Surface

Manifestations
of Geothermal
Systems with
Volcanic Heat
Sources
MANFRED P. HOCHSTEIN
PATRICK R. L. BROWNE
Geothermal Institute, The University of Auckland

I. Introduction of colder fluid outside it. The resulting fluid movement

II. Manifestations of Volcanic Hydrothermal and is called ‘‘free convection’’ or ‘‘natural convection.’’
Affiliated Systems conduction, convection Modes of heat transfer. Conduc-
III. Manifestations of High Temperature Systems tion involves transmission of heat in a rock without mass
IV. Manifestations of Intermediate and Low transfer; heat transfer in a permeable rock by convection
Temperature Systems results from mass (fluid) transfer.
V. Classification of Manifestations fluids A summary term that describes the phases of the
VI. Surface Alteration and Deposits medium convectively transferring heat, i.e., liquid, gas,
VII. Perspectives and their combinations. Liquids may originate from in-
filtrated ground water (‘‘meteoric’’ water) or from
magma (‘‘magmatic’’ water). The subsurface gas phase
of water is ‘‘vapor,’’ but at the surface it is ‘‘steam,’’
containing condensate droplets. Gases in hydrothermal
Glossary
systems are usually less reactive (vapor, CO2 , and H2S)
than those in volcanic systems (vapor, HCl, SO2 , HF,
advection Subsurface movement of groundwater in perme- for example).
able rocks under the influence of a lateral pressure gradi- geothermal system A general term that describes natural
ent (from high terrain to a broad valley, for example). heat transfer within a confined volume of the Earth’s
alteration (or hydrothermal alteration) Change in the min- crust where heat is transported from a ‘‘heat source’’ to
eralogical composition of a rock, brought about by the a ‘‘heat sink,’’ usually the free surface.
action of hydrothermal fluids. The term includes direct hydrothermal system A type of geothermal system where
deposition of secondary minerals as veins or vug fill. heat transfers from a heat source (often a cooling pluton)
buoyancy A vertical, upwardly directed force caused by the to the surface by ‘‘free convection,’’ involving ‘‘mete-
density difference between a hydrostatic column of hot oric’’ fluids with or without traces of magmatic fluids.
fluid within a geothermal reservoir and an equal column Liquids discharged at or near the surface are replenished

Copyright  2000 by Academic Press

Encyclopedia of Volcanoes 835 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
836 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

by ‘‘meteoric’’ water derived from the outside (‘‘re-

charge’’) that is drawn in by the rising fluids. A hydro-
thermal system consists of (1) a heat source, (2) a reser-
voir with thermal fluids, (3) a surrounding ‘‘recharge
region,’’ and (4) a (heat) discharge area at the surface
with ‘‘manifestations.’’
manifestations A term that describes (1) features at ground
surface where fluids discharge, mainly as single-phase
fluids (e.g., hot springs, hot lakes and pools, fumaroles);
(2) features resulting from fluid/rock interactions and
hydrothermal mineral deposition, also at ground surface.
The term, in its widest sense, refers to both active and FIGURE 1 Subdivision of convective hydrothermal systems
inactive thermal features. with their natural heat outputs and inferred reservoir tempera-
volcanic system A type of geothermal system where heat tures (앑1 km depth) as discriminants.
and mass transfers from an igneous body (usually a
magma chamber) to the surface involving convection
of magmatic fluids and sporadic discharge of magma reservoir temperature, type of reservoir fluid, type of
(subsurface melts); meteoric fluids are not involved in reservoir rocks, and the nature of the heat source. In-
the heat transfer process or are minor. deed, the nature of the heat sources is of major impor-
volcanic–hydrothermal systems A combination of a ‘‘hy- tance. These can be grouped as follows:
drothermal’’ and a ‘‘volcanic’’ system, where ascending
1. Magmas within the crust (local or extensive)
magmatic (primary) fluids commonly mix with meteoric
2. Intracrustal nonmagmatic
(secondary) fluids (rarely sea water); also called a ‘‘mag-
3. Conductive heat flow within the upper crust
matic–hydrothermal system.’’
This grouping can be subdivided further by consider-
ing the plate-tectonic settings of each, since most of
the anomalous heat transfer is via geothermal systems
concentrated along active plate boundaries (active
margins).
I. Introduction
Geothermal systems can also be divided by using their
reservoir temperatures at about 1 km depth (arbitrarily
In hydrothermal and volcanic systems heat and mass chosen) as a discriminating parameter. Here we distin-
transfer in the upper crust from a deep source to a guish among the following systems:
discharge region at the surface. The heat moves by both
1. High (⬎225⬚C) temperature (high-T )
convection and conduction. In hydrothermal systems
2. Intermediate (125–225⬚C) temperature
the convecting heat transfer medium is dominantly infil-
3. Low (⬍125⬚C) temperature (low-T ) systems
trated surface water (i.e., of meteoric origin). The fluids
that transfer most heat, albeit intermittently, in volcanic Hence, we use, for example, the phrase ‘‘manifesta-
systems are magma and magmatic gases. However, as- tions associated with high-temperature systems’’ as a
cending magmatic fluids may mix with mantling or de- specific term. However, not all geothermal systems, es-
scending meteoric fluids; convection of such a mixture is pecially those that are quasi-stagnant, have surface mani-
characteristic of volcanic–hydrothermal systems, which festations.
thus constitute a blending of volcanic and hydrothermal The amount of heat (unit: joule) transferred by a fluid
systems (Fig. 1). Active volcanic systems produce charac- can be assessed by measuring its mass flow rate at the
teristic high-temperature (T Ⰷ 150⬚C) surface discharge surface and its enthalpy (heat content). These parame-
features described elsewhere in this Encyclopedia. ters define the heat discharge rate of surface manifesta-
In this chapter, the surface manifestations of volcanic– tions, Qs , in joules/second ( J/s) or watts (W); a widely
hydrothermal and hydrothermal systems are discussed. used unit is the megawatt (1 MW ⫽ 106 W). Qs is an
Surface manifestations are the only directly observ- important parameter that can be used to classify geother-
able expressions of geothermal systems. These manifes- mal systems since the extent of convection reflects the
tations vary widely in their appearance, often reflecting magnitude of their heat outputs. The natural output of
the type of geothermal reservoir from which their dis- typical low-temperature systems is commonly of the
charged fluids derive. Controlling parameters include order of 0.1 to 3 MW, and that of high-temperature
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 837

systems between 30 and 300 MW. The types, numbers, istic surface manifestations that are spatially zoned with
and sizes of surface manifestations present at each re- respect to their volcanic center, namely solfataras, fuma-
flect this. roles, hot acid lakes, acid hot springs (discharging sulfate-
The rate of heat discharge from volcanic systems, Qv , and sulfate-chloride waters), and rare acid streams. At
can also be estimated from the mass of material erupted lower elevations, minor thermal springs may discharge
over a long but finite period, allowing for degassing. neutral pH, chloride, or sometimes bicarbonate–
High-temperature hydrothermal systems hosted within chloride waters. The typical zonation of these discharge
volcanic regimes along many active plate margins (volca- features is shown in Fig. 2.
nic arcs, for example) have heat outputs (Qs ) of about The term solfatara derives from a local name, probably
the same magnitude as Qv . from the Phlegrean Fields (S. Italy), an active volcanic–
Types of surface manifestation, listed in italics, are hydrothermal system (Forum Vulcani) within a caldera
introduced in the following sections with reference to that was described by Pliny the Elder. Solfataras here
their occurrence over prominent types of geothermal deposit large amounts of sulfur around their vents and
systems. The links between various systems, using their discharge steam, CO2 and H2S (rarely SO2 ). Sometimes
inferred reservoir temperatures (c. 1 km depth) and their sulfur mounds develop, for example, at Biliran (Philip-
natural heat outputs as discriminants, are depicted in pines), Tatun (Taiwan), and Kawah Ijen ( Java). An
Fig. 1. Characteristic geothermal deposits and alteration accumulation of molten sulfur can occur at shallow
are also introduced concurrently and underlined. The depths. Active solfatara fields with a massive accumula-
locality of individual manifestations is listed in bold tion of sulfur have been mined at Tatun and Kawah Ijen.
font at its first mention. In the last two sections, all In addition to sulfur, these manifestations also include
manifestations are grouped according to the modes of deposits of sulfate minerals such as alunite, natroalunite,
surface heat transfer, their characteristic surface alter- jarosite, gypsum, and a range of usually ephemeral hy-
ation, and surficial deposits. drous sulfates. Kaolin group minerals such as dickite
occur, and diaspore and pyrophyllite are also present in
places. As the acid condensates become progressively
neutralized by interacting with the host rocks, they may
II. Manifestations of form smectites. However, the alteration process is domi-
nantly destructive; amorphous silica that deposits as sil-
Volcanic–Hydrothermal and ica residue in this environment is dominantly derived
Affiliated Systems from the surrounding rocks and remains at the surface
as other constituents are leached.
Ascending magmatic fluids in active volcanic systems The term fumarole has been used to describe vents
commonly mix with mantling meteoric fluids. Such vol- that discharge vapor that turns into steam. It was used
canic–hydrothermal systems have only been recognized initially to describe and to classify features discharging
recently as a separate type of geothermal system from volcanic gases, for example, by St. Claire Deville in the
the characteristic isotopic signatures of their fluids. It 1850s. It is not a specific term and has to be qualified
is possible that most volcanic systems have mantling with respect to discharge temperature, gas velocity, and
hydrothermal fluids; for example, even the hot (⬎500⬚C) gas composition. Fumaroles associated with volcanic–
gases discharged from the White Island volcano (NZ) hydrothermal systems may discharge vapor at high speed
contain fluids with both magmatic and secondary (non- (⬎150 m/s). The steam usually contains minor amounts
magmatic) components. A subdivision of volcanic– of aggressive magmatic gases (such as HF, HCl, and
geothermal systems is warranted where the magmatic SO2). If the magmatic component (with SO2 ) is domi-
fluid component is no longer dominant by volume, e.g., nant, fumarole temperatures may be ⬎130⬚C (Kawah
in waning volcanic systems, which are here termed Ijen) but are usually ⬍130⬚C where the hydrothermal
‘‘quasi volcanic–hydrothermal systems.’’ component (with H2S) is dominant (Biliran).
Vents discharging steam over high-temperature sys-
tems without traces of magmatic gases were also de-
scribed as ‘‘fumaroles’’; the Italian naturalist Tozzetti
A. Manifestations of applied this term in 1751 to the high-temperature fields
Volcanic–Hydrothermal Systems of Tuscany, but he assumed that all the steam discharged
was of magmatic origin. Isotope studies made in the
Volcanic–hydrothermal systems are mainly confined to 1950s showed that steam and hot water discharged by
stratovolcanoes or young calderas and exhibit character- almost all high-temperature systems derives from mete-
838 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

