Answer as a percentage.
18
× 100 = 18%
100
Example 2
If an apprentice earns $800 per week and pays $160 rent per week rent, what percentage of the
apprentices pay is contributes to rent?
Step 1
To find what percentage 160 of 800 represents, write this as a fraction, then manipulate to establish
an equivalent fraction with a denominator of 100.
In this case, 800 divided by 8 equals 100 (in the denominator). To apply this to the fraction you must
repeat the action on both the denominator and numerator.
Therefore, the apprentice would contribute 20% of their pay to rent.

Ratios
In mathematics, a ratio is a comparison of two or more numbers that indicates their sizes in relation
to each other. A ratio compares these quantities by division.
There are several different ways to express a ratio. One of the most common is to write a ratio using a
colon as a “this-to-that” comparison (e.g. 3:4 ratio).
Because ratios are division problems, they can also be written as a fraction (e.g. 3/4).
When annotated in instructions as text, such as in an Aircraft Maintenance Manual, a ratio may be
written as 3 parts of Part A to 4 parts of Part B.
No matter how a ratio is written, it is important that it be simplified as far as possible, just like a
fraction.
To find the ratio between quantities:
1. Express them in the same units of measurement.

2. Form a fraction using the first quantity as the numerator and the second quantity as the
denominator.
3. Simplify or reduce to lowest terms.
Example 1
A technical drawing uses a scale of 1 cm to 2 metres. Find the ratio of the scale.
Convert the quantities to the same unit and express as a fraction. Then simplify.
Aviation Australia

Example 2
The aspect ratio of a television tube is the ratio of the horizontal width to the vertical height. A newly
purchased television is 20 inches wide and 15 inches high.
What is the aspect ratio?
Convert the quantities to the same unit and express as a fraction. Then simplify.
Aviation Australia
Mixtures
In the aviation environment we are often required to mix two or more components in specific ratios.
When dealing with mixtures the ratio of components is fixed and creates mathematical relationships.
Example 1
480g of a particular resin is required to conduct a repair. The resin is mixture of three parts, A:B:C in
the ratio 2:3:7.
How much of each part is required?
Step 1
Calculate, how many parts total are required to form the mixture?
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Express each part of the ration as a fraction of the mixture. That is to say, part A represents 2 out of
12 possible parts of the mixture.

Aviation Australia
Step 3
To calculate how much of each part is required, multiply the total (480g) by the appropriate fraction.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
The final check that the quantities for each part has been calculated correctly, is to add the quantity
of each part together and ensure that the total matches the total required.
Aviation Australia

Proportion
A proportion is simply a statement that two values have a fixed relationship between them.
There are two types of proportional relationships, direct proportion and inverse proportion,
understanding how these relationships affect the result of a calculation is a fundamental building
block to understanding how changes of one value will affect the value of another throughout the
following modules of Physics and Electrical Fundamentals.
Aviation Australia
Direct Proportion
When one value in an equation depends on the value of another, such that they increase or decrease
at the same rate they are said to vary directly or be directly proportional.
∝ is the symbol which denotes proportion.
If a is directly proportional to b, this may be expressed as a ∝ b.
If a = 12 and b = 15, if a was doubled to 24 then b must be also be doubled to 30 to maintain the same
proportion.
If plotted on a graph, a directly proportional relationship is a straight line (as shown above).
To use this directly proportional relationship in mathematics, it can be considered as two ratios
expressed as a is to b; as c is to d. Shorthand can be written as a : b = c : d

As discussed in ratios, a ratio may be rewritten as a fraction to give:
a c
=
b d
An example of a common directly proportional relationship is wages, the more hours worked, the
more pay. The amount of pay received is directly proportional to hours worked, this could be
expressed shorthand as: pay ∝ hours worked.
If you are advised that two quantities are directly proportional, then proportion can be used to
calculate an unknown value.
Example 1
A student working a part time job is paid $20.00 per hour. How much will the student receive for
working 3 hours.
Step 1
Rewrite the problem as an equation.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
To calculate the value of the unknown x, the equation must be manipulated to make x the subject. In
this example multiplying both sides of the equation by 3 will allow the 3 under the x to be cancelled
out.
Aviation Australia
Aviation Australia
Therefore, the student working for 3 hours at $20.00/hr would be paid $60.00.

When the unknown value of the proportion is the denominator of the fraction when rewritten, some
additional steps are required (shown below).
Example 2
Given 3 : 4 = 5 : x, what would be the value of x?
Step 1
Rewrite the problem as an equation.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
To calculate the value of x, it is necessary to transpose the equation to make x the subject of the
equation. The first step is to get x to the left-hand side of the equals sign. To achieve this, both sides of
the equation can be multiplied by x. By performing the same operation on both sides of the equation,
the value remains unchanged.
By multiplying by x or x/1 it creates an opportunity to cancel out the x’s on the right-hand side of the
equation.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
The same process is repeated to remove the 4 from under the 3x.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
The same process can now be carried out a final time to get x by itself.
Aviation Australia

Therefore when 3 : 4 = 5 : x, the value of x is 6 and 2/3.
The following example sees a reduction in the values on the right-hand side of the proportion. As
distance decreases, time also decreases. This is still a directly proportional relationship.
Example 3
A light aircraft travels 560 km in 7 hours. How long would the same aircraft take to travel 400 km.
Step 1
Rewrite the problem as an equation. (Units removed for clarity after first entry).
Aviation Australia
Step 2
equation. The first step is to get x to the left-hand side of the equals sign and above the line. To
achieve this, both sides of the equation can be multiplied by x.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
The same process is repeated to remove the 7 from under the 3x.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
The same process is repeated to remove the 560 from in front of the x. Divide both sides by 560 to
remove 560 from the x.
Aviation Australia

Step 5
Now that that x is the subject of the equation, it can be completed. Note that there are several
options for cancelling in this equation.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, the light aircraft would take 5 hours to travel 400 km.
Inverse Proportion
When a quantity in a ratio varies such that one increases as the other decreases, they are said to vary
inversely, or be inversely proportional. This may also be referred to as indirectly proportional.
If a is inversely proportional to b, then a is said to be directly proportional to 1/b. This may also be
written shorthand as a ∝ 1/b.
1
a ∝
b
To use this inversely proportional relationship in mathematics, it can be considered as two ratios
expressed as a is to 1/b; as c is to 1/d.
To express this a fraction would look like a / (1/b) = c / (1/d) . Because dividing by 1/b is the same as
multiplying by its reciprocal b/1 which is b, this can be simplified to ab = cd.
Inversely proportional can be written as ab = cd. This will be elaborated in the examples below.
Inversely proportional relationships exist everywhere in day-to-day life. One common example is
speed relative to time. If an aircraft travels faster, the time taken for the journey will decrease.
If the aircraft were to double its speed, then the time taken for a given distance would halve.
Example 1
When proportion is written as an equation, you introduce a constant of proportionality (in this case
x). This is the multiplier that relates how two things are proportional to each other.
If an aircraft travels at 400 km/h and takes 2 hours to reach it's destination, how long would it take to
reach it's destination if it travelled at 600 km/h instead?
Step 1
Write the equation as speed relates to time (inversely proportional).

Substitute the known values (speed = 400 km/h and time = 2 hours) and solve for the constant of
proportionality.
1 x
speed ∝ ⟹ speed =
time time
x x
400 km/h = ⟹ 400 =
2 hours 2
∴ x = 800 km
The aircraft travelled 800 km total in two hours.
This example uses simple values, so you may have found that you can simply infer the total distance
from being told that the aircraft travelled at 400 km/h for 2 hours (400 multiplied by 2 = 800).
However understanding the equations, will allow for the calculation of not-so straightforward
problems.
Step 2
Once you know the constant of proportionality (in this case the total distance travelled) this value can
be used to find the time taken to cover this same distance at a faster speed of 600 km/h. Using the
same proportionality equation, substitute the speed in and the total distance in and solve for the time
(as follows).
x 800 (km)
speed = ⟹ 600 (km/h) =
time time (h)
800
∴ time = = 1.33 hours
600
This relationship can be summarised as:
The aircraft travelled the same total distance: 800 km.

The aircraft took 2 hours to travel this distance at 400 km/h.
The aircraft took 1 hour and 20 minutes to travel this distance at 600 km/h.
So relating this back to the original inverse relationship, it shows that:
a c
=
1 1
b d
400 600
=
1 1
2 1.33
or
ab = cd ⟹ 400 × 2 = 600 × 1.33 = 800

Example 2
This example follows the same concept of speed and time. The distance between Brisbane and
Sydney is approximately 800 kilometres.
An aircraft travelling 800 kilometres per hour will take 1 hour to fly that distance.
Distance
Speed =
T ime
Time is “below the line” on the RHS of the equation. This represents the inversely proportional
relationship between speed and time.
Calculate the time taken to travel 800 km at 200 km/hr.
Step 1
Rewrite the problem as an equation. (Units removed for clarity after first entry).
Step 2
equation. When both sides of the equation remain the same, the equation may be simply re-written
with x on the left.
Step 3
To calculate the value of x by itself, divide both sides by 200, allowing the 200's to cancel out.
Step 4
To calculate the value of x by itself, divide 800 by 200.

Therefore, an aircraft travelling at 200 km/hr would take 4 hours to travel 800 km.

Weights and Measures
Units and Measures
Tradespeople use measurements to determine the serviceability and safety of aircraft components as
well as selecting the appropriate tools for a specific task.
For example, what size spanner is required to tighten a bolt? Or, what volume or mass of fuel does an
aircraft hold?
To answer these questions, tradespeople take measurements with various instruments, if these
instruments simply gave a value, the answer would be undefined or ambiguous. To identify a specific
parameter or quantity, units are required.
The measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of units. Units are a reference to a
known quantity which are typically standardised values.
For example, the length of wing, which is a physical quantity, can be expressed in meters (unit).
Weight of an object can be expressed in kilograms or grams and other units that are applicable to the
given situation.
The measurement of any quantity always requires a value and a unit.
Socket set sizing

Fundamental Quantities
Illustrated below are the 7 fundamental quantities which are used to describe the physical world. A
fundamental quantity is one which does not depend on any other measurement. The unit size was
selected in an arbitrary fashion.
Aviation Australia
Fundamental Quantities
Aircraft tradespeople will deal with some of these fundamental quantities on a daily basis.