FIGURE 2 Conceptual model of a volcanic hydrothermal system with associated characteristic surface manifestations. The model
is based on the Suretimeat system (Vanuatu) but shows features typical of other volcanic–hydrothermal systems (broken lines with
T1 and T2 represent inferred isotherms for 150⬚C and 앑350⬚C, respectively). (Modified from Hochstein and Sudarman, 1993.)

oric water, so the term ‘‘fumarole’’ appeared then to be aquifers, to become slowly neutralized by progressive
a misnomer. However, more recent isotope studies have fluid/rock interactions. Warm acid springs further
shown that a magmatic water component occurs in many downslope, therefore, have higher pH values, as demon-
high-temperature hydrothermal systems. The term now strated by the discharge from subsurface outflows of
survives, therefore, to encompass all natural steam dis- initially acidic condensates on the flanks of Tangkuban-
charge features over hydrothermal systems. prahu ( Java) and Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia). Rapid
Vapor and most magmatic gases condense at shallow neutralization occurs where the acid condensates pass
depths (or dissolve in perched or descending meteoric through limestones (Sibayak, Sumatra).
waters), producing acid waters that may discharge in Most volcanic–hydrothermal systems appear to be
hot, acid crater lakes (Kawah Ijen) and as hot acid springs surrounded by a reservoir containing neutral pH waters
where vapor fluxes are high. The near-surface conden- (the reservoir can have a ‘‘toroid’’ structure, as indicated
sates can be channelled to discharge as acid streams; these in Fig. 2). Such a structure, drilled at the Biliran (Philip-
are typical of volcanic–hydrothermal systems and occur, pines) and the Sulphur Springs (St. Lucia) prospects,
for example, on the outer flanks of Sorik Marapi (Suma- have ‘‘acid cores’’ of small diameter (probably ⬍1 km).
tra). The pH of these waters is usually ⬍2, and rock A much larger diameter core (⬎7 km) is likely for Nev-
leaching is common. Discharge rates of up to 200 kg/s ado del Ruiz, where a mantling buffer of two-phase
have been reported for a single acid stream at Sorik fluids (hot water plus vapor) probably separates it from
Marapi, but lower discharge rates (a few kg/s) are much neutral pH chloride waters in the outer reservoir. The
more typical. low permeability of the rocks hosting the reservoir ex-
Acid condensates move downslope in the subsurface plains the commonly low discharge rates of chloride
and mix with shallow groundwater, often within perched springs on the lower flanks.
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 839

B. Surface Manifestations of Quasi and their inferred heat sources. This allows recognition
Volcanic–Hydrothermal Systems of three groups:

These develop when the flux of magmatic gases de- 1. Manifestations of hydrothermal systems hosted by
creases and a volcanic–hydrothermal system becomes a high standing volcanic centers (with an inferred lo-
fully convecting high-temperature system. They also cal cooling pluton as their heat source)
occur beneath older composite (andesitic and dacitic) 2. Manifestations of hydrothermal systems in rather
volcanic complexes, calderas, and silicic (rhyolitic) flat terrain transferring heat from inferred exten-
domes. The heat they discharge derives mainly from sive hot crust or plutons
deeply penetrating groundwater that taps a cooling plu- 3. Manifestations associated with high-temperature
ton. Acid condensates are less common than in true volca- systems over extensive hot crustal rocks in a plate
nic–hydrothermal systems, but acid altered ground oc- collision regime
curs. Solfataras produce only minor amounts of sulfur
and fumaroles do not discharge corrosive volcanic gases,
although the ratios of noncondensable volatiles (for ex-
ample, CO2 , He, Ar) are close to those in volcanic fuma- A. Manifestations of Hydrothermal Systems
roles. Minor, shallow lateral outflows of neutralized Associated with High Standing
chloride–sulfate waters may discharge on the outer Volcanic Centers
flanks.
Kaolin, cristobalite, hematite, and silica residue are Many well-known high-temperature systems have this
common alteration products, but sulfate minerals are setting. Depending on the overall permeability of the
also common, including alunite and jarosite. However, reservoir rocks and their surroundings and the extent
diaspore and pyrophyllite are absent except where there of recharge (infiltration of groundwater), three distinct
has been considerable erosion (e.g., at Matsukawa, types of reservoirs can be recognized. Here we use the
Honshu). Lead-rich barite (hokutolite) is precipitating terms ‘‘low,’’ ‘‘moderate,’’ and ‘‘high’’ permeability for
from the highly acidic Tamagawa Springs (also in rocks with average permeabilities, k, of the orders of
Honshu). ⬍1 to 3, 3 to 10, and ⬎10 millidarcy (1 millidarcy ⫽
Relics of an earlier volcanic–hydrothermal phase, 1 ⫻ 10⫺15 m2), respectively. In each case almost all the
however, can persist as drillholes sometimes intersect heat reaching the surface is carried by deeply circulating
saline, strongly acid, or neutral pH fluids. The Alto meteoric waters that sweep heat from a source (usually
Peak system (Philippines), which contains a core of a cooling pluton) and ascend under free convection.
rocks saturated with vapor, is an example. There are If the k value of the reservoir rocks is high but that
many others of this type whose history can be inferred of rocks in the recharge area is moderate, then this
from the occurrences of deep acid alteration: for exam- results in the formation of a liquid dominated system (liq-
ple, Mahanagdong (Philippines), Dieng ( Java), Kiris- uid saturation of the reservoir rocks, Sl , is between 1
hima (Kyushu), and Kakkonda (Honshu). With pro- and 0.7). If the k values of both the reservoir rocks and
longed convection in the main reservoir, steam- those in the recharge area are moderate, than a two-
condensate and magmatic fluids become neutralized and phase mixture can develop in parts of the reservoir (natu-
diluted. Matured, quasi volcanic–hydrothermal systems ral two-phase system) with 0.7 ⬍ Sl ⬍ 0.4. Where k in
can thus become indistinguishable from high-tempera- the surrounding area is low (i.e., there is little recharge)
ture systems beneath eroded volcanic centers. but the k value of the reservoir rocks is high, then
the dominant fluid in the reservoir will be vapor (0.4 ⬍
Sl ⬍ 0), i.e., a vapor dominated system.
In all three cases, however, most hydrothermal miner-
als that form by replacement in the reservoir do so from
III. Manifestations of interaction between the host rocks and a liquid phase.
Further, rocks at the Kawah Kamojang and the Darajat
High-Temperature Systems fields (both in Java) contain vein calcsilicate minerals
such as epidote, wairakite, and prehnite that clearly de-
The characteristic active and nonactive surface manifes- posited directly from liquid even though boreholes in
tations of high-temperature systems are discussed with both fields discharge steam. This is because the perme-
respect to the topography of surrounding volcanic rocks ability of the host rocks determines whether a field will
840 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

FIGURE 3 Conceptual model of a liquid dominated, high-temperature system beneath a partially eroded, high standing volcanic
complex exhibiting lateral zonation (downstream) of surface manifestations. A large amount of heat is discharged by concealed outflows
that are partly sealed through mineral deposition. The model is based, in part, on the Palinpinon system (Philippines); the heat source
is a cooling pluton. (Modified from Hochstein, 1990.)