Fundamental Units
There are two systems of fundamental units:
Metric (SI - Systēme Internationale)

Imperial.
Though most nations throughout the world have adopted the Metric or SI standardised units, there a
small number who still use the Imperial unit, the most notable of these being the United States of
America.
Due to the United States having a large influence on the aviation industry, aircraft technicians must
understand and be able to use both systems, including how to convert between them.
The main fundamental quantities used throughout this and the following modules are listed on the
table below showing both SI and associated imperial units.
Aviation Australia
SI Definitions
Length
The SI unit for length is the metre (m). The definition of the metre has changed over time to become
more accurate due to evolving technology. Originally the metre was first defined in 1791 as 1/10 000
000th of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. In 1983, the meter was given its present
definition as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/ 299 792 458th of a second.
Mass
The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg) and was originally defined to be the mass of one litre of water
at ice melting temperature. It has since been redefined in terms of fundamental physical constants.
Time

The unit for time, the second (s) was for many years defined as 1/86400 of an average solar day. As
this definition was quite variable, the formal definition in the International System of Units (SI) is a
much steadier timekeeper - the time taken for 9 192 631 770 Caesium atom vibrations. Caesium has
been historically used in timekeeping due to its natural atomic properties.
Derived Quantities and Units

A derived quantity is one which is derived from a more fundamental quantity. It has a fixed
relationship to one or more fundamental quantities.
Derived quantities may be expressed in units which are defined in terms of the fundamental units
(e.g. m/s), or derived from them, such as newtons (unit of force).
1kg ⋅ m
1N =
2
s
This is read as 1 Newton equals 1 kilogram-metre per second squared. It is the force which gives a
mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration of 1 metre per second, per second (per second squared).
Some examples are listed below:
Aviation Australia
Quantities and Units
Note: there is a difference between the imperial gallon and a US gallon. Aviation makes extensive use
of the US gallon which is the smaller of the two.

Prefixes with Units
When using the SI base units, they can rapidly become either too large or too small to work with
effectively, if writing down twelve zeros, it is easy to make mistakes. It is also easy to misinterpret or
read incorrectly.
To overcome this problem, the SI system uses multiples of the base units. These multiples are
recorded by annotating the base unit with a prefix.
Each prefix is based on a certain power of 10, which can be either positive or negative. Similar to the
concept discussed in numbering systems, the prefix can adjust the weighting of the units.
Prefixes can be applied to all SI units, but only one prefix may be used at any one time.
Aviation Australia
Table of Prefixes

Conversions of Units
If measuring the diameter of a 5 mm bolt, it would be unrealistic to express this in terms of metres.
The excessive use of zeros is likely to lead to errors. For convenience, mm is used.
If comparing 1 mm to 1 m, there would be many more millimeters than meters, so logically converting
5 mm to meters would result in a smaller number. Conversely if converting meters to millimeters,
would see a much larger number.
It is important to note that the specific quantity does not change, but the numerical value will change
as a result of the weight of the prefixed unit.
To convert from the base unit to any other prefixes, divide by the multiplier.
To convert from any prefix to the base, multiply by the multiplier.
To convert from one prefix to another, convert to the base unit, then to the other prefix. If familiar
with scientific notation, which is discussed in (1.2 Algebra), it can be applied here.
The first and second examples will convert from a base unit to prefix, one of larger weighting, and one
of smaller weighting.
Example 1
Convert 28 000 metres (m) to kilometres (km).
Step 1
Determine the multiplier of the new prefix. In this example it is kilo, which is 103 or 1000, meaning a
kilometre has 1000 times the weighting of a metre. You should expect 1000 times less kilometres
than metres.
Step 2
Divide 28 000m by 1000
28000 ÷ 1000 = 28
Therefore, 28 000m is equal to 28 km

Example 2
Convert 0.0017 amp (A) to milliamps (mA)
Step 1
Determine the multiplier of the new prefix. In this example it is milli which is 10-3 or 0.001 meaning a
milliamp has 1000 times less weighting than an amp, so expect 1000 times more milliamps than amps.
Step 2
Divide 0.0017A by 0.001
0.0017 ÷ 0.001 = 1.7
Note: Dividing by 0.001 is the same as multiplying by 1000.
Therefore 0.0017A is equal to 1.7mA.
The third and fourth examples convert from a prefix unit back to the base unit, again one with a larger
weighted unit and one with a smaller weighted unit.
Example 3
Convert 3.65 megalitres (ML) to litres (L)
Step 1
Determine the multiplier of the prefix. In this example it is Mega which is 106 or 1 000 000, meaning a
megalitre has 1 000 000 times the weighting of a litre, so expect 1 000 000 times more litres than
megalitres.
Step 2
Multiply 3.65 ML by 1 000 000 to convert the value to litres.
3.65 × 1000000 = 3650000
Therefore 3.65 ML is equal to 3 650 000 L.

Example 4
Convert 27 nanometres (nm) to metres.
Step 1
Determine the multiplier of the prefix. In this example it is nano which is 10-9 or 0.000000001,
meaning a nanometre has 1 000 000 000 times less weight than that of a metre, so expect 1 000 000
000 times less metres then nanometres.
Step 2
Multiply 27 nm by 0.000 000 001
27 × 0.000000001 = 0.000000027
Therefore, 27 nm is equal to 0.000 000 027 m
Converting Between Measuring Systems

One quantity, such as length, may have various possible units, resulting from differences between the
metric and imperial systems of measurement. Because the quantity is the same, and only the unit is
different, there is relationship between different units, which allows conversion between them.
As the relationship is constant, to convert between units it is possible to simple multiply or divide by
the conversion factor.
Below is a list of common conversion factors from the aviation environment.

Aviation Australia
Common Conversion Factors in Aviation
Note: where the conversion factor is 1, that means the units are equivalent, i.e., 1 nautical mile per
hour is equal to 1 knot.
Some units have similar short-hands which may lead to confusion. For example nautical miles (NM or
nmi) and nanometres (nm). It is important to read units within their given context.
Example 1
Convert 2 metres to inches.
Step 1
Determine the multiplier of the new unit. In this example, using the table from the previous page, to
convert metres to inches, multiply by 39.
Step 2
Multiply 2 by 39
2 × 39 = 78
Therefore, 2 metres is equivalent to 78 inches.

Example 2
Convert 312 inches to metres.
Step 1
Determine the multiplier of the new unit. In this example, again using the table from the previous
page, convert inches to metres, divide by 39.
Step 2
Divide 312 inches by 39.
312 ÷ 39 = 8
Therefore, 312 inches is equivalent to 8 metres.

Squares and Cubes
Square Roots
What are Square Roots?
The square root of a number is essentially asking what number multiplied by itself, will give this
number.
To show the square root, the number is placed under the radical symbol, with the index above the
radical symbol. It is common convention for the 2 to be omitted when looking at the square root.
2
√x = √x
Square Root Examples
Mathematically, there are always two square roots of a number to account for (a positive and
negative value).

3×3 = 9
(−3)×(−3) = 9
⟹ √9 = ± 3
Estimating the Square Root

Often a square root will have irrational solutions and can't be easily calculated. It is possible to
estimate the square root to obtain a ballpark figure.
Example 1
Estimate √75
Find the square numbers immediately above and below the given number, along with their square
roots.
Given that 82 = 64 and 92 = 81, it is logical that the answer is between 8 or 9. This should provide
sufficient accuracy for an estimation.
Remember also that every number has two square roots. Therefore, the answer could also lie
between -8 and -9.
For example, 9 × 9 is 81 and -9 × -9 is also 81.

Cube Roots
What are Cubic Roots?
The cubic root of a number is essentially asking what number multiplied by itself three times, will give
this number.
Similar to the square root, the number is placed under the radical symbol, with the index above the
radical symbol as shown. As this equation is defining the cubic root of 8 the 3 must be written above
the radical sign.
Cube root examples
Note: Unlike square roots, cube roots have only one solution. For example, 3 × 3 × 3 = 27, but -3 × -3 ×
-3 = -27.

Areas and Volumes
Calculating Area
Area has two dimensions, length and width. Units of area result in a square unit. For example, 1m
multiplied by 1m, is 1m2 (1 metre squared).
To calculate areas all measurements must be in the same units. If they are not, then they must be
converted to the same units before calculating the area.
Here are some basic area formulae for regular shapes. To calculate the area, substitute the
appropriate values into the applicable formula.
Areas of Common Shapes
Areas of Common Shapes
Square Area = L2 (Length of sides are equal)
Rectangle Area = L × W (Length × Width)
Triangle Area = ½ × b × h (b = base, h = height)

Circle Area = πr2 (π or 3.14, 22/7 or (3 for estimates) r = radius)
For part of a circle, divide by the appropriate value i.e. a semi-circle, divide by 2.
Trapezium Area = ½ (a + b) * h
Irregular Shapes
To calculate the area of irregular shapes, break the given shape into regular shapes, then add or
subtract the areas as necessary to find the correct area.
Example
Calculate the area of the irregular shape below:
Aviation Australia
Step 1
Divide the shape into regular shapes and note the individual dimensions. In this instance, a triangle
and a semicircle are obtained.

Aviation Australia
Step 2
Add the area of the two basic shapes together.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, the area of the irregular shape provided is 12.28 cm2.

Calculating Surface Area
When calculating the surface area of a three-dimensional shape, calculate the surface area of each
surface, then add them together.
For example:
A cube would have six sides, each of equal size, so the surface area would be
2
Surf ace Area of a cube = 6 × l
Surface Area of a Cube
Calculating Volumes
Volume has three dimensions. The units are cubic (e.g. m3 (cubic metres)).
To calculate volumes all measurements must be in the same units. If they are not, then they must be
converted to the same units before calculating the volume.
Quite often, three-dimensional shapes may be prism. A prism is three-dimensional shape that has a
constant cross-sectional area throughout. The volume of a prism is calculated simply by the area of
constant cross-section multiplied by the length.

Here are some volume formulae. To calculate the volume, substitute the appropriate values into the
applicable formula:
Aviation Australia
Volume Formula
Example
Calculate the volume of a 9cm tall square based pyramid, with a base 6cm long and 4cm wide.
Substitute the given values into the applicable formula.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, the volume of the pyramid described above is 72cm3.

Evaluating Simple Algebraic Expressions and
Equations (1.2.1)
Learning Objectives
1.2.1 Describe simple algebraic expressions (S).
1.2.1.1 Explain the evaluation of simple algebraic expressions using addition (Level 2).
1.2.1.2 Explain the evaluation of simple algebraic expressions using subtraction (Level 2).
1.2.1.3 Explain the evaluation of simple algebraic expressions using multiplication (Level
2).
1.2.1.4 Explain the evaluation of simple algebraic expressions using division (Level 2).
1.2.1.5 Explain the evaluation of simple algebraic expressions using brackets (Level 2).
1.2.1.6 Explain the evaluation of simple algebraic expressions using simple algebraic
fractions (Level 2).
Summary
Algebra is the use of letters or symbols in mathematic equations, to represent unknown values or
quantities.
A letter sometimes called a variable, can represent a number that you do not know the value of.
With the addition of letters into the equation there are common conventions that are applied to help
make the equations easier to work with.
Along with these conventions the are the Basic laws of algebra, these provide a framework for using
algebra to perform calculations.