supply steam only or a two-phase mixture of steam and hot water and steam (spouting spring or geyser). Further
water to producing boreholes. downstream, mixed chloride–bicarbonate waters may
discharge as warm springs and seepages, some with traver-
tine (mainly CaCO3 ) deposits. This lateral zonation of
1. Manifestations of Liquid
discharge features is a characteristic of these systems
Dominated Systems
and was first described for the Hakone system ( Japan).
A schematic diagram of a liquid dominated system be- Liquid dominated systems with the manifestations
neath an eroded volcanic complex (Fig. 3) shows that just described occur at Palinpinon and Tongonan
all manifestations over the central part of the reservoir (Philippines). At Tongonan, another characteristic dis-
derive from ascending steam that is discharged by fuma- charge feature occurs near the toe of an outflow, a hot
roles and from minor steaming (hot) ground. Condensed ebullient pool, whose ebullition is caused by ascending
steam, with oxidised H2S gas, feeds minor hot acid springs. CO2 gas. Manifestations over major outflows from a
Steam and CO2 can discharge together through hot mud liquid dominated system occur also at Berlin (El Salva-
pools, or separated CO2 (rarely with H2S) can discharge at dor) and Momotombo (Nicaragua). Elsewhere, the lo-
the surface producing characteristic gas discharge features cations of reservoirs below steep and sometimes inacces-
that have local names: for example, kaipohan in the Phil- sible terrain are not well known, and the existence of
ippines, putizza in Italy. Downslope, the ascending CO2 a liquid dominated system can only be inferred from
dissolves in perched groundwaters to produce warm discharge features along an outflow. This occurs, for
springs that discharge bicarbonate (HCO3 ) waters. example, at El Tatio (Chile), the ‘‘type system’’ for this
Many liquid dominated systems with the hydrological hydrological setting. Other prospects, known only from
setting shown in Fig. 3 have concealed (subsurface) out- manifestations at the toe of subsurface outflows, are
flows of neutral pH chloride waters originating from the Cisolok and Cisukarame ( Java), whose outflows, based
upper part of the reservoir. Silica deposition can partly on geophysical evidence, extend for more than 10 km.
seal the top of the outflows to descending surface water. The prospects at Sipoholon (Sumatra) and Songwe
Where these outflows discharge in valleys or at lower (Tanzania) are only known from their travertine depos-
elevations, hot springs and hot pools occur (often boiling iting springs. Spouting springs (spouters) occur over
and occupying hydrothermal eruption or dissolution cra- an outflow of the Ulebulu system (Sumatra) and
ters). Some manifestations here discharge a mixture of at El Tatio. A seasonal geyser occurs at the toe of
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 841

a small concealed outflow from the Rajabasa system and over many other high-temperature systems associ-
(Sumatra). ated with young volcanic centers in the Kenya Rift Val-
ley. None discharge appreciable amounts of hot water.
2. Manifestations of Natural In part, this is due to the semiarid conditions and the
Two-Phase Systems regionally deep water table. Fossil sinter occurs in this
setting (shown in Fig. 4), at Namarumu (N. Kenya),
The fact that water in many liquid dominated systems
for example, indicating that when infiltration rates were
beneath high standing volcanic complexes boils, thus
higher in the past some reservoirs were liquid domi-
creating a two-phase zone (Tongonan, for example),
nated. Further north, in the Ethiopian Rift, another
does not mean these are themselves two-phase systems;
natural two-phase system, Aluto, discharges not only
these can only be recognized where wells intersect a
heat from steaming ground and fumaroles, but also neu-
deep, coherent two-phase zone.
tral pH chloride water from hot springs and seepages that
The Olkaria prospect (Kenya) was such a two-phase
are located above an outflow at the foot of the young
system prior to its exploitation. Extensive areas of steam-
volcanic dome that hosts the reservoir.
ing ground with minor fumarolic activity occur there.
Practically all heat from this huge reservoir transfers to
3. Manifestations of
the surface by ascending steam that condenses at shallow
Vapor-Dominated Systems
depths, maintaining dominantly conductive heat trans-
fer to the surface with only feeble fumaroles. There are A characteristic spectrum of manifestations occurs over
no significant liquid discharges except for some minor these rare systems, for example, on the broad volcanic
warm springs that discharge small amounts of condensate massifs at Kawah Kamojang and Darajat ( Java). Heat
(Fig. 4). Extensive steaming ground is also the dominant transfer is dominantly by steam ascending from the top
type of manifestation at the nearby Eburru prospect of a thick concealed layer with condensates (condensate

FIGURE 4 Simplified model of a high-temperature steaming ground system with a natural two-phase (coexisting liquid and va-
por) reservoir beneath a broad volcanic center in a semiarid environment showing the restricted variety of surface manifestations
in this setting. The model has some affinity to the Olkaria system (Kenya) and many other similar systems in the East African Rift
Valley.
842 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

FIGURE 5 Conceptual model of a vapor dominated system beneath a broad, high standing volcanic complex. The reservoir has a
condensate layer on its top. Heat transferred within the reservoir is discharged at the surface by steam and hot condensates
(bicarbonate waters). The model has some similarity to the Kamojang system ( Java); the heat source is a cooling pluton. (Modified
from Hochstein, 1990.)

layer) of almost neutral pH bicarbonate waters (Fig. typically present, as is silica residue, although fine-
5) that, together with intense alteration, may act as a grained, black pyrite may persist near some thermal
confining cover. Steaming ground and fumaroles are com- features. The alteration is usually pervasive and the over-
mon; in addition, minor acid condensates form ‘‘muddy’’ all process is dominantly destructive of the host rocks
hot pools and small acid lakes with very low mass discharge. rather than depositional. The Matsukawa field (Hon-
The low permeability of the rocks surrounding these shu, Japan) has extensive alteration (7 ⫻ 1.5 km) com-
reservoirs prevents any significant mass outflow, al- prising pyrophyllite and diaspore, alunite, kaolinite, and
though shallow, minor bicarbonate–sulfate springs oc- smectite zonally distributed around the main structural
cur about 15 km outside Darajat. There are no neutral feature of the field. This alteration records former ther-
pH chloride springs on the lower flanks, and their ab- mal activity as the present-day thermal manifestations
sence is probably the most characteristic feature of these consist of only a few areas of warm ground.
systems. The same types of surface manifestations also
occur over Ketetahi (NZ), hosted by a young andesite
volcano (Mt. Tongariro), although no drillholes have B. Manifestations of High-Temperature
yet tested this tentative classification. Systems in Moderate Terrain
Surficial and shallow hydrothermal alteration is exten-
sive above vapor dominated systems but does not, in The heat sources for these systems appear to be exten-
itself, reveal whether or not the underlying reservoirs sive, hot crustal rocks whose thermal energy is main-
are occupied by vapor or a two-phase fluid: kaolin clays tained by the following:
dominate (kaolinite, halloysite, and more rarely dickite),
but sulfur and sulfates are also common (alunite, natro- 1. Partial melting within the ductile upper crust (set-
alunite, gypsum, and a variety of hydrous phases, many ting for the NZ systems hosted by young rhyolitic
ephemeral). Hematite and hydrous iron oxides are also rocks and also for some at Yellowstone, Wyoming)
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 843

2. Deep, laterally aligned crustal and dyke intrusions sates and noncondensable gases (minor acid springs and
in rift environments beneath systems hosted in ba- mudpools) can, therefore, occur close to others that dis-
salts (e.g., systems over spreading centers such as charge neutral pH chloride waters (clear hot pools, hot
Iceland) or sedimentary rocks (Baja California) springs). This thermal regime favors hydrothermal erup-
3. Deep cooling plutons (relics of an older subduc- tions, if the liquid is very close to boiling in the shallow
tion cycle?) now distant from an active subduction subsurface. The setting also favors the discharge of two-
zone phase boiling fluids as large geysers. Outflows are rare
because the horizontal pressure gradient is very small
In all these settings there are systems with one of the
(flat terrain). Systems with the largest natural heat dis-
three reservoir types mentioned in the previous para-
charges (up to 500 MW at Waiotapu, NZ; see Fig. 1)
graph. An additional reservoir type with the second set-
occur in this setting with many prospects discharging
ting listed is the nonconvecting brine system.
⬎300 MW. An idealized section through a liquid domi-
nated reservoir with its spectrum of manifestations is
1. Manifestations of High-Temperature
shown in Fig. 6.
Systems in Moderately Steep Terrain
The silica sinter that deposits from discharging waters
Underlain by Extensive Hot Crustal Rocks
shows a wide variety of forms. Spouters (spouting springs)
The terrain surrounding these systems is not steep, and or geysers deposit nodular silica called geyserite. Terrac-
young volcanic cones are usually peripheral to the geo- ing is a common feature, with individual steps having
thermal reservoirs. Because of their high recharge rate heights ranging from a few millimeters to 2 meters (as
and the terrain, the hot fluids can ascend close to or at the Rotomahana system near Rotorua, New Zealand,
reach the surface. Any zonation of discharge features, if it destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 1886). The steps
occurs, is not controlled by lateral pressure gradients typically have lips to them and are usually closest to-
created by differences in relief. Manifestations of dis- gether on the steepest slopes. The flow paths of the
charging steam ( fumaroles and steaming ground ), conden- cooling waters change constantly through deposition of