Introduction to Algebra
The Missing Multiplication Sign
The multiplication sign is left out when multiplying. This is commonly left out to remove any
ambiguity between the term x and the multiplication sign '×'.
3a = 3 × a
Terms
Terms are separated by a plus (+) or minus (-) sign.
Examples of terms include:
2 2
4, x, a, c, a , a b
Different Terms
Different terms are separated, in general, by mathematical operations signs (+ or -).
Example: a + 5 = 7
The term a is different to 5 as they are separated by an addition sign.
An example of a three-term expression:
2 3
5y z − 2a + 94m

Like Terms
Like terms can be added or subtracted as required because they have the same variables.
2a + 2a = 4a
Addition and subtraction can only be performed on terms with the same variable and same index.
3 3 3
a + a = 2a ✓
a
3
+ a
2
✗
Different constants with the same variable can also be added or subtracted.
3 3 3 3
3a + 4a + a = 8a ✓
Coefficient
When a variable is multiplied by a constant, the constant is referred to as the 'coefficient'.
Example: In the term 3a the variable is a and 3 is the coefficient.
3a

Alphabetical Order
Generally, when more than one variable makes up a term, the letters are written in alphabetical order.
3cba ⟹ 3abc
Collecting Like Terms
Aviation Australia
If one algebraic expression is equal to another, they form an equation.
Example equations
2
g − 7i + 3k = 4g − 9a
and
6ab + 7a − 3b = 0
When one variable equals an expression, it is called a formula.
For example;
v = u + at
or
2
v = 2as

Substitution
Substitution is effectively using a given formula to calculate an unknown.
For example, the formula for speed is distance divided by time or s = d / t, using the formula to
calculate speed is achieved by replacing or substituting the terms d and t with known quantities or
values.
Substitution will be practiced in a later section.
Transposition
Transposition is manipulating an equation to change the subject or change which variable the formula
is being used to calculate.
Using the speed formula again, s = d/t, speed is the subject of this formula. It is possible to manipulate
this formula to make either the subject of the formula.
For example, speed (s), distance (d) and time (t):
d
s =
t
d = s × t
d
t =
s
Transposition will be practised further in a later section.

The Basic Laws of Algebra
Introduction to Algebraic Laws
The basic laws of algebra provide the foundation for manipulating algebraic equations.
These laws are:
Associative Law
Commutative law
Distributive Law
These will be expanded below.
The Associative Law

The associative law applies to both addition and multiplication. Below are examples of this law.
Addition
The associative law for addition states:
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
For example, 5 + (3 + 4) = 12 is equivalent to (5 + 3) + 4 = 12.
Multiplication
The associative law for multiplication states that:
a×(b×c) = (a×b)×c
So, for example, 2 × (3 × 5) = 30 is equivalent to (2 × 3) × 5 = 30.
So, it may be said that 2 × (3 × 5) = (2 × 3)× 5 where 2 = a, 3 = b and 5 = c.

The Commutative Law
The commutative law again applies to both addition and multiplication. Below are examples of this
law in action.
Addition
The commutative law for addition states that:
a + b = b + a
Therefore, 5 + 7 = 12 is equivalent to 7 + 5 = 12.
So, it may be said that 5 + 7 = 7 + 5 where 5 = a and 7 = b.
Multiplication
The commutative law for multiplication is:
a×b = b×a
Therefore, 2 × 3 = 6 is equivalent to 3 × 2 = 6.
So, it may be said that 2 × 3 = 3 × 2 where a = 2 and 3 = b.
Additional Examples
Aviation Australia
The commutative law

The Distributive Law
The distributive law is used to expand or remove brackets. When working with an equation
containing brackets, the equation inside the brackets should typically be solved first. However, when
this contains unknown variables, this prevents the equation from being simplified. By removing the
brackets, it may be possible to solve or simplify the equation.
The concept of the distributive law is to distribute the multiplier to each term.
The distributive law states that:
a(b + c) = ab + ac
For example, 4 × (2 + 3) would have the 4 distributed to both the 2 and the 3 becoming 4 × 2 + 4 × 3.
To prove this each equation is calculated below:
Aviation Australia
Therefore, 4 (2 + 3) = 4 × 2 + 4 × 3 where 4 = a, 2 = b and c = 3.
Addition Examples
Aviation Australia
Where there is a sign (+ or -) in front of the multiplier, that must be distributed as well.
A positive multiplied by a negative will result in a negative.
Aviation Australia
A negative multiplied by a negative will result in a positive.

Aviation Australia
Where there is a negative sign with no additional constant, substitute a 1 to make it simple to work
out. Any number multiplied 1 will be the same, so it doesn't change the value.
Aviation Australia
The Distributive Law (Two Sets of Brackets)

When an equation is presented such that there are two set of brackets such as (a + b) (c + d) the
distributive law must be applied from each variable in the 1st set, to each variable in the 2nd set.
In this example, multiply both terms in the second bracket by both terms in the first. Then the
distributive law is applied to each part of the equation.
Step 1
Expand out the first set of brackets.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Now there are still two set of brackets. To remove or expand them the distributive law is applied again
to each half of the equation.
Aviation Australia
This process can be time consuming, as the process is repeatable, the shorthand version of this
process is quite often used. Commonly called FOIL.
F O I L stands for “First Pair, Outside Pair, Inside Pair, Last Pair”.

Example 1
Expand the following.
(a + b)(c + d)
Aviation Australia
As can be seen, this gives the same answer as using the distributive law twice as detailed above.
One possible way to remember FOIL is that it can represent the shape of a moon.
Aviation Australia

Example 2
Expand the following.
(e + 2)(e + 3)
Aviation Australia
The final step is to collect like terms.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, when expanded and simplified (e + 2)(e + 3) = e2 + 5e + 6.
Example 3
Expand the following equation.
2
(a − 5)
Step 1
Rewrite in a format that allows the brackets to be expanded. As any number to the power of 2
(squared) is simply multiplied by itself.
Aviation Australia
Step 2

Use FOIL to expand and removed the brackets.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Collect like terms.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, when expanded and simplified (a - 5)2 = a2 - 10a + 25.
Fractions in Algebra
As with constants in arithmetic the concept of cancelling out can be applied to variables in algebra.
Example 1
Simplify the following equation.
4x
y = + 3
8x
The 4x/8x can be simplified down, the x’s above and below the line cancel each other out.
Aviation Australia
Example 2
In this example x is squared (x2), that is to say x times x. By rewriting the equation in this expanded
form it makes it possible to cancel out one of the x's.
2
4x
y = + 3
8x
Step 1
Rewrite the equation in an expanded format.

Aviation Australia
Step 2
Simplify the fraction and cancel out one x above the line with the x below the line.
Aviation Australia
Example 3
Where there is the same expression both above and below the line this can also cancel out. Note that
it must be exactly the same expression above and below the line.
5(4 − K)
y = − 1
2
8x (4 − K)
The (4 - K) above and below the line can cancel each other out. In this example the fraction cannot be
reduced further.
Aviation Australia

Linear Equations, Indices, Numbering
Systems and Logarithms (1.2.2)
Learning Objectives
1.2.2.1 Show the use of basic calculations of linear equations and their solution (Level 1).
1.2.2.2 Show the use of indices and powers, negative and fractional indices (Level 1).
1.2.2.3 Show the use of binary and other applicable numbering systems (Level 1).
1.2.2.4 Show the use of simultaneous equations and second degree equations with one
unknown (Level 1).
1.2.2.5 Show the use of logarithms (Level 1).

Linear Equations
Introduction to Linear Equations
The simplest form of algebra contains only a single unknown term, or variable.
An equation with only a single variable when plotted on a graph will result in a straight line. This type
of equation is called a “Linear equation.”
If an equation has a term that is squared, or has any other index (e.g., a2 or a3) this represents a × a
which is no longer a single variable, and as such is no longer a linear equation. This may be proven as
the equation will not represent a straight line when plotted on graph paper.
If given the equation 2x = 10, this can be expressed in words as "two times what number equals ten".
Some people will look at this and quickly “see” that x = 5 as 2 × 5 = 10. Rather than trial and error, by
using algebra it is possible to calculate the answer. This is especially relevant with more complex
equations.
The goal for solving linear equations is to manipulate the equation to get the variable by itself on one
side of the equation, and the numbers on the other. This allows the calculation to be carried out to
give a final figure equal to the variable.
In arithmetic we learned that 'If you do the same thing to both sides of an equation, you do not
change the value of the equation'.
This concept is used to create a situation that “cancels out” on one side of the equation, leaving the
opposite equation on the other side.
Example 1
Solve for x in the following equation.
Aviation Australia
Step 1
To isolate x it is possible to subtract 1 from both sides of the equation.
Aviation Australia
Step 2

On the left of the equation, +1 is cancelled out by the equal and opposite -1.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Now that it is isolated, it is possible to solve for x.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, where x + 1 = 5, x = 4.
When looking at the above example consider Step 2; the +1 from the original equation has become -1
on the opposite side.
This leads to the saying or rule, “Swap the side, Swap the sign,” this is applicable all operations + or -, x
or ÷. This can also apply to squares, where the opposite would be square root.
Using Linear Equations

Linear equations are commonly used during calibration of aircraft components. Examples include
temperature sensors and torque shaft sensors.
One way to consider a linear equation is that if the one input variable changes, the output will change
in response.
In the following example, x is the input, or single variable, and y is the output.
The output y will change, but only when the input x changes.
x and y are commonly used as they line up with the axes’ labels of a standard graph plot. However,
other terms may be used as required.
For example: y = 2x + 1 is a linear equation.
When a range of x values are substituted into the above equation, they produce a corresponding set
of y values. If these values are then plotted on a standard graph (x and y axis) they produce a straight
line.
The standard equation for a straight line is:
y = mx + c

where m is the gradient and c is the constant (or y-intercept), these will be discussed further under
the graphs section of this resource.
Aviation Australia
Straight Line Graph
Using mathematics, it is possible to solve for a feature on the graph such as when the line crosses the
x axis, y axis or a particular point on the line.
Example 2
When using the above equation, and asked the question:
At what value does the line cross the y-axis?
As the line intersects (crosses) the y-axis when x = 0 it is possible to substitute x = 0 into the formula.
Aviation Australia
This can be confirmed by looking at the graph.

Example 3
The same process can be carried out to calculate the value of x when the line crosses the x axis. The
line intersects the x-axis when y = 0, it is possible to substitute y = 0 into the equation.
This question can be approached two ways:
1. Substitute y = 0 into the formula, then isolate x to one side of the equation, or
2. Transpose the formula to make x the subject, then substitute in y = 0.
Both work equally well, however the first method will be used here.
y = 2x + 1
Step 1
Substitute y = 0 into the formula
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Now x is the only variable in the equation and it must be isolated. Subtract 1 from each side of the
equation.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Divide each side of the equation by 2. The 2s on the right-hand side cancel out.
Aviation Australia
Note that when the equation is simply rewritten with x on the left there is no sign change as both
expressions have switched sides. This can also be confirmed by looking at the graph.
Step 4
It is also possible to substitute the calculated value x = -1/2 back into the original formula to confirm
the answer, which should be y = 0.

Aviation Australia
Complex Linear Equations

As the linear equations become more complex, there are a few concepts that are worth applying:
Make the variable the subject of the equation (variable on one side)
Keep the subject positive is easier to work with
Eliminate fractions where possible and keep the subject as the numerator
Remove brackets using the distributive law and collect like terms.
Below are some worked example of more complex linear equations.
Example 4
In this example the variable is on one side, with constant on both sides of the equation.
Solve the following equation.
2x + 3 = 9
Step 1
Subtract 3 from both sides to leave 2x on the left.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
To isolate x by itself, divide both sides of the equation by 2.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
To check or confirm the answer substitute the calculated value x = 3 back into the original formula to
confirm the answer.