FIGURE 6 Conceptual model of a liquid dominated system standing in rather flat terrain; the heat source is an extensive layer of
hot crustal rocks that contains some partial melts and host intrusions. The model has some similarity to the Wairakei system (NZ).
(Modified from Hochstein, 1990.)
844 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

silica. Other silica varieties include banding, palisade bly half that of the Taupo Zone systems. Many geother-
structures, and wave forms. The last have the form of mal systems in Yellowstone show the characteristic
barchan sand dunes, but their crests grow toward the thermal manifestations that occur over the liquid domi-
flow direction of thermal water. Silica sinter is usually nated systems, including large geysers, clear boiling pools,
hard and white, but it also may be porous, pale yellow, and extensive sinter deposits at the Norris Geyser Ba-
and friable. Microbiological activity plays a major part sin, for example.
in silica deposition in some areas and bacteria and plants Deposits of calcium carbonate occur in the outflow
may be preserved as fossils. areas of high-temperature systems but are also associated
Sinter covers several acres at Norris Geyser Basin with lower temperature systems. The carbonates deposit
(Yellowstone) and Waiotapu (New Zealand). When as a consequence of loss of CO2 from the discharging
first deposited, silica sinter is opaline, but it transforms water in which it was formerly dissolved. Calcite is the
with time, first to cristobalite and finally to quartz, pro- dominant carbonate, but where loss of CO2 is very fast,
gressively losing water as it does so. Metal rich deposits aragonite occurs instead. The reason for this is not
precipitate with the silica from some springs: for exam- known. The calcium carbonate forms deposits that re-
ple, ore grade gold and silver plus appreciable arsenic, semble those of silica sinter, e.g., bedded or layered,
antimony, and thallium, as are now precipitating at the terraced or forming ridges and even columns up to 3
Champagne Pool, Waiotapu. Sinter with locally 3 wt% m high. Extensive and beautiful deposits of calcium car-
tungsten is depositing at Waimangu (New Zealand). bonate occur at Mammoth (Yellowstone), but traver-
The heat output (Qs ) of all (앑20) high-temperature tine very commonly surrounds many small springs or
hydrothermal systems in the Taupo Volcanic Zone pools.
(TVZ), over an active arc segment about 200 km long,
is probably three times greater than the extrapolated
2. Manifestations of High-Temperature
cumulative heat discharged (Qv ) from all its volcanic
Systems in Crustal Spreading Environments
centers. The Wairakei system was liquid dominated
prior to its exploitation and its manifestations included Many geothermal systems are hosted by young basaltic
all those listed earlier. Impressive manifestations also rocks in active rifts, such as Iceland. These high-temper-
occur over other liquid dominated systems nearby, such ature systems derive their heat from a set of dykes or
as at Waiotapu, which exhibits an apparent reversed hy- sills. Generally, their manifestations are less vigorous
drological zonation whereby the deep reservoir fluid dis- than those listed in the previous paragraph. Acid alter-
charges from a slightly higher large hot pool (an old hy- ation and sinter deposits are not extensive; the salinity
drothermal eruption crater) that is surrounded by acid of thermal water in prospects away from the ocean is
springs at lower elevations. Acid leaching of thick low, generally ⬍1 g/kg of total dissolved solids (TDS).
pumice has produced a number of steep sided or over- A few liquid dominated systems have geysers, as at Hau-
hanging walled dissolution pits, some with acid conden- kadalur, including Great Geyser itself which gave its
sates in them. A rare manifestation which occurs over the name to all similar intermittently discharging features;
Rotokawa system is a cold acid lake into which a vigorous the term comes from the Viking verb ‘‘gjose’’ (to gush).
flux of H2S dissolves. The Whakarewarewa system is Liquid and two-phase geothermal reservoirs occur to-
well known for the occurrence of large geysers, clear hot gether at Krafla and Namafjall, as indicated by the
(near boiling) pools, and widespread sinter deposits. Natu- initial enthalpy of fluids discharged from wells there.
ral two-phase systems also occur (e.g., Broadlands- Near the coast, infiltration of sea water is shown by the
Ohaaki) but have few or no major discharge features. The high mineral concentration (up to 20 g/kg) in hot water
rate of natural heat discharge (Qs ) from Broadlands (be- from the Svartsengi and the Reykjanes high-T reser-
fore exploitation) was only 앑75–100 MW compared with voirs (both liquid dominated). Several wells at Krafla
that from the other three prospects just cited (each with discharged fluid with a magmatic signature as a result
Qs values between 300 and 500 MW). of an intrusion and eruption that occured there in 1975.
A large number (up to eight) of probably liquid domi- The term ‘‘geothermal brine’’ has been used for liq-
nated high-temperature systems occur in the Yel- uids with high total dissolved solids (TDS). This term
lowstone National Park (Wyoming, USA). The heat applies, in general, to liquids with TDS ⬎20 g/kg (i.e.,
source here is a mantle plume extending into the base more saline than seawater); hot brines with TDS ⬎
of the crust, which it has heated and partially melted. 100 g/kg are called ‘‘hypersaline’’ brines.
The total thermal output from all the systems at Yel- Elongate, deep (⬎6 km) intrusions likely heat a num-
lowstone is therefore large, its magnitude being proba- ber of the geothermal systems in Baja California (Mex-
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 845

ico) and the Imperial Valley (California); these are liquid tial evidence that steam, which ascended to the surface
dominated and mainly high-temperature systems. The prior to the exploitation of both reservoirs, came from
fluviatile sediments host reservoirs that contain a brine an extensive condensate carapace similar to that shown
or ‘‘hypersaline’’ brine that arguably derives its high in Fig. 5. At Larderello, large amounts of boron were
salinity by dissolving surrounding evaporites. Because mobilized by vapor from marine sediments and depos-
of their high density, the brines have little surface dis- ited at the surface in borax ponds, the laguni that were
charge, so the dominant mode of heat transfer is by once mined. Fumaroles discharging B-rich steam have
conduction. An example is Cerro Prieto (Mexico) been described as soffioni. The magnitude of natural heat
where, prior to exploitation, some heat reached the sur- transfer and that by steam was unfortunately not assessed
face via small patches of hot, steaming ground and conduc- at either place before exploitation began.
tive losses were about 30 MW. Other brine systems in
the Imperial Valley (USA), such as Brawley, have no
surface manifestations whatsoever. Minor steaming
ground and small mud pots occur over the ‘‘hypersaline,’’ C. Manifestations of Systems over extensive
stagnant high-temperature reservoir of the Salton Sea Hot Crustal Rocks in a Plate
(also Imperial Valley). This is similar to the ‘‘hypersa- Collision Environment
line’’ system with a similar geological setting, the Ces-
ano prospect, in Central Italy. The heat sources for all the high-temperature systems
Hypersaline brines derived from the lateral infil- mentioned so far involve mobilization of upper mantle
tration of seawater occur in the Lake Assal system melts and fluids. A characteristic trace component which
(Djibouti), hosted by basalts, over an incipient rift with reveals the involvement of subcrustal melts is the 3He
extensive evaporites at its surface. At Dallol (Danakil isotope. Its role can be assessed from the 3He/ 4He ratios,
Depression, N. Ethiopia) meteoric water enters a salt R, of gases, normalized with respect to its atmospheric
dome by advection and dissolves salt almost to the limit ratio. Geothermal gases from all high-temperature sys-
of NaCl solubility. The hypersaline brine is heated by tems described so far have R values that are 1 to 2 orders
conduction from a cooling intrusion. This produces hot, of magnitude greater than typical values (⬍0.15) of gases
hypersaline brine pools (T ⫽ 110⬚C); the TDS of the brine discharged by low-temperature systems far distant from
can be up to 420 g/kg, high in Na, K, Mg, and Cl. active margins, e.g., over a ‘‘cold’’ continental crust (with
Here an overflow of hot brine causes the formation of no volcanic history).
salt mounds. However, a number of high-temperature systems,
hosted by metamorphic or sedimentary rocks, occur in
Tibet and Kashmir that discharge steam and gases with
3. Manifestations of High-Temperature
anomalously low 3He/ 4He ratios (R ⬍0.15). These sys-
Reservoirs Hosted by Sedimentary Rocks
tems transfer heat derived from young granites, proba-
Another group of high-temperature systems occur in bly generated by shear-heating from plate collision. At
sedimentary to low grade metamorphic rocks in a setting one, Yangbajing (Tibet), temperatures ⬎250⬚C have
with deep cooling plutons (perhaps the product of an been measured in drillholes. Hot geothermal fluids here
older subduction cycle). A hot water–CO2 gas domi- ascend beneath the flanks of a high mountain range
nated reservoir occurs, for example, at Ngawha (NZ), (Inner Himalayas) and discharge as a concealed outflow
which is several hundred kilometers distant from the within a wide valley. The zonation of manifestations is
presently active subduction zone, but lies above a sub- again controlled by the relief of the terrain. Traces of
duction zone that was active more than 10 Myr ago. acid condensates and extensive acid steam alteration
Quaternary basalts occur nearby but are not part of the (alunite, residual silica) occur over the flanks near the
high-temperature reservoir, which comprises Mesozoic inferred upflow. There is no significant discharge of
greywackes covered by about 600 m of almost imperme- liquid over the outflow, whose top is sealed by extensive
able (to water) sediments. Vigorous upflow of CO2 with deposits of silica and carbonates. Only at the toe of
mercury occurs throughout the entire area and through the outflow is there a spectrum of manifestations that
several cold lakes, but most heat (앑50 MW) transfers discharge neutral pH chloride waters, namely; boiling
to the surface by conduction. pools, hot springs, spouting (two-phase) boiling springs, and
The two largest systems known have similar settings some steaming ground. A number of large hydrothermal
and are both vapor-dominated, namely Larderello (It- eruption craters occur further down the valley, where
aly) and The Geysers (California). There is circumstan- there are also massive deposits of travertine. A similar,
846 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

although less obvious, zonation of manifestations occurs and hydrological settings, most intermediate-tempera-
at the nearby Yangyi prospect, another system with ture systems can be grouped as follows:
temperatures ⬎200⬚C in 500-m deep wells. From de-
1. Systems over active and inactive volcanic arcs, i.e.,
scriptions of their discharge features and chemical
hosted by volcanic rocks
geothermometry, it is inferred that at least another
2. ‘‘Heat-sweep’’ systems in active rifts and at plate
dozen such high-temperature systems occur in Tibet.
collision boundaries
These appear to be associated with 30 to 50 km wide,
3. Fracture zone systems hosted by sedimentary or
elongate bands of hot, upper crustal rocks (‘‘heat bands’’)
metamorphic rocks
produced by shear heating resulting from lateral move-
ments of large crustal blocks. Also impressive are the
intermediate-temperature systems within the same heat
bands that occur at more than 100 places (see later dis- A. Intermediate-Temperature Systems over
cussion). Volcanic Arcs

A few intermediate-temperature systems have this set-

ting but they are everywhere outnumbered by the high-
temperature systems (앑1 : 10 in New Zealand and Su-
IV. Manifestations of matra). Some intermediate-temperature systems are
Intermediate- and probably decaying high-temperature systems over a
Low-Temperature Systems waning heat source. A few dead systems host epithermal
mineral deposits, but most of these were likely once
high-temperature systems. A well-studied dead reservoir
Intermediate- and low-temperature systems occur in is at Ohakuri (NZ), which was probably a high-temper-
many different geological and hydrological settings, ature system about 100 kyr ago. Still active intermediate-
both along and outside active plate margins. It is often temperature systems occur at Horohoro and Atiamuri
difficult to distinguish them from high-temperature sys- (NZ). Their surface manifestations are not impressive.
tems, since standard chemical and isotopic geothermo- Minor silica sinter and a boiling spring occurs at Atia-
meters, based on slow equilibration processes (i.e., muri, where drilling shows that the temperature at a
Na/K and most gas geothermometers), give tempera- depth of about 1 km is only 175⬚C. At Horohoro, there
tures reflecting conditions much deeper than, say, 1 km is minor hot spring activity and cold altered ground. The
depth. However, faster equilibrating fluid/rock interac- chemical composition of these thermal waters points to
tions allow application of the silica (assuming equilibra- their being appreciably diluted with ground waters.
tion with chalcedony) and the Mg/K geothermometers. Hot crustal rocks beneath an extinct arc segment can
These, and the lack of significant shifts in the 18O isotope take several million years to cool conductively. In such
values, can be used to predict likely temperatures in the a setting, a few intermediate-temperature systems may
upper few kilometers of such reservoirs. Because of their survive, for example, at Te Aroha (Coromandel, NZ),
lower temperatures and less buoyant fluids, their natural which is hosted by andesites along an arc segment that
heat outputs are also lower. They thus have fewer surface became extinct 앑5 million years ago. Here little heat
manifestations. All intermediate temperature prospects (앑1 MW; see Fig. 1) is transferred by a few hot springs
have liquid dominated reservoirs that can extend to great and CO2-rich fluids that deposit aragonite. Over the
depths (⬎5 km). Fumaroles and steaming ground are ab- same extinct arc segment occurs the Kaitoke hot springs
sent, although boiling springs occur in some; however, (Great Barrier Island, NZ), which are similar to those
the maximum fluid discharge temperatures are usually at Te Aroha.
below boiling.
Although a few intermediate-temperature systems are
located in active and inactive volcanic arcs, where they
are heated by convecting plumes of hot water, the major- B. ‘‘Heat-Sweep’’ Systems
ity derive their energy from deeply penetrating meteoric
water that ‘‘sweeps’’ heat from the hot but brittle upper The reservoirs of ‘‘heat-sweep’’ systems may be of vol-
crust into a discharge area (‘‘sink’’), often via fractures canic or sedimentary rocks. Fracture zone systems can
(‘‘fracture zone’’ systems). According to their geological develop in a part of the crust with anomalously high
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 847

heat flow but not associated with volcanism, and in con- in Fig. 1. They are the largest intermediate-temperature
tinental rifts. Intermediate-temperature systems have systems known.
not been described in detail, but some, however, have Elsewhere along the East African Rift, where evapo-
been explored by drillholes in the hope that they were rites are thin or absent, less saline hot water discharges
high-temperature systems. The number of examples into lakes and sinks. Lake Bogoria (Kenya) has a heat
that follow is therefore small and restricted to a few of output from several boiling springs and ebullient pools of
the better known prospects. the order of 100 MW. Cation geothermometers clearly
point to the mean reservoir temperature of this sweep
1. Heat-Sweep Systems in Active Rifts system as being ⬍180⬚C. The surface discharge features
could be mistakenly interpreted as being manifestations
The East African Rift Valley is underlain along its entire of a high-temperature system. Manifestations of inter-
length by hot crustal rocks heated mainly by intrusions. mediate-temperature sweep systems occur also in north-
Rain infiltrating over its higher standing rift shoulders ern Kenya and the Southern Lakes District of Ethiopia.
favors the development of large heat-sweep systems Several systems in the Basin and Range Province of
which discharge hot fluids along the axis of the arid rift the United States are probably heat-sweep systems
valley (see Fig. 7). The large hydraulic head sets up its (Soda Lake, Beowawe, and Stillwater in Nevada, for
own convection pattern, that is, a pattern of ‘‘forced example). Their manifestations are mostly minor.
convection.’’ If hot fluids ascend through evaporites they
discharge hot saline water in springs at 40 to 80⬚C, for 2. Heat-Sweep Systems in a Plate
example, along the margins of Lake Natron (Tanzania), Collision Setting
Lake Magadi (Kenya), Lake Afrera, and Lake Asale
(both in northern Ethiopia). Evaporation produces large In Tibet, Kashmir, and west Yunnan, there are several
surface deposits of crystalline carbonates of sodium intermediate-temperature systems, as indicated by the
(trona) at the first two lakes. The compositions of brines chemical geothermometry of their discharge fluids. The
of shallow origin is not governed by temperature-depen- topography, high infiltration (some from snow melt),
dent equilibria; however, silica and isotope data indicate and large hydraulic heads over recharge areas favor the
that the deep fluid temperatures are most likely ⬍170⬚C. development of a heat-sweep hydrology over crustal
The area affected by such heat sweeps is large (⬎100 strips heated by shear deformation (‘‘heat bands’’). A
km2), which explains the high heat outputs (of the order good example is the Naqu prospect in Central Tibet
of 100 MW) of the first two examples cited; the anoma- characterized by hot springs (T max ⫽ 60⬚C), which de-
lous position of the Lake Natron heat output is shown posit travertine from waters that the K/Mg geothermo-
meter indicates to be 앑130⬚C at depth. Laduogang
(near Yangbajing) is another intermediate-temperature
system explored by drilling. Ebulliant pools discharging
bicarbonate waters here locally deposit carbonate nod-
ules (pseudo-geyserite). In the foothills of the Himala-
yas, similar systems occur (Manikaran in northern In-
dia, for example). Subsurface temperatures as hot as
150⬚C are indicated by the K/Mg geothermometer for
most systems in Tibet depositing travertine. This is also
a characteristic product of many extinct systems there.