Aviation Australia
Therefore, if
2x + 3 = 9, then x = 3
Example 5
In this example there are variables and constants on both sides of the equation. To solve, move
variables to one side and constants to the other. Note, the variable is the same.
7x + 15 = 3x − 1
Step 1
Subtract 15 from both sides to leave 7x on the left.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Subtract 3x from both sides to move the 3x on the right to the left, then collect like terms.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Divide both sides of the equation by 4 to leave x by itself.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, where 7x + 15 = 3x - 1, x = -4.
Step 4
To check or confirm the answer substitute the calculated value x = -4 back into the original formula to
confirm the answer.

Aviation Australia
Step 5
Separate these two equations and confirm they have the same answer.
Aviation Australia
As these two equations are equal, the answer x = -4 is correct.
Example 6
In this example there are variables and constants on both sides of the equation that are part of a
fraction. To solve, manipulate the fractions to have a common denominator, move variables to one
side and constants to the other.
2x x x
− + 3 =
4 5 10
Step 1
Each fraction has a different denominator. Therefore the lowest common denominator must be
determined. It is simplest to multiply the denominators on left hand side of the equation 4 × 5 = 20.
This also is works well as 2 × 10 = 20.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Start to separate the variables to one side and constants to the other side.
Subtract 3 from each side.
Aviation Australia

Step 3
Separate the variables to one side and constants to the other side.
Subtract 2x/20 from each side.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
Now that all the variables are on one side add or subtract the fractions as necessary to simplify.
Aviation Australia
Step 5
Continue to isolate x, removing the fraction by multiplying both sides of the equation by 20.
Aviation Australia
Step 6
Continue to isolate x, by dividing both sides of the equation by 4.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, where
2x x x
− + 3 = , x = −15
4 5 10
This can be confirmed by substituting x = -15 into the original equation.

Example 7
In this example there are variables and constants inside brackets. To solve, use the distributive law to
expand and remove the brackets. Then move variables to one side and constants to the other.
3(x + 3) − 1 = 20
Step 1
Using the distributive law multiply each term inside the brackets by 3. Simplify and collect like terms.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Subtract -8 from both sides to remove the +8 on the left. Then collect like terms.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
To isolate x divide both side of the equation by 3. Then simplify the fraction.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
To check or confirm the answer substitute the calculated value x = 4 back into the original formula to
confirm the answer.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, where
3(x + 3) − 1 = 20 ,
x = 4

Manipulating Formulae
Transposition of Formulae
Transposition is manipulating an equation to change the subject (or variable) that the formula is being
used to calculate.
When transposing formulae, the same rule applies as those discussed in linear equations. The key
difference is that many formulae have more than one variable.
Recall
"Whatever is done to one side of the formula must be done to the other."
If you subtract, divide, multiply, square or take the square root of any of the terms on one side, you
must do it to the other side of the formula.
Example 1
Transpose the following to make I the subject.
Aviation Australia
To isolate I, divide both sides of the equation by t. Note when the equation is simply rewritten with I
on the left, no part of the equation is changing.
Aviation Australia
Example 2
The following formula has a squared term. Transpose to make V the subject.
Aviation Australia
Step 1
Rewrite the equation to make it easier to work with.

Aviation Australia
Step 2
Multiply both sides of the equation by 2 to remove the fraction.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Divide both sides of the equation by r to isolate the variable.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
Take the square root of both sides of the equation to get the variable with no exponent.
Aviation Australia

Substitution (Using Formulae)
So far, we have used substitution of a single variable to confirm that a solution is correct. In this
section we will substitute several values for a range of variables. The key to substitution is to apply
BODMAS and ensure the correct values are substituted into the equation.
Example 1
This example contains several variables.
Evaluate z in the following.
z = 2x–3y
where x = 4 and y = −5
Step 1
Substitute x = 4 and y = -5 into the equation, then calculate using BODMAS
Aviation Australia
Example 2
This example includes several variables within brackets.
Evaluate the following.
d = 2e÷(f g) ,
where e = 3, f = 9 and g = 4
Step 1
Rewrite the equation in a format that it easier to work with.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Substitute e = 3, f = 4 and g = 9 into the equation. Then calculate using cancelling and BODMAS.

The 2 and 4 simplify to 1/2, then the 3 and 9 simplify to 1/3.
Aviation Australia
Example 3
This example includes both squared and square root functions.
Evaluate the following equation.
2
v = m − √r ,
where r = 25 and m = 4
Note that because there is a square root, there will be two solutions.
Step 1
Substitute m = 4 and r = 25 into the equation.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Then calculate using cancelling and BODMAS.
Aviation Australia

Factorisation
Factorising is the opposite procedure to the distributive law. In factorising, the aim is to take a
common factor out of an expression and apply it to the expression within brackets.
For example:
If given the equation 3x + 3, this could be expressed in a factorised form as 3(x + 1). Use the
distributive law to confirm this.
To factorise an expression to its simplest form, find the highest common factor for each term of the
expression. Where variables are common to each term, these can be considered a common factor.
Example 1
Factorise the following expression.
12x + 28
Step 1
List the factors of each term and select the highest common factor.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Divide each term by the highest common factor.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Write the expression in factorised form. The highest common factor goes in front of the brackets with
the reduced terms inside the brackets.

Aviation Australia
Example 2
In this example x appears in both x and x2 powers. Since x appears in all (both) terms, it is a common
factor.
2
4x + 32x
Step 1
List the factors of each term, considering constants and variables.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Divide each term by the highest common factor, then cancel out and simplify.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Write the equation in factorised form with the highest common factor in front of the brackets and the
reduced terms inside brackets.
Aviation Australia

Example 3
In this example there are three terms which may be factorised.
Factorise the following equation.
2
12x + 24x + 36
Step 1
List the factors of each term and select the highest common factor.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Divide each term by the highest common factor.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Write the equation in factorised format. The highest common factor goes in front of the brackets
with the reduced terms inside the brackets.
Aviation Australia

Example 4
In this example there are multiple variables and a negative factor.
2
−2ab − 4abc
Step 1
List the factors of each term and select the highest common factor, notice that as both terms have a
negative in front this is also common to both.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Divide each term by the highest common factor, then cancel out and simplify. Note that the two
negative signs cancel out, leaving both terms positive.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Write the equation in factorised form with the highest common factor in front of the brackets and the
reduced terms inside the brackets.
Aviation Australia

Example 5
In this example there are already two sets of brackets. However, as the expression within the
brackets is the same, this can be considered a common factor.
x(x − 2) + 3(x − 2)
Step 1
List the factors of each term and select the highest common factor. In this case, the factor is (x - 2).
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Divide each term by the highest common factor, then cancel out and simplify. Note that the brackets
(top and bottom) will cancel.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Write the equation in factorised form. The order of brackets does not matter, but it is good practice
to put the factor (x - 2) first.
Aviation Australia

Index Notation
Introduction to Index Notation
Up until this point, only squares and cubes have been used. However, it is possible that a constant or
variable can be multiplied by itself many times. When this happens it is referred to as either an index,
exponent or power.
Aviation Australia
For example, instead of writing 10 x 10, we can write 102.
The number 10 is called the base.
The number 2 is the index, or exponent, and tells us how many times the base appears.
The number 10 is “raised to the power of 2”.
Where a term is written with no index, the index is 1 (e.g. x = x1). The index value of 1 always exists on
a term where the index is not specified. The index value of 1 is not annotated unless explicitly
required (e.g. during maths calculations).
Scientific notation which uses index notation can be used an alternative shorthand way of writing
very large or very small numbers. This is covered in the next section.

Expressing in Index Notation
To express an equation in index notation, count the number of times a constant or variable is used in
multiplication of itself. Then write this number, smaller, to the top right.
Order of operations (BODMAS) must also be applied. This is important as -42 = -(4)2 = -16 which is
different to (-4)2 = 16, as when (-4) × (-4) the negatives multiply to make a positive.
Aviation Australia
1
a = a
1
24 = 24
Expanding Index Notation

To expand index notation to an expression, write down the base the number of times indicated by the
index with multiplication signs in between.
Aviation Australia

Negative Indices
Where multiplying a variable by itself creates a positive index, a negative index creates a division or
reciprocal.
When this is annotated as x-1 this represents 1/x1 or 1/x
The negative index creates the reciprocal of equivalent positive index.
1 1
−4
a = =
4
a a×a×a×a
Zero Index
Any constant or variable raised to the power of 0 equals 1.
To prove this, consider the quotient (meaning the result obtained by dividing one value by another) of
two variables, where the same power is applied to the numerator and the denominator.
Recall that any time the numerator is the same as the denominator the fraction will equal 1. As
discussed in negative indices, dividing by a4 is the multiplying by its reciprocal 1/a4 or a-4.
In index laws it states that when two variables are multiplied together, the exponents are added
together. When a’s exponents, 4 and -4 are added together they equal zero, therefore when a
constant or variable are raised to the power of zero, the answer will be one.
For example:
0
a = 1
4
0 4 −4 4
1 a
⟹ a = a × a = a × = = 1
4 4
a a

Index Laws
As with the basic laws of algebra, there are a number of index laws that provide a foundation for
manipulating algebraic functions with indices.
These laws are summarised in the table below. Each law is explained using examples in the following
pages.
Aviation Australia
Index Laws Table

Index Multiplication
When multiplying constants or variable with the same base, add the indices.
Rule:
m n m+n
a × a = a
Example
Aviation Australia
To prove this using the first example, compare expanded and simplified format.
Aviation Australia

Index Division
When dividing constants or a variable with the same base, subtract the indices.
Rule:
m
a
m n m−n
= a ÷a = a
n
a
Examples
Aviation Australia
To prove this using the first example, compare expanded and simplified formats.
Aviation Australia

Indices with Brackets
When a power inside the bracket is raised to a power outside of the bracket, multiply the powers
together.
Rule:
m n m×n
(a ) = a
Examples
Aviation Australia
Worked Example
Simplify the following expression:
3 2 3 3
(a ) + (b )
For each term, multiply the power outside the brackets with the power inside the brackets.
3×2 3×3
a + b
6 9
⟹ a + b

Reciprocal and Fractional Indices
A fractional power is taken to be that root of the base.
Rules:
1
n
√ 1 n
a n
= a = √a
m
n
m
a n
= √a
Numerator is the power and the denominator is the root.
Examples
Aviation Australia

Negative Reciprocal and Fractional Indices
This works similar to the previous reciprocal and fractional indices rule, however the negative
number creates a reciprocal of the result.
Rules:
−1 1
a n
=
n
√a
m 1
a n
=
n
√ am
Examples
Aviation Australia

Exponential Expressions Involving Mixed Bases
When working with exponential expressions involving different bases it is possible to combine terms.
To simplify, multiply or divide the coefficients, then the bases applying the index laws.
Example 1
2 3
(3a) ×(2a)
Step 1
This equation can be expanded to the following.
2 2 3 3
3 × a × 2 × a
Step 2
Separate coefficients and variables into their groups.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Simplify where possible, then rewrite in it's simplified form.
Aviation Australia