C. Fracture Zone Systems

Deep-reaching heat-sweep systems can also develop in

FIGURE 7 Conceptual model of a heat-sweep system (forced terrain with rather flat topography if fluids ascend
convection) producing intermediate-T reservoirs within an active via a deep, highly permeable (⬎100 millidarcy) frac-
continental rift. The model is based on lake systems such as those ture zone in a brittle crust of high heat flux (⬎70
in northern Tanzania, Kenya, and Ethiopia. mW/m2). Such high fluxes often occur where thick gran-
848 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

ing over an anticline, for example, are rare. Since tem-

peratures in their upper reservoirs are low (i.e.,
⬍125⬚C), buoyancy forces, and hence the heat output
of these systems, are also low (typically between 0.1 and
3 MW). Rock/fluid interactions occur at a much slower
rate and mineral–fluid equilibrium is seldom attained;
18
O shifts do not occur. The ‘‘true’’ low-temperature
systems are rare in volcanic arc settings, whereas they
are common where topography and tectonics allow
small heat-sweep systems to develop, for example, along
the margin of large rift valley lakes, such as Lake Malawi
(East Africa). Low-temperature systems can form
FIGURE 8 Conceptual model of a heat sweep system (free even in brittle crust with an average terrestrial heat flux
convection) discharging hot fluids through a deep reaching frac- (앑60 mW/m2), corresponding to temperature gradients
ture zone (fracture zone system). The heat source gives a higher of only 앑25 to 30⬚C/km, although they are more com-
than normal terrestrial heat flow; this setting can occur far away mon where fluxes are higher. In the Basin and Range
from active margins and volcanism. The model is based on the Province and Colorado Plateau in the western United
Fuzhou system in South China. States, there are at least 900 low-temperature systems,
which thus outnumber the intermediate and high-tem-
perature systems by 앑20 : 3 and 20 : 1, respectively. In
ites provide radiogenic heat (see Fig. 8). Fracture zones the Himalayan area there are 앑500 low-temperature
near the surface may be ‘‘narrow’’ (⬍100 m) or ‘‘wide’’ systems that discharge fluids hotter than 40⬚C; they
(⬎200 m). A good example of the former is the Fuzhou outnumber the intermediate and high-temperature sys-
prospect in southern China; the San Kamphaeng pros- tems by 앑20 : 6 and 앑20 : 1, respectively.
pect in northern Thailand is an example of a wide frac- Despite the worldwide occurrence of low-tempera-
ture system. Another dozen or so fracture zone-sweep ture systems, their surface manifestations differ little,
systems occur in northern Thailand (e.g., Fang) and a consisting usually of warm (T ⬍ 40⬚C) and sometimes
few within the coastal strip of southern China (e.g., hot springs (T ⬎ 40⬚C) without any surface alteration or
Zhangzhou). deposits other than travertine. The compositions of the
The dominant manifestations of all these systems are discharge fluids reflect the sweep depth and mixing con-
hot springs, and occasional hot pools, both with minor tribution from saline pore fluids in the sedimentary host
encrustations of sinter and travertine; alteration of the rocks. Numerical modeling shows that these systems are
surrounding rocks is rare. Conduction contributes to longer-lived than all others. The development of free
the heat transfer, which commonly lies between 3 and 10 convection in a fracture network of a low-temperature
MW. Prospects with indicated high Na/K equilibrium system, for example, can take a million years, whereas
temperatures (some greater than 225⬚C) can also be full convection within permeable high-temperature res-
misinterpreted as being ‘‘high-temperature systems,’’ al- ervoirs may develop in only 10,000 years. Because of
though their low heat outputs and isotopic signatures their low temperatures, mineral deposition is so slow
(no significant 18O shift) show them to have intermedi- that it does not block the fluid-flow channels, and they
ate-temperature reservoirs. are likely to be long-lived systems.
Manifestations of a few low-temperature systems dif-
fer, but include warm, often tepid springs that deposit
travertine, for example at Acque Albule near Rome
D. Manifestations of (Lacus Albulus), which was the main quarry for ancient
Low-Temperature Systems Rome, and distant from active volcanoes. In western
Turkey, Bursa and Pamukkale have a similar setting.
A large number of convective low-temperature systems However, CO2 gas also discharges close to low-tempera-
occur in geological settings that favor the development ture systems depositing travertine, and these could be
of structurally controlled, smaller heat sweep systems. described as ‘‘moffete.’’ Because of the high solubility
Most discharge warm (i.e., ⬍40⬚C) water from a network of CO2 in cold water, carbon dioxide rising from the
of fractures that constitute their reservoir. Stratigraph- mantle, as recognized by its typically high 3He/ 4He ratio,
ically controlled systems in sedimentary rocks, discharg- can dissolve at the bottom of cold lakes, such as at Lake
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 849

Nyos (Cameroon) and the Laacher See (Germany), duces a thin diffuse layer of steam that explains the name
which thus act as ‘‘gas’’ traps. (although it is strictly a misnomer, since no steam is
visible if the air is dry). Steaming ground can always be
recognized from the air by infrared anomalies. This
manifestation occurs over many high-temperature sys-
tems. Steaming ground is the most important signature
V. Classification of
of heat transfer over high-temperature systems (with
Manifestations (Mode two-phase zones) in the arid parts of the African Rift
of Heat Transfer) Valley and contributes at least, together with minor
steam vents, about 50% (앑200 MW) of the amount of
heat discharged from the Olkaria system (Kenya).
Based upon the various types of manifestations in their
Evaporation from the surface of hot pools also consti-
settings, some provisional classifications and groupings
tutes a diffusive heat discharge. These pools can be
are attempted. Since the same types of manifestations
subdivided as calm, boiling, or ebulliant (effervescent). They
associated with heat discharge occur over a large number
are widespread and occur mainly over liquid dominated,
of convective systems, this classification is only tentative.
high-temperature reservoirs in flat terrain (where they
We can distinguish between manifestations associated
usually occupy hydrothermal eruption or dissolution
with the following modes of heat discharge: (1) diffusive;
craters), but also over outflows from reservoirs beneath
(2) direct and continuous; (3) intermittent; (4) cata-
steep terrain, over vapor-dominated reservoirs (often
strophic; and (5) concealed. The various manifestations
over quenched fumaroles), and occasionally over inter-
associated with these modes have been ranked in Table
mediate-temperature fracture zone systems. The
I according to their role in surface heat transfer.
amount of heat transferred is proportional to the pool
area, its temperature, and other parameters that enhance
1. Diffusive Heat Discharge
evaporation. Hot pools may be fed by ascending hot
Diffusive heat transfer by thermal conduction results in water, by steam-heated groundwater, or by steam. In
warm ground; it is not obvious at the surface and can the first case the water has almost neutral pH; in the
only be recognized by temperature surveys in shallow last case it is acid. Ebullition and effervescence are usu-
(say, 1-m deep) holes. It may be the dominant mode of ally the result of discharge of CO2. The largest hot pool
heat transfer of some intermediate- and low-tempera- at Waiotapu (NZ), for example, discharges 앑20 MW.
ture systems. At Fuzhou (South China) almost half of Hot pools discharging neutral pH chloride water from
the total heat transfer of 앑10 MW is by warm ground. high-temperature reservoirs are characterized by a rim
It is also the dominant mode where high-temperature of thick silica sinter. A type of hot pool is the mud pool,
systems are covered by almost impermeable sediments. whose mud is kept liquid by the condensation of steam
More than 80% (앑40 MW) of the heat transferred and rainwater and the upwelling is caused by the dis-
from the Ngawha (NZ) system is by conduction through charge of gas from below. A mud volcano is a feature at
warm ground. Since near-surface conductive heat trans- the margin of a mud pool produced where gas discharges
fer does not raise the surface temperature, warm ground from a vent and builds a cone of mud as high as 2 m.
cannot be detected by infrared sensing; however, under The mud usually comprises cristobalite and kaolin clays,
suitable conditions warm ground with stunted vegeta- but smectites may also occur.
tion produces reflective infrared anomalies (due to small
differences in leaf chlorophyll condition). Such plants
2. Direct and Continuous Heat Discharge
constitute, therefore, in the widest sense, a surface mani-
festation, albeit a surrogate one. The most common manifestations over all types of geo-
Diffusive heat transfer by thermal conduction is also thermal systems are warm or hot springs. Boiling springs
dominant in steaming ground, where vapor rises to shal- are present over many high-temperature systems but
low depths but does not discharge because of an almost rarely over intermediate-temperature ones. Artesian dis-
impermeable surface layer, produced by intense alter- charge of hot water produces spouting hot springs (spout-
ation (e.g., clays are widespread in this setting). Vapor ers), which sometimes occur in a valley that drains a
condenses and the condensates drain away. This pro- liquid dominated system. A spouter may also discharge
duces steep thermal gradients, above 100⬚C/m in the a mixture of steam and boiling water, thus acting like a
top 15 cm, thus raising the surface temperature well continuous geyser (Steady Geyser at Yellowstone Park,
above ambient. Conductive heating of moist air pro- for example). Acid hot springs are typical discharge fea-
850 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