Example 2
3 2 3
2a b ×3a b
Step 1
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Simplify where possible, then rewrite in simplified form.
Aviation Australia
Example 3
2 3 4 2
3m np × 4m n p
2 5
2mn p
Step 1
Aviation Australia

Step 2
Simplify where possible. As this example is more complex, additional steps are included to show
application of the index laws.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Simplify where possible.
Aviation Australia

Scientific Notation
Introduction to Scientific Notation
Very large or very small numbers are more conveniently expressed as a product of a positive or
negative number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10.
Numbers expressed in this form are said to be in scientific notation. Sometimes this may also be
called standard form.
Scientific notation format is when a number between positive or negative 1 and 10 with decimals, is
provided as a base × 10 with an exponent that adjusts the decimal point to the correct value.
Aviation Australia
Example
Express 5 100 000 000 in scientific notation.
9
5100000000 = 5.1 × 1000000000 = 5.1 × 10

Decimal to Scientific Notation
To express in scientific notation, count the number of decimal places the decimal point needs to be
moved to leave a decimal between 1 and 10 (positive or negative). This number is used as the
exponent.
For example, 96 000 must be moved to the right four decimal places to become 9.6, this can also be
though of as 9.6 × 10 000 = 96 000 (which has 4 zeros, so can be expressed as 10 to the power of 4).
Therefore, the scientific notation representation of 96 000 is 9.6 multiplied by 10 to the power of 4.
This example is shown below in a single line.
4
96000 = 9.6 × 10000 = 9.6 × 10
Examples
Aviation Australia
Scientific Notation to Decimal

To express scientific notation in decimal, multiply the coefficient by 10 to the applicable power.
This essentially equates to moving the decimal point to the right for a positive index, or to the left for
a negative index.
Examples
Aviation Australia

Working with Scientific Notation
It is possible to perform calculations with numbers that are expressed in scientific notation.
As scientific notation is broken down to a coefficient and a base ten power, it is a case calculating the
coefficient and using index laws to solve for the final base ten power to be applied.
Be sure to apply BODMAS as applicable.
Example 1
Simplify the following expression, leaving in scientific notation.
3 4
1.8×10 ×2×10
Step 1
Separate the coefficients and the base ten powers.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Solve coefficients using arithmetic and base ten powers using index laws. Once solved combine to
leave the final answer.
Aviation Australia

Example 2
Simplify the following expression and leave in scientific notation.
7 −5
8.5 × 10 × 2.1 × 10
4 −8
2.5 × 10 × 2.0 × 10
Step 1
Separate the coefficients and the base ten powers.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Solve coefficients using arithmetic and base ten powers using index laws. Once solved, combine to
leave the final answer.
Aviation Australia

Significant Figures
The following digits in a value are considered significant figures:
All non-zero digits

All zeros between non-zero digits
When the decimal point is indicated, all zeros to the right of the rightmost non‑zero digit.
Leading zeros are not significant.
Trailing zeros without a decimal point are not significant.
Examples
Aviation Australia

Numbering Systems
Decimal
From the day we learn to count, we begin to count with our fingers and we focus on ten. So, this is why
our primary number system is based on the number ten. The word decimal is derived from Deci, the
prefix for the number 10.
When talking about decimal, it means that the numbering system has ten possible symbols or digits
that can represent an individual number. They are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. The number ten is
actually a combination of the digits 1 and 0. A decimal numbering system is said to be base 10 or have
a radix of 10.
In the section on decimal numbers, the following table was broken down to its individual place values.
Aviation Australia
Note that the positional place values may be expressed as base 10 to a power, corresponding to the
place value of the column.
To define a numbering system, it may be written as:
Aviation Australia
It is standard convention to leave the radix out when writing a decimal value.
The one’s column for all numbering systems will be the base number to the power of zero. As
discussed during index notation, any base to the power of zero equals 1.

Binary
Binary is another common numbering system that utilises the concept of positional values, with the
main change being that there are only two symbols or digits available to be used, 0 or 1, making the
system have a base or radix of two.
Binary is in common use in computers, where a 1 or 0 may be used to represent a on or off state.
Note that the decimal point in a binary number is called a Binary Point or Radix Point.
Aviation Australia
An example of a binary number is as follows.
11012
Note that the radix is annotated to define that this number is using the base 2 numbering system.
Aviation Australia
To find the decimal equivalent for a binary number the arithmetic must be completed, that is 8 + 4 + 0
+ 1 which is 13.
This means that 11012 (binary) is equivalent to 1310 (decimal).

Octal
Octal is another numbering system used within computers and calculators, as well as the squawk
codes that an aircraft transponder uses to communicate with air traffic control.
As the name suggests, octal is a base eight. The digits available for use in the octal system are 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. This system again uses the positional values established by a base of 8 to a power
corresponding to the place value.
Aviation Australia
An example of a octal number is as follows.
10378
Note that the radix (8) is annotated to define that this number is using the base 8 numbering system.
Aviation Australia

To find the decimal equivalent for an octal number the arithmetic must be completed (e.g. 512 + 0 +
24 + 7 which is 543 (for the example above).
This means that 10378 (octal) is equivalent to 54310 (decimal).
Hexadecimal
The hexadecimal system is the final numbering system that is covered in this topic. Hex is the prefix
for six and Deci is the prefix for ten, the two are combined to give a base 16 numbering system. This
means there must be sixteen digits or symbols available, they are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E
and F.
Hexadecimal is used in certain elements of computer programming. It is used for shortening the
length of colour codes for websites and software.
This system again uses the positional values, established by a base of 16, to a power corresponding to
the place value.
Aviation Australia
An example of a hexadecimal number is as follows.
F 2816
Note that the radix is annotated to define that this number is using the base 16 numbering system.

Aviation Australia
To find the decimal equivalent for a hexadecimal number the arithmetic must be completed, that is
3840 + 32 + 8 which is 388010.
This means that F2816 (hexadecimal) is equivalent to 388010 (decimal).
The table below is a comparison between numbering systems from 0 through to 1610.
Aviation Australia
Numbering System Comparisons (0-16)

Simultaneous Linear Equations
Introduction to Simultaneous Equations
If two linear equations each involving two different variables are considered at the same time they
are called simultaneous equations.
When a single linear equation is plotted on a graph, it will produce a straight line, if a second linear
equation is plotted on the same graph they will only intersect at a single point. This is the only point
where the equations will have valid solutions.
Example
Find two numbers such that their sum is 35 and their difference is 5.
This word problem can be expressed algebraically by variables representing one number and the
other (in this case x and y will be used).
Thus, the problem may be indicated by the two equations:
x + y = 35
x − y = 5
x + y = 35 is the sum and x - y = 5 is the difference.
When transposed these become:
y = 35 − x
y = x − 5
Note that at this point, we could have made either x or y the subject. This example transposed the
equations to solve for y. Typically these variable (x and y) are used, as the general form for a straight
line is:
y = mx + c

Aviation Australia
Simultaneous Equations Plotted on Graph
These two linear equations have been plotted on this graph. Two numbers have been found with a
sum of 35 and a difference of 5 as per the original problem.
Note that there is only one point that they intersect. Thus only one set of values for x and y are the
same for both lines. This is when x is equal to 20 and y is equal to 15.
Solving linear equations is using algebra to calculate this point.
Graphing these lines (manually) every time would take a long time. There are two methods to solve
simultaneous linear equations: substitution and elimination. In the following examples the equation
above is solved using both methods.

Substitution Method
Using the substitution method, transpose one of the equations to make a single variable the subject
of the equation. This transposed equation is then substituted to the second linear equation, hence the
term “substitution method.”
Once substituted into the second equation, this will leave one equation with a single variable that can
be manipulated to solve for the remaining variable. Once the value of one variable is known, this is
substituted into the first equation to solve for the other variable.
Example 1
Solve for x and y in the following simultaneous equations.
x + y = 35 ,
x − y = 5
Step 1
Transpose one equation to make one variable the subject, in this instance x + y = 35 is transposed by
subtracting x from both sides.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Substitute the equation for y into the second equation. Note, when expanding the brackets, the minus
signs multiply to create a positive x.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Now that there is a single variable, solve for x as discussed in linear equations.
Aviation Australia
Step 4

Now that it is known that x = 20, substitute this into the equation from step 1: y = 35 - x to solve for y.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, for the given simultaneous linear equations:
x = 20
y = 15
Step 5
To confirm the correct answer, it is possible substitute the calculated values for x and y into the
original equations and check that they give the same answer.
Aviation Australia
This can also be confirmed visually by referring to the graph, observing that the values for x and y
represent the point at which the lines intersect (20, 15).
Example 2
4x + y = 11 ,
x + 2y = 8
Step 1
Transpose one equation to make one variable the subject. In this instance 4x + y = 11 is transposed by
subtracting 4x from both sides. Ideally, the variable should have no coefficient, so using this
transposed equation makes it simpler to solve.
Aviation Australia
Step 2

Next, substitute the equation for y into the second equation. Expand the brackets.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Collect like terms.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
Now that there is a single variable, solve for x as discussed in linear equations.
Aviation Australia
Step 5
Now that it is known that x = 2, substitute this into y = 11 - 4x to solve for y.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, for the given simultaneous linear equations x = 2 and y = 3.
Step 6
To confirm the correct answer, it is possible substitute the calculated values for x and y into the
original equations and check that they give the same answer.
Aviation Australia

Elimination Method
The elimination method is a different approach to solving simultaneous equations. In this method the
equations are added together, or one subtracted from the other, to cancel (or eliminate) one of the
variables. In some instances, the equations may need to be multiplied to allow them to cancel out.
Remember that if both sides of the equation are multiplied by the same value it does not change the
value of the equation.
x + y = 35 ,
x − y = 5
Example 1
x + y = 35 ,
x − y = 5
Step 1
In this instance there are an even number of x’s and y’s in each equation. However one equation has
positive y, whilst the other has negative y. These values added together will cancel out.
To add the equations together, write them one above the other as per a normal addition, aligning the
variables.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Now that y has been “eliminated,” it is possible to solve for x.
Aviation Australia

Step 3
Now that it is known that x = 20, substitute this into the either of the original equations to solve for y.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, for the given simultaneous linear equations x = 20 and y = 15.
Step 4
To confirm the correct answer, substitute the calculated values for x and y into the original equations
and check that they give the same answers.
Aviation Australia
Example 2
x + 3y = 9 ,
2x − y = 4
Step 1
In this instance there are an uneven number of x’s and y’s in each equation. To allow for elimination,
create an even number of x’s or y’s.
To achieve this, the first equation can be multiplied by 2, or the second equation can be multiplied by
3.
In this example the second equation, 2x - y = 4 is multiplied by 3 to allow the y coefficients +3 and -3
to cancel out, eliminating the variable.
Aviation Australia

Step 2
To add the equations together, write them one above the other as per normal addition, aligning the
variables.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Now that y has been “eliminated,” it is possible to solve for x.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
Now that it is known that x = 3, substitute this into the either of the original equations to solve for y.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, for the given simultaneous linear equations:
x = 3
y = 2
Step 5
To confirm the correct answer, substitute the calculated values for x and y into the original equations
and check that they give the same answers.
Aviation Australia

Quadratic Equations
Introduction to Quadratics
A quadratic equation is an equation with one variable which occurs twice with the powers 1 and 2.
This is one power higher than a linear equation. This exponent is why quadratic equations are termed
“equations of the second degree.”
The standard way of writing a quadratic equation is
2
y = ax + bx + c
However, this can be rearranged to
2
ax + bx + c = 0
to solve for x.
a is the coefficient of x2.
b is the coefficient of x.
c is a constant value.
No matter how they are written, all quadratic equations can be transposed to this standard form.
When a quadratic equation is plotted on a graph, it will produce a mathematically significant shape
called a parabola. These shapes (profiles) are commonly found on aircraft components (e.g. light
reflectors and weather radar antennas).

Aviation Australia
Parabola
When looking at the parabola plotted on the graph above; there are two places that the curve crosses
the x axis. This is due to the fact that a square root has two solutions.
Note that where a line crosses the x axis, y will equal 0. This means that there are two possible values
for x that will result in y equalling 0.
Recall the the standard way of writing a quadratic equation (y = ax2 + bx + c). When solving for x,
values for y = 0 are found. These are known as the "roots" and are solved using the form ax2 + bx + c =
0. If a quadratic is not presented in the standard format, manipulate the equation to achieve this.
There are two ways to work through these problems, the Factorising Method and the Quadratic
Formula. The equation above will be solved by each method.

Factorising Method
During the section on Basic Laws of Algebra, when the Distributive law was applied twice to expand
two sets of brackets, the simplified answer was in the form of a quadratic equation.
2
(x − 2)(x + 3) ⟹ x + x − 6
Factorising is the reversal of the distributive law. When applied to quadratics this results in two sets
of brackets, each with one variable and one constant (e.g. (x + a)(x - b)).
Once there are two sets of brackets, if either is set to equal zero, the equation will cancel out the
value of the other when multiplied together. From the example above, when either (x + a) = 0 or (x - b)
= 0, both sides will equal zero.
To find the two values that produce this situation, separate the two sets of brackets and find what x
must be to make each equation equal zero. These two values will align with where the parabola
crosses the x axis.
For a simple quadratic (when a = 1) find two numbers (factors) that multiply to equal c, and when
added together will equal b.
Aviation Australia
Example 1
Solve for x in the following equation.
2
x + 2x − 15 = 0
Step 1
List the factor of c: x2 + 2x - 15 = 0

Aviation Australia
Step 2
Using the factors above, identify which factor pair (including sign) will add to give a sum of +2.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Create two sets of brackets with the given variable in each, then use the two factors above placed one
next to each x.
Aviation Australia
It is possible to use the distributive law to confirm that when expanded and simplified, these factors
will give the same equation as the original.
Now the factorised equation is known: (x - 3)(x + 5) = 0
Step 4
Given that any number multiplied by zero is zero, when either (x - 3) = 0 or (x + 5) = 0, the equation will
be valid.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, when x2 + 2x - 15 = 0 the solution is x = 3 or x = -5.

This can also be confirmed visually by referring to the graph and observing the values where the
plotted curve crosses the x axis.
Further examples
Aviation Australia
For more complex quadratic equations (a ≠ 1) multiply a and c to give a new figure, then use the
factors of this number that add together to equal b.
The Quadratic Formula

The second method for solving quadratic equations is using the Quadratic Formula. This is typically
used when the quadratic equation does not factorise easily. This is often when the roots are
irrational.
This is the quadratic formula:
Aviation Australia
Note that you will not be required to memorise or use this in an exam.
To use the quadratic equation, identify a, b and c using the standard format for a quadratic equation,
then substitute those values into the formula.
Aviation Australia
Note that the use of the ± sign suggests that there are two solutions as detailed above. In most cases
this is true, only in special cases there will be one or no solutions.
The first example is the equation for the parabola graphed above.

Example 1
Solve for x in the following quadratic equation.
2
x + 2x − 15 = 0
Step 1
Identify a, b and c in the equation x2 + 2x - 15 = 0
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Now that values for a, b and c are known, substitute them into the quadratic formula.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Paying careful attention to BODMAS, solve for x.
2
−2 ± √ (2 ) − (4 × 1 × −15)
Aviation Australia
Step 4
Under the square root sign, 4 - (-60) = 64, so √(64) = ±8.
Aviation Australia

Step 5
At this stage split the ± part of equation into two, one with +8 and one with -8 and continue to solve
for x.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, when x2 + 2x - 15 the solution is x = 3 or x = -5.
Example 2
Solve for q in the following equation.
2
2q + 5q = −3
Step 1
Manipulate the equation to match the standard format for a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (or in
this case aq2 + bq + c = 0).
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Identify a, b and c in the equation 2q2 + 5q + 3 = 0.
Aviation Australia
Step 3

Now that values for a, b and c are known, substitute them into the quadratic formula.
Aviation Australia
Step 4
Paying careful attention to BODMAS, solve for q.
52 = 25
4 × 2 × 3 = 24
and 2 × 2 = 4.
Aviation Australia
Step 5
Under the square root sign, 25 - 24 = 1, so √(1) = ± 1
Aviation Australia
Step 6
At this stage split the ± part of equation into two equations (one with -1 and one with +1) and
continue to solve for q.

Aviation Australia
Therefore, when 2q2 + 5q = -3 the solution is q = -1 or q = -1 1⁄2

Logarithms
Introduction to Logarithms
A logarithm is the inverse function (or opposite) of an exponent. There is a direct relationship
between exponents and logarithms.
Logarithm is often shortened to Log. They also use the same terminology as exponents.
For example below, where base 5 to the power 2 equals 25, the inverse of this statement would be log
25 of base 5 = 2.
The answer of the exponential equation becomes the argument of the logarithmic equation.
Aviation Australia
Another way to consider the logarithm above is to ask to what power 5 must be raised to, to equal 25.
The answer is 2.
When using Log of base 10 as in log101000 the base 10 is often omitted and written simply as
log1000 = 3. If no base is indicated, assume 10.
Exponent to Logarithm
Aviation Australia
When the base and the argument in a logarithm are the same, the logarithm will always equal 1.

Logarithm to Exponent
Aviation Australia
Logarithm Worked Example

Evaluate the following logarithm.
log464
Step 1
To begin, complete the equation by making the expression equal x.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Identify the base, argument and exponent.
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Using the values identified above, rewrite the logarithm as an exponential equation.
Aviation Australia

Step 4
Given that 4x = 64, 4 to the power of what equals 64?
Aviation Australia
Therefore;
log464 = 3
Application of Logarithms
The use of a logarithms means a large range of exponentially proportional ratios can be represented
by smaller more convenient numbers. In the aviation environment, one common application of a
logarithm is measuring sounds levels with the decibel, or dB.
The bel expresses the logarithmic ratio between the level or strength of two signals. This can be
power, voltage, current or sound. (These are discussed in later modules).
The bel was named after Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone.
One bel is an increase by a factor of 10, or 1Bel = Log1010 = 1
The bel is a large number. For most practical purposes, the decibel (dB), one-tenth of a bel, is used. As
there are 10 times more of the smaller unit, 10×Log1010 = 10.
Based on this, if a signal was increased in strength by a factor of 100, this would be Log10100, = 2
bels, or 20 dB.
Again, if a signal was increased in strength by a factor of 1000, this would be Log101000 = 3B (3 bels,
or 30dB).
Bels and decibels are a relative term, i.e., an increase or decrease in gain from a reference point, such
as output to input.
In an intercom system that allows the pilots on a plane to talk to each other via their headsets, there
are three main parts. A microphone, a speaker and an amplifier. When a pilot speaks, the microphone
produces a very small signal. This does not have enough power to drive the speaker in the other
pilot’s headset. The amplifier takes the weak signal from the microphone and makes it stronger so
that it can drive the speaker and be heard by the other pilot.
The change in the signal strength is called gain and is generally measured in decibels (dB).

The following section will look at how logarithms, in the form of decibels, are used in determining the
gain of an amplifier.
It can be said the gain is the ratio Power Output: Power Input
P ower Output
P ower I nput
To express this ratio in Bels or decibels:
P ower Output
Gain in bels = Log10( )
P ower I nput
Or
P ower Output
Gain in decibels or dB = 10Log10( )
P ower I nput
Example 1
An amplifier has an input power of 6.5 milliwatts and an output power of 6.5 watts. What is the gain in
dB?
Step 1
Convert power input and output power to the same units e.g., watts.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Substitute the power values into the formula:
Aviation Australia
Step 3
Simplify the ratio inside the brackets: 6.5 ÷ 0.0065 = 1000
Aviation Australia

Step 4
As log1000 = 3
Aviation Australia
Therefore, the gain of the specified amplifier is 30dB.
Where the logarithm does not solve simply, the value may be referenced from a log table.
In this module the log values may be provided, or alternatively the answer left in terms of
Gain = 10 Log10(ratio) dB
If there is power loss (attenuation) in a system, the measured output power is less than the input
power. The ratio of measured power to reference power is less than 1 and the log is negative, making
gain in dB negative.
Logarithmic Scales
When graphing an exponential equation on standard (“linear scale”) graphs, the curve plotted will be
difficult to use to predict data.
When the scale is changed to logarithmic scale, i.e., one that the weighting of the marks on the scale
changes exponentially, the exponential equation will plot a straight line allowing the graph to be used
to predict data more accurately.
Aviation Australia

Linear scale
An exponential equation plotted on standard graph paper is shown below.
Aviation Australia
Each square represents an increase of +50 units. The values are very difficult to read accurately.
Logarithmic scale
The same equation plotted using a base 10 logarithmic scale.
Aviation Australia
Each square represents a 10 fold increase (10x each block). This allows greater coverage and linear
plotting of the equation and easier interpretation.

Geometry (1.3)
Learning Objectives
1.3.1 Define simple geometrical constructions (Level 1).
1.3.2.1 Describe the nature and different uses of graphs (Level 2).
1.3.2.2 Describe the use of graphs of equations/functions (Level 2).
1.3.3.1 Describe trigonometrical relationships (Level 2).
1.3.3.2 Describe the difference between rectangular and polar coordinates (Level 2).
1.3.3.3 Differentiate between rectangular and polar coordinates stored in tables (Level 2).
Summary
Geometry covers the terms applied to geometric shapes, explores Pythagoras theorem and
trigonometry. Followed by graphs, polar and cartesian coordinates.

Fundamentals
Angles
An angle is formed when two lines intersect at a point, commonly measured in degrees or radians. As
in algebra, where a letter can be used to represent a value, an unknown angle is often referred to as θ
- the Greek letter theta.
There are several terms that can be applied to classify angles.
Acute = θ is less than 90⁰.
Right Angle = θ is equal to 90⁰.
Obtuse = θ is greater than 90⁰ but less than 180⁰.
Reflex = θ is greater than 180⁰.
Types of Angles
When an angle is compared to 90⁰ or 180⁰, the terms are complimentary and supplementary,
respectively. Two angles are called complementary when their values add to 90 degrees. Two angles
are called supplementary when their values add up to 180 degrees.