TABLE I Ranking of Surface Manifestations (Discharge Features) According to Their Role in Transferring Heat in
Geothermal Systems

tures associated with volcanic–hydrothermal systems, thermal water (앑1000 kg/s, transferring 앑105 MW) in
but also occur over high-temperature systems beneath the East African Rift.
high standing volcanic centers. Heat discharge rates of ‘‘Wet’’ steam, that is, steam at the saturation tempera-
most single hot springs rarely exceed a few megawatts, ture containing condensation droplets, is discharged by
although this is higher where springs occur in clusters most fumoroles over almost all types of high-temperature
or are aligned over a fracture. Large discharge rates systems and volcanic–hydrothermal systems. ‘‘Dry’’
from a single spring are unusual. However, if thermal steam, hotter than saturation temperature, is discharged
fluids collect in a large confined aquifer and then funnel by a few fumaroles at high flow rates. The terms wet and
beneath a stream, large discharges may occur. The dry fumarole have been used to describe these features.
Hippo Pool hot spring in Ethiopia occurs in such a Fumaroles that discharge at speeds ⬎20 m/s are noisy;
setting and constitutes the largest single discharge of vents with a quiet discharge (i.e., ⬍20 m/s) have been
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 851

called steam vents. Temperatures up to 145⬚C were mea- sonal discharge feature is the geyser at Rajabasa (Suma-
sured in a dry fumarole at Darajat ( Java) whose vapor tra), which only discharges during the rainy season.
derives from the top of the reservoir. Heat discharge Springs with intermittent discharge of hot water oc-
rates of fumaroles are usually low despite the impressive curring in a geyserlike cycle in Iceland have been re-
appearance of their large steam cloud; the largest fuma- ferred to as pulsating springs. A similar feature is the lake
role in the Ketetahi fumarole field (NZ) discharges only in Inferno Crater at Waimangu (New Zealand), which
앑5 MW. Steam vents that deposit significant amounts usually overflows every 5 weeks.
of sulfur are called solfataras; those with high boric acid
are soffioni.
Noncondensable gases, such as CO2 and H2S, some- 4. Catastrophic Discharges
times discharge without any steam component; they
In a setting that favours geyser activity and also over
transfer little heat since gas temperatures are usually
some vapor-dominated systems, there may be hydrother-
low. Minor, cool CO2 discharges, called moffete, occur
mal eruptions. These eruptions are triggered by an insta-
both over volcanic–hydrothermal systems and nonvol-
bility in a hydrostatic liquid column very close to boiling
canic (usually travertine depositing) low-temperature
temperature. A slight pressure drop, for example, is suf-
systems. Vents and ground discharging a mixture of CO2
ficient to initiate an eruption. Once the upper portion
and H2S gases are called kaipohan in the Philippines,
of the vent has been uplifted by steam expansion, the
where they occur over high-temperature systems with
resulting drop in pressure within the liquid column be-
an ‘‘acid core’’ (Palinpinon, for example). Peripheral
neath induces further flashing discharges at progres-
CO2 discharges at many other systems may have large
sively greater depth. The ejected debris forms a charac-
gas fluxes (Sibayak in Sumatra, for example), or the gas
teristic ring of hydrothermal eruption breccia. Hot
can diffuse through the ground (lack of vegetation and
water often later fills the crater, thus forming a large
dead birds in depressions are signs of such diffuse dis-
hot pool, as occurs at Waiotapu (NZ), which is sur-
charges).
rounded by its eruption breccia. Some hot lakes can
widen by marginal, smaller hydrothermal eruptions,
3. Intermittent Heat Discharge which occurred, for example, in an acid lake over the
vapor-dominated Kawah Kamojang field ( Java).
Geysers are spectacular manifestations discharging inter-
Hydrothermal eruptions have also been triggered by
mittently a mixture of boiling water, gas, and steam;
engineering activity such as at Yangbajing (Tibet),
they are, therefore, apart from some spouters, the only
where the pressure of drilling fluid was not sufficient to
natural two-phase discharge feature of hydrothermal
balance the pressure of shallow (⬍50 m) reservoir fluids.
systems. Geysers occur over liquid dominated high-tem-
Naturally induced hydrothermal eruption craters sur-
perature systems, usually in rather flat terrain, and rarely
round the drill site.
at the toe of outflows. The average heat output, even of
the largest geysers, is moderate, rarely exceeding 5 MW.
They are the best-known of all thermal manifestations,
5. Heat Discharge Associated with Seepage
and more has been written about them than about all
other manifestations, although they are very rare. Gey- Seepage is an ill-defined term, used to describe any type
sers require fractured rocks filled with hot water at boil- of subsurface discharge of thermal fluids, at both shallow
ing temperature at shallow depth. Filling and flashing and deep levels. Shallow seepage occurs if hot water
then causes a sudden discharge from a shallow cavity. from a geothermal reservoir discharges by concealed
This occurs regularly, but that from a complex fracture/ springs at the bottom of a river, a lake, or into shallow
cavity network may result in irregular discharges. Since groundwater. If a river seepage is fed by an outflow from
they discharge deep water that is oversaturated with a nearby high-temperature system, almost no surface
silica, geysers are always associated with wide sinter manifestations associated with it may be visible. This is
aprons. The discharge characteristics of geysers are very the situation at Mokai (NZ), where 앑300 MW of heat
sensitive to pressure changes in the supply water. Effer- is discharged by hot chloride water into a large river at
vescence of dissolved CO2 can also trigger intermittent the toe of an 8-km long concealed outflow. Seepage
geyser-like discharges. into rivers and streams can be recognized from the dif-
Thermal discharge features may show seasonal varia- ferent mass fluxes of nonreactive constituents, such as
tions, especially in countries with a pronounced rainy Cl and B, measured up- and downstream of the place
season that raises the groundwater level. A famous sea- where such an inflow is likely.
852 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

with different types of geothermal systems are listed in

VI. Surface Alteration Table II.
and Deposits The identities of the hydrothermal minerals that form
at a specific location depend upon a variety of factors,
but the main ones are temperature and the composition
The thermal activity that is the surficial surface expres-
of the reacting fluid, especially its pH and the amount
sion of a geothermal system is usually much smaller in
of gases it has dissolved in it. In addition, the duration
its extent than is the surficial hydrothermal alteration.
of fluid/rock interactions is reflected in the intensity of
For this reason the hydrothermal minerals and their
alteration, together with hydrological factors such as
distribution provide useful clues about a geothermal
rock permeability.
system. For example, the surface alteration at Matsu-
Alteration produced by steam, or strictly steam con-
kawa in northern Honshu ( Japan) was the single most
important exploration guide for deducing the extent and densate and gases, is dominantly destructive of the host
potential of this important field. rocks, but that associated with thermal waters of near
The intensity of surface alteration at a particular site neutral pH is mainly constructive. Thus, silica residue
reflects a variety of parameters, including the shallow occurs as a product of steam alteration and silica sinter
hydrology of the field, its near surface plumbing, the occurs where alkali waters discharge. The former derives
reactivity of the host rocks and the fluids, and the dura- its silica from the surficial rocks as most other cations
tion of fluid/rock interactions or mineral deposition. are removed, but the silica in sinter is transported to
The extent of surficial hydrothermal alteration ranges the surface from the reservoir itself by the ascending
from zero, for fields such as Brawley and Heber (Impe- alkali chloride waters.
rial Valley, California), to several hectares, as in the Despite the corrosive behavior of steam condensate
Yellowstone fields and at Waiotapu (NZ). and acid gases, they produce a wide variety of hydrother-
More than 100 minerals are known to occur in active mal minerals, including sulfur and many sulfates, of
geothermal fields. Some are rare (e.g., gold) and unex- which alunite, gypsum and jarosite are usually the most
pected (e.g., lepidolite), but there are about 20 that are common. Kaolin clays are also typical of this type of
common and widespread in a large number of thermal alteration and are usually either kaolinite, halloysite or,
fields hosted by a wide variety of rock types. Typical more rarely, dickite. Fine-grained hematite and hydrous
assemblages of surface alteration minerals associated iron oxides are also common products of oxidation, and

TABLE II Typical Assemblages of Surface Alteration Minerals Associated

with Different Types of Geothermal Systems
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 853