Complimentary and supplementary angles
When calculating angles, it is important to understand the Degrees Minutes Seconds (DMS) system.
There are 360⁰ in a circle. There are also 60 minutes in a degree, and 60 seconds in a minute.
To calculate a complementary angle, subtract the provided angle from 90⁰. Be sure that when
carrying or borrowing only units up to 60 are used.
Finding an Angle’s Complement or Supplement

This example demonstrates the process of finding the complement. The process is the same for
supplementary, except it is subtracted from 180⁰.
Example 1
What is the complement of 63⁰?
90° − 63° = 27°
Therefore, the compliment is 27⁰.
Example 2
What is the supplement of 128⁰?
180° − 128° = 52°
Therefore, the supplement is 52⁰.

Circles
A circle is a shape with all points the same distance from its centre.
There are several terms that can be applied to circles regarding their use in geometry:
Centre - A point inside the circle which is equidistant (equal distance) from all points on the
circumference.
Centre
Radius - The radius is the distance from the centre to any point on the circle. It is half the diameter.
Radius
Diameter - The distance across the circle through the centre point. It can also be defined as twice the
length of the radius.

Diameter
Circumference - The circumference is the distance around the outside (boundary) of a circle.
Circumference
Area of a circle is the area of the region enclosed by the circle.
Area
Chord - A line segment linking any two points on a circle's circumference.

Chord
Secant - A line that intersects a circle at two points. Note that a secant extends beyond the
circumference.
Secant
Tangent - A line touching a circle at just one point.
Tangent

Arc - An arc is a part of the circumference between two points. The shorter arc between P and Q is
called the minor arc PQ. The longer arc between P and Q is called the major arc PQ.
Arc
Sector - The part of a circle enclosed by two radii of a circle and their arc.
Sector
The Semicircle and Quadrant are two special types of Sector:
Half a circle is called a Semicircle.

Quarter of a circle is called a Quadrant.

Semicircle and Quadrant
Segment - The area created by a chord is called a Segment. The smaller area is called the minor
segment and the larger area is the major segment.
Segment
Pi
In any circle, if you divide the circumference by its diameter, you always get the same number. This
number is called Pi (π) and is approximately 3.14159. When using fractions, it is common to use 22/7
as a close approximation.
22
π = 3.14159. . . ≈ 3.14 ≈
7
When quickly estimating it is possible to simply use 3.

Radians
Radians are an alternative unit to degrees for defining angles, commonly used in engineering
applications.
One radian is the angle formed by an arc on the circumference of a circle (which has an arc length
equal to the radius). As with degrees, this relationship is constant.
In this circle it can be seen that the angle α = 1 radian.
Generally, radians are expressed as a function of Pi (π).
To build this picture, consider the circumference of a circle, circumference = πd. Approximately 3.14
diameters fit around the circumference of a circle (360⁰).
To change this in terms of radius (half of the diameter), the circumference = 2πr
To continue, consider a semicircle (180⁰), this would have half the circumference of the circle or = ½ ×
2πr. Note that ½ and 2 cancel out.
Therefore, the arc length of a semicircle is πr.
Any expression of radians is simply a fraction based on this.

Examples

Trigonometry
Sine Waves
A sine wave is a mathematical curve or function that represents a smooth periodic motion. This
smooth periodic motion is synonomous with a smooth rolling circle.
Each rotation of the circle is one cycle of a sine wave.
Sine waves will be discussed further and used throughout electrical modules.
It can be seen on this diagram how the amplitude of the wave is found using the sine relationship.

Triangles
A triangle is a three-sided shape. The sum of all internal angles is always equal to 180⁰.
There are several terms that can be applied triangles, based on the triangle’s sides and angles:
Equilateral - all sides have the same length. Each angle equals 60⁰.
Isosceles - two sides are equal in length, two angles equal.
Scalene - all sides and angles are unequal.
Aviation Australia
The following terms are based on the triangle’s angles:
Right angle - one angle in the triangle is exactly 90⁰.

Acute - all angles are less than 90⁰.
Obtuse - one angle is larger than 90⁰.
Aviation Australia

Aviation Australia
Labelling a Right-Angle Triangle

Hypotenuse - The hypotenuse is the longest side of the triangle.
Adjacent - The adjacent side is next to the angle being considered, which is not the hypotenuse.
Opposite - The opposite side is opposite to the angle considered.
Aviation Australia
RATs (Right-angle triangles) are identified by a square symbol at the 90⁰ angle.
If the angle considered changes, so too will the adjacent and opposite as these are always with
respect to the angle in question.

Pythagoras' Theorem
Pythagoras theorem defines a relationship between the length of sides of a right-angle triangle.
When using Pythagoras Theorem, the hypotenuse is defined as c, and the lengths of the other sides
by a and b. Note that a and b are interchangeable.
Pythagoras' Theorem states:
"The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides"
This can be written as a formula.
2 2 2
a + b = c
Aviation Australia

This formula can be transposed many ways:
Aviation Australia
Pythagorean Triples
Pythagorean triples are a series of three whole numbers that satisfy Pythagoras' theorem.
There are an infinite number of Pythagorean triples. Only 3:4:5 and 5:12:13 will be used in this
module. Note the largest value will always represent the hypotenuse, c.
These relationships can be used to rapidly solve for the length of an unknown side when two values of
a triple are provided.
Example 1
Find the length of the hypotenuse c, in the right-angle triangle below.
Step 1
Label the drawing.
Aviation Australia
Step 2

Select or transpose the original to find the applicable formula.
Then substitute the values into the equation and solve.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, the length of the hypotenuse is 5 units (as the units were not provided). Remembering that
the the square root of 25 could also be -5, but a negative length cannot exist so it can be ignored.
The calculation in this example also proves the first Pythagorean Triple (3:4:5).
Example 2
Find the length of the unknown side in the right-angle triangle below.
Step 1
Label the drawing.
Aviation Australia
Step 2
Select or transpose the original to find the applicable formula.
Then substitute the values into the equation and solve.
Aviation Australia
Therefore, the length of the hypotenuse is 15 units.

The calculations in this example also prove the first Pythagorean Triple as each side is a factor of 5
larger than 3:4:5 (i.e. 3 × 5 = 15, 4 × 5 = 20).
Trigonometric Relationships
Where Pythagoras' theorem uses the known length of two sides of a right-angle triangle to calculate
the length of the third, trigonometry uses the ratios of the length of sides of a triangle.
The three basic rules of trigonometry are Sine, Cosine and Tangent, abbreviated to sin, cos and tan.
These ratios are unique and constant for each sets of angles.
sin, cos, tan
Sine Rule
The sine rule:
Opposite
Sin(θ) =
H ypotenuse
SOH

Cosine Rule
The cosine rule:
Adjacent
Cos(θ) =
H ypotenuse
CAH
Tangent Rule
The tangent rule:
Opposite
T an(θ) =
Adjacent
TOA

To use these rules, identify the known variables for a given triangle and then substitute them into the
applicable formula. When using the formula, θ is replaced by the value of the applicable angle. This
can then be selected from the table provided.
The common mnemonic used to recall these rules is Soh-Cah-Toa. It may be useful to write it in this
form:
o a o
S C T
h h a
Examples
Table of Trigonometric Functions

The ratios in this table relate sides of the triangle based on the angle used.
Table of Trigonometric Functions

Example 1
Find the length of the line XZ in the right-angle triangle below.
Step 1
Label the sides of the triangle.
Step 2
Select the applicable formula.
In this case the angle and the hypotenuse are provided. Line XZ is opposite to the angle. Using the
mnemonic, the sine function uses the angle in relation to opposite side and hypotenuse.
Step 3
Substitute the values into the sine formula and transpose as needed.
Step 4
Using the trigonometry table provided, select the value for sin25⁰ and use this to complete the
calculation. Sin 25⁰ = 0.4226.

Therefore, the length of the line XZ is 16.904 units.
Example 2
Find the length of the hypotenuse in the right-angle triangle below.
Step 1
Step 2
In this case the angle and the adjacent side are provided while and the hypotenuse is required. Using
the mnemonic, the cosine function uses the angle in relation to the adjacent side and hypotenuse.
Step 3
Substitute the values into the cosine formula and transpose as needed.

Step 4
Using the trigonometry table provided, select the value for cos66⁰ and use this to complete the
calculation. Cos 66⁰ = 0.4067.
Therefore, the length of the hypotenuse is 9.835 units.
Example 3
Find angle θ in the right-angle triangle below.
Step 1
Step 2
In this case the adjacent and the opposite sides are provided, while the angle is required.
Using the mnemonic, the tangent function uses the angle in relation to the opposite side and adjacent
side.
Step 3

Substitute the values into the tangent formula.
Step 4
In this example solve for tan θ and then use the trigonometry table provided. Look through the tan
column to find the closest value. This may require some rounding.
Trigonometry Table
As tan 59⁰ is 1.664, θ must be approximately equal to 59⁰.

Useful Triangles
There are two right-angle triangles that have useful relationships for trigonometry.
The 30⁰:60⁰:90⁰ Triangle

Using the 30⁰:60⁰:90⁰ triangle works well as the hypotenuse is double the shortest side. This is shown
below using both the sine and cosine functions.
The 30⁰:60⁰:90⁰ Triangle
This can be confirmed by looking these values up in the trigonometry tables.
The 3:4:5 Triangle

The 3:4:5 triangle, first looked at as a Pythagorean triple also has defined angles. Recognising a 3:4:5
triangle can be a quick way to check the answer.

The 3: 4: 5 Triangle

Graphs
Introduction to Graphs
A graph is a pictorial way to express data that have been gathered. Presenting this information in a
visual format helps understanding and the interpretation of the data. In the aviation environment
graphs can be used to analyse trends or to determine the serviceability of an aircraft.
Using a graph is not as precise as a formula, but what a graph lacks in precision is usually more than
offset by ease of reading and interpretation.
A graph may also indicate a “trend” otherwise difficult to notice from tables of numbers or raw data.
There are four basic types of graphs:
Pictographs
Bar graphs
Line graphs
Pie charts.
Basic Types of Graphs

Pictographs
A suitable symbol represents the data required to be shown. Consider the example below.
A scale annotates that 1 person on the graph represents 500 visitors to the aviation museum. Labels
clearly indicates in which month they visited.
Aviation Australia
For example, in January, there were 4 × 500 = 2000 visitors. In March there were 9 × 500 = 4500
visitors. The pictograph is used for rough guides where accuracy is not overly important.

Pie Chart
A pie chart has the general appearance of a pie cut into sectors. Consider the following example.
Four sectors are shown on the graph below. Each has an area proportional to its percentage
allocation. The sum of all areas is 100%.
Aviation Australia
A pie chart is typically used to relate expenses to one another. It shows an overall (and easy to digest)
guide on which expenses are most/least significant.It is more accurate that a pictograph.

The Bar Graph
Similar to the pie chart, a bar graph is useful for a quick visual comparison of the data relative to each
other. The bar graph has the added advantage of a scale that allows for values to be added to the
graph. For example, rather than just seeing there are more flights to Sydney than any other
destination, it is also possible to tell that there are approximately 11 flights to Adelaide each day.
The actual numbers corresponding to the height of the bars need only be approximate since the aim
of a bar graph is to show a comparison of these numbers. Some graph may have a total annotated on
the column where needed.
Aviation Australia
Interpretation
From the graph, it is possible to tell that Sydney is the most popular destination with 36 flights per
day, followed by Melbourne with 25 flights per day.
Darwin is the least popular destination with only 3 flights per day. Hobart and Perth have
approximately the same number of flights per day with 6 and 7 respectively.

Histogram
A histogram is a type of bar graph, where the horizontal axis represents a continuous variable, but it
is grouped into intervals. A bar graph is then constructed representing the frequency with which
numbers in each interval occur.
The histogram below shows the average age of a Licenced Aircraft Maintenance Engineer (LAME) in
Australia. As age is continuous, this meets the requirement for a continuous variable.
Aviation Australia
Interpretation
It is clear to see that the majority of LAMEs are aged over 40, with the highest individual age range
being 60-70 years old.
The rapid decline in LAMEs over 70 is likely due to retirement. This is likely to happen at the age of
65, however this is not seen due to the age groupings used in this graph.
Another interesting point is that the lower end of the age scale starts at 21 not 20. This may be due to
the fact that it is a requirement to be over 21 to obtain a licence.

The Line Graph
Like bar graphs, line graphs have a vertical axis and a horizontal axis.
The most appropriate use of the line graph is to display data that are continuous along both axes, such
as time or temperature. The graph below shows time as the horizontal axis. The vertical axis in the
following graph shows RPM/TGT which is also continuous.
Line graphs allow a different way to compare two sets of data with a common reference, in this case,
time. These can be shown by different line types or colours.
The graph below shows the start cycle for a turbine engine. Two key parameters are observed, speed
as a percentage of maximum RPM, and exhaust temperature, or TGT also as a percentage. As the
scales for these are different, % MAX RPM is on the left and % MAX TGT is on the right.
While the data may be available only at certain intervals, the connecting line segments suggest
continuity ‑ which may in fact be accurate or only approximate. This is the case on the solid line,
where speed was only measured at the data points indicated. In between these points the graph has
been interpolated to provide continuity.
Aviation Australia
Start Cycle of Turbine Engine

Interpretation
From the time start is selected, it takes approximately one second for the engine to start turning. Fuel
is added to the engine at the 5 second mark. At 8 seconds, there is a sharp rise in temperature as the
fuel begins to burn. After ignition, the temperature continues to rise until shortly after the starter
motor turns off at 19 seconds. It reaches a peak at approximately 22 seconds before settling to idle
temperature at approximately 29 seconds. After the starter motor is turned off, the engine continues
to accelerate to its idle speed of 55% RPM.
Interpolation
Since line graphs are used with continuous data on the horizontal axis, they represent a continuous
change in the variable being represented.
Although the graph may be constructed by locating only a few points on the graph, the line graph
allows you to read the graph for values in between the points plotted.
Approximating values in between known values on the graph is called interpolation.
To determine how long after start the engine reaches 30% of its maximum speed, the graph could be
interpolated by finding 30% on the RPM scale then going across the horizontally to the RPM line,
then down vertically to read the time.
The engine would be at 30% approximately 13 second after start selection.
Extrapolation
If the graph is extended beyond the last or first point that is plotted and values were read in this
extended portion of the graph, then these are called extrapolated values.
Extrapolation is usually a risky thing to do with a fluctuating graph, but with a predictably changing
graph, an accurate reading can be obtained over a small interval.

Co-ordinate Systems
Introduction to Coordinate Systems
There are two coordinate systems commonly used in aviation. These are the cartesian and the polar
systems. Information may be converted between systems with some calculation. Each of these
systems will be discussed in detail.
Co-ordinate systems are used to locate points in relation to a reference, usually zero. This can be data
on a graph, or a town on a map.
Cartesian coordinates

Cartesian
Cartesian coordinates are considered in two dimensions, horizontal and vertical. The Cartesian
coordinate system is also called the rectangular coordinate system. A rectangular coordinate system
is formed by connecting two perpendicular number lines such that they intersect at the point where
both axes equal 0.
The horizontal line is labelled the x-axis and the vertical line is labelled the y-axis.
The point at which the axes intersect is called the origin.
Aviation Australia
Locating Points on the Cartesian Plane

When using the Cartesian coordinate system, the point is commonly given a variable identifier, P.
The Cartesian coordinates are then given in the format (x, y), this format is important as it represents
the sequence of the Cartesian values. The value of x is given first, then the value for y second.
Referring to the graph below, the Cartesian coordinates for point P are: P (3, 2).
Note that this is different to P(2, 3) (not shown on graph). It is vital to give coordinates in the correct
order, otherwise the point will be wrong.

Aviation Australia
Cartesian Plane
Characteristics of a Cartesian plane:
If a point is to the right of the y axis, the x value of its coordinate is positive.
If a point is to the left of the y axis, the x value of its coordinate is negative.
A point above the x-axis has a positive y coordinate.
A point below the x-axis has a negative y coordinate.
A point anywhere on the x-axis will have a zero y coordinate.
A point anywhere on the y-axis will have a zero x coordinate.
Examples

Aviation Australia
Aviation Australia

Equation of a Straight Line
Consider the linear equation:
y = 2x + 5
It shows a relationship between y and x. The y values could be the cost of a job and x values be the
numbers of components used. As more components are used, the job increases in cost.
The table below uses the formula to show the applicable value for y as x increases.
Aviation Australia
When plotted as Cartesian coordinates it can be seen that a straight line connects the points. By
substituting a range of values for x, a corresponding range of values for y will be obtained.
Aviation Australia
Table plotted onto Cartesian graph

All linear equations will exhibit this property when plotted on a graph. This is why linear graphs are
known as "straight-line" graphs. All linear equations can be expressed in standard equation for a
straight line.
y = mx + c
Where is m the slope or gradient of the line and c is the y-intercept value (also known as the
constant).
Gradient
The gradient is the coefficient of x and will determine how steep the line plots on the graph. The
gradient is denoted by the letter m.
This table gives an indication of how different values for m will affect the slope of the line, this is
assuming the x and y axes are plotted to the same scale. If scales are different, this will distort this
relationship.
Aviation Australia
The Gradient 'm'
It is possible to mathematically calculate the gradient between two points by comparing the vertical
change (known as the rise), to the horizontal change (known as the run).

rise y2 − y1
m = ⟹
run x2 − x1
y2 − y1
∴ m =
x2 − x1
Example
Using the tabulated data from the y = 2x + 5 example (table provided below) compare the points B
and E.
Firstly, the table gives the coordinates for the two points; B(2, 9) and E(5, 15).
Aviation Australia
The change in y (rise) is the difference between the two y-coordinates; 15 - 9 = 6.
The change in x (run) is the difference between the two x-coordinates; 5 - 2 = 3.
For a change in y of 6, there is a change in the x of 3. The full gradient calculation is shown below.
y2 − y1 15 − 9 6
m = = = = 2
x2 − x1 5 − 2 3

Y-intercept
The y-intercept, c is an offset which raises or lowers the line along the y axis. It does not affect the
gradient of the line. It is called the y-intercept, as it is the value at which the line will intersect the y
axis. This occurs when x = 0.
The constant c will be the positive or negative value at the end of the equation when in the format:
y = mx + c
The following table outlines some properties of different values of c.
Aviation Australia
The y-intercept 'c'

Polar Coordinates
Polar coordinates are an alternate way of identifying a point on a plane. Where cartesian identifies a
point based on its location along two axes, polar co-ordinates locate the point based on an angle (or
bearing), and a distance (or magnitude). Both methods are identifying the point with reference to the
origin.
The polar coordinates of a point are its distance (r) from the origin and its angle (θ) relative to the
positive x-axis.
On the graph below point A is defined as a magnitude of 3.6 at an angle of 34⁰. From the diagram it is
possible to see the x axis is the reference, with positive angles referenced anticlockwise from this line.
Aviation Australia
Polar Coordinates
When polar coordinates are used in navigation, North is referenced as 0⁰ and the angles increase in a
clockwise direction.
Either polar coordinate system is acceptable, as long as there is clarity on which system is being used.
In purely a mathematical scenario as drawn above, the rotation will be anticlockwise. In a navigational
scenario, the rotation will be clockwise.

Examples
Polar coordinates are also used in the aircraft maintenance environment to provide a reference point
when performing maintenance on turbine engines. When fan blades are replaced or repaired it is
necessary to re-balance the fan to avoid excessive bearing damage to the engine caused by vibration.
Balancing and vibrations will be discussed further in physics.
Shown below is the typical graph used to perform this operation. Note the radial lines from the centre
of the graph extend to points on the perimeter which correspond with positions of the fan rotor.
Aviation Australia
Polar coordinates used in aircraft maintenance


Maths Student Resource

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Maths Student Resource

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Maths Student Resource

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MODULE 01

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 2 of 239

Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.

An ability to apply that knowledge.

A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 3 of 239

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 4 of 239

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 5 of 239

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 6 of 239

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 7 of 239

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 8 of 239

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 9 of 239

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 10 of 239

Subtraction finds the remaining total after objects are removed.

Therefore, 8 is the sum of 5 and 3.

3 is the difference between 8 and 5.

This explains why the two operations are considered together.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 11 of 239

8 - 5 = 3 is not the same as 5 - 8 = -3, this is discussed further in direct numbers.

To avoid confusion there are different terms for these numbers.

Therefore, 12 is the product of 2 and 6.

Therefore, 6 is the quotient of 12 divided by 2.

To avoid confusion there are different terms for these numbers.

Factors are used extensively when reducing fractions, and in algebra.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 12 of 239

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 13 of 239

First add the digits in the one’s column.

7 is written below one’s column.

Next add the digits in ten’s column.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 14 of 239

First add the digits in one’s column.

9 is written below the one’s column.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 15 of 239

Then add the digits in ten’s column.

8 is written below the ten’s column. Therefore, the sum is 89.

We add digits in one’s column.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 16 of 239

In the ten’s column, 4 + 2 + 1 = 7.

7 is written below ten’s column. Therefore, the sum is 71.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 17 of 239

We add digits in one’s column.

In the ten’s column, 5 + 3 + 1 = 9.

9 is written below ten’s column. Therefore, sum is 95

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 18 of 239

Here, subtract the numbers in the one’s column first. 6 – 2 = 4

Write 4 below one’s column.

Next subtract the numbers in the ten’s column. 7 – 4 = 3

Write down 3 below ten’s column. Therefore, the difference is 34.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 19 of 239

Here, subtract the numbers in the one’s column first.

Write down 3 below one’s column.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 20 of 239

Next the numbers in the ten’s column are subtracted. 9 – 2 = 7

Write 7 below ten’s column. Therefore, the difference is 73.

In the one’s column, we cannot subtract 7 from 4 as 7 is greater than 4.

To facilitate the operation, we borrow a group of tens from ten’s column.

2022-01-27 B-01 Mathematics Page 21 of 239