cristobalite is fairly widespread. This type of alteration water and vapor (T ⬎ 250⬚C); the heat energy trans-
is common above vapor dominated reservoirs, but also ferred per unit mass by various magma types can be half
is present in those that have reservoirs with water only that of mixtures of hot water and vapor. It appears,
or else two phases. They are thus not diagnostic of therefore, that in the longer term, hydrothermal systems
reservoir type. Silica sinter and travertine have a variety are more effective in transferring heat energy than are
of morphologies, many of which are similar, e.g., band- volcanic systems, although details of the settings that
ing, terraces, geyserite (and pseudo-geyserite), over- favor the development of hydrothermal systems are not
hangs, palisade structures, and postdepositionally well understood.
formed features such as pressure ridges and fragmenta- Identification and ranking of high-temperature sys-
tion textures. Both also commonly record extensive mi- tems needs more attention. Ranking, in turn, requires
crobiological activity, and many contain plant material. assessment of the natural heat output and the likely
However, travertine (calcite or aragonite) and silica sin- reservoir temperatures in the same way as eruption char-
ter have a quite different genesis and significance. Silica acteristics have been used to assess and to classify volca-
sinter deposits as thermal waters that are oversaturated nic systems. In this respect, geothermal research lags
with respect to quartz, chalcedony, or cristobalite cool volcanological research, where several catalogues listing
at the free surface, whereas travertine forms as the de- the worldwide distribution of volcanoes have been pub-
positing waters lose CO2 formerly dissolved in them. lished. These catalogues list a volcano as ‘‘active’’ if it
The presence of silica sinter is thus usually a reliable erupted at least once during historic times or during
indication that the depositing fluids are derived from a the last 2000 yr. The listed ‘‘active’’ volcanoes usually
reservoir hotter than about 180⬚C, but travertine has comprise both centers that discharge or have discharged
little geothermometric significance and the waters from magmatic fluids and volcanic–hydrothermal systems.
which it deposits could have traveled several kilome- The catalogues also list a number of high-temperature
ters laterally. systems that have had historic hydrothermal eruptions
as being ‘‘active’’ volcanoes, where such eruptions have
been misclassified as ‘‘phreato-magmatic eruptions.’’ In
addition, hydrothermal systems that discharge only
steam (i.e., steaming ground) are sometimes misidenti-
VII. Perspectives
fied as ‘‘active’’ volcanoes. When the spatial distribution
of volcanic versus hydrothermal systems is assessed,
A. Heat Transfer and Classification these problems have to be considered.
Although no comprehensive lists of high-temperature
The magnitude of heat discharged by the thermal mani- hydrothermal systems exist, most of them have been
festations of hydrothermal systems has not been studied identified over active plate margins, often showing a
in detail, but some estimates are available. Comparison clear alignment of both active volcanoes and high-tem-
of these estimates with inferred, average, long-term heat perature geothermal systems. There are probably 12
discharge rates based on accumulated volume discharge such centers in Sumatra that can be classified as ‘‘active
rates of lava and tephra (say, 50 km3 per 10 kyr) from volcanoes’’; there are also at least 30 high-temperature
highly active volcanoes indicates that many high-tem- systems, each discharging between 30 and 300 MW.
perature hydrothermal systems can deliver as much en- Thus, the high-temperature hydrothermal systems of
ergy, at a steady rate, as large volcanoes through their Sumatra outnumber the active volcanic systems by
intermittent discharges, namely of the order of 100 ⫻ 2.5 : 1.
1018 joule per 10 kyr (e.g., accumulated and extrapolated
natural output of the Wairakei hydrothermal system
versus that of the nearby Taupo caldera in New
Zealand). Some of the energy throughput of hydrother- B. Thermal Alteration and
mal systems replenishes their reservoirs, which may Mineral Deposition
store between 10 and 30 ⫻ 1018 joule in the upper few
kilometers, that is, about equal to the energy stored in Ore-grade concentrations of some minerals occur at the
the largest hydrocarbon reservoirs. surface of several active hydrothermal systems where
For appropriate and applicable temperature ranges, they have deposited from ascending thermal waters. For
the dynamic viscosity of magma (T ⬎ 1000⬚C) is more example, the Champagne Pool at Waiotapu (NZ) is now
than six orders of magnitude greater than that of hot depositing a precipitate rich in gold (up to 80 mg/kg)
854 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS

and silver (up to 200 mg/kg). At the Waimangu field them have been applied to interpreting and understand-
nearby, silica sinter is precipitating that locally contains ing hydrothermal ore deposits. However, the opposite
3% elemental tungsten. The surface and near-surface direction in research outlook could be equally revealing.
parts (down to about 300 m) of many fields are thus ana- Thus, rocks exposed through mining or erosion, which
logues of typical low sulfidation epithermal ore deposits. once reacted with thermal fluids deep in the bowels
The hydrological processes, such as boiling and fluid mix- of an active geothermal system record, through their
ing, that occur in active hydrothermal systems leave min- mineralogy and textures, evidence about the fluid char-
eralogical signatures (such as vein adularia and bladed acteristics and the thermal evolution of the system.
calcite) that persist after the activity has ceased. For exam- There are many valuable insights waiting to be learned
ple, silica sinter of similar appearance to that at Waiotapu, from studies of these rocks.
but of Carboniferous age, occurs at the Wobegong epi- Geothermal systems are dynamic phenomena. Their
thermal mineral prospect in Queensland. The famous surface manifestations are often beautiful and fascinating
Devonian Rhynie cherts of northeast Scotland show un- and have attracted admiration or fear since ancient
equivocal evidence that they deposited from hot chloride times. They are, however, visible expressions of heat
waters that once discharged at the surface. energy that has been transferred from great depth to
In the deeper subsurface (⬎300 m, i.e., where boiling the surface and so they are analogous to volcanoes. In
temperatures are ⬎230⬚C in saturated reservoir rocks), the same way that the products of individual volcanoes
the hydrological conditions in active hydrothermal sys- differ widely, depending on their structural settings and
tems more closely match those that once prevailed in the composition of their magmas, so do geothermal
some mesothermal ore deposits hosted by volcanic systems have a great variety of characteristics. Each sys-
rocks. Here base metal sulfides sometimes deposit in tem seems to be unique, although we have here tried
concentrations locally up to ore grade, usually as a result to group them into broad but distinguishable categories.
of boiling, cooling, or fluid mixing. These sulfides most The energy that geothermal systems hold has barely
likely deposit where temperature gradients within the been tapped. Only about 9000 MW of electrical energy
reservoir are steepest (near reservoir boundaries, for is now produced worldwide from geothermal fluids with
example). Little is known about the thermal regimes 앑90,000 MW thermal energy. Almost the same amount
that occur below 3 km depth in active geothermal fields. is utilized in myriad other ways (domestic and industrial
Near the magma–host rock interface the conditions and heating, air conditioning, production of industrial bulk
processes that occur are likely to be the same as those heat). Improvement in technology and plain need will
that occurred when some of the large porphyry copper lead to their being exploited more fully in future. How-
deposits formed in the western United States, such as ever, geothermal systems are also, literally, wonderful
Bisbee (Arizona) and Bingham (Utah). natural laboratories worthy of study for their own sakes.
Thermal and hydrological conditions can change dur-
ing the lifetime of a hydrothermal system, as is evident
from cores (with cross-cutting veins and mineral over-
prints) recovered from deep drillholes. The lifespans of
geothermal systems are still poorly known, although this See Also the Following Articles
is an important research problem. At present we know
that some hydrothermal systems, such as Ohaaki-Broad-
Deep Ocean Hydrothermal Vents • Exploitation of
lands (NZ), have lasted for at least 300,000 yr and the
Geothermal Resources • Geothermal Systems • Magma
Kawerau Field (NZ) has been active, in some form or
Ascent at Shallow Levels
other, for at least 280,000 yr. Icelandic geothermal sys-
tems do not usually live longer than 250,000 yr, but
systems transferring heat from huge plutons, such as
that beneath the greater Larderello Region (Italy), can
have geothermal surface activity for ⬎3 million years.
Further Reading

C. Outlook Allen, A. T., and Day, A. L. (1935). Hot springs of the Yel-
lowstone National Park. Carnegie Inst. Publication 466,
In the past the lessons learned from studying active Washington, DC.
geothermal systems and the processes that occur within Browne, P. R. L. (1978). Hydrothermal alteration in active
 S URFACE M ANIFESTATIONS OF G EOTHERMAL S YSTEMS 855

geothermal fields. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 6, 229–250. Rinehart, J. S. (1980). ‘‘Geysers and Geothermal Energy.’’
Elder, J. (1981). ‘‘Geothermal Systems.’’ Academic Press, Springer Verlag, New York.
London. Rybach, L. (1980). Geothermal systems, conductive heatflow,
Ellis, A. J., and Mahon, W. A. J. (1977). ‘‘Chemistry and geothermal anomalies. In ‘‘Geothermal Systems’’ (L. Ry-
Geothermal Systems.’’ Academic Press, New York. bach and L. J. P. Muffler, eds.). John Wiley & Sons, Chi-
Giggenbach, W. F. (1997). The origin and evolution of fluids chester.
in magmatic-hydrothermal systems. In ‘‘Geochemistry of Simkin, T., and Siebert, L. (1994). ‘‘Volcanoes of the World,’’
Hydrothermal Ore Deposits,’’ 3rd ed., (H. L. Barnes, ed.), 2nd ed. Geoscience Press, Tucson, and Smithsonian Institu-
John Wiley & Sons, New York. tion, Washington, DC.
Hochstein, M. P. (1990). Classification and assessment of geo- Waring, G. A. (1965). Thermal springs of the United States
thermal resources. In ‘‘Small Geothermal Resources: A and other countries of the world—a summary. U. S. Geol.
Guide to Development and Utilization’’ (M. H. Dickson Survey Prof. Paper 492, U. S. Govt. Printing Office, Wash-
and M. Fanelli, eds.). UNITAR/UNDP Centre for Small ington, DC.
Energy Resources, Rome. White, D. E. (1955). Thermal springs and epithermal ore
Hochstein, M. P., and Sudarman, S. (1993). Geothermal re- deposits. Economic Geology (50th Anniv. Volume), pp.
sources of Sumatra. Geothermics 22, 181–200. 99–154.