POL317-Public Policy Analysis-Augustine Nduka Eneanya-2010
POL317-Public Policy Analysis-Augustine Nduka Eneanya-2010
POL317-Public Policy Analysis-Augustine Nduka Eneanya-2010
Email: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
This course examines the foundation of policy analysis. It dwells into analytical tools
required in explaining decision making process. The policy makers that are known as
the actors are well analysed. The study exposes rudiment and criteria involved in public
policy making. The various frameworks that are necessary to the understanding of
public policy are given attention in this course while the models, approaches and
theoretical postulations in policy analysis reflect in the manual. It is a comprehensive
composition of the subject matter which gives an in-depth insight into the fundamental
knowledge of Public Policy Analysis
Introduction ………………………………………………….....................................................
Course Aims …………………………………………………....................................................
Course Objectives ……………………………………………....................................................
Working through the Course …………………………………....................................................
Course Materials ………………………………………………..................................................
Study Units ……………………………………………………..................................................
Textbooks and References ……………………………………...................................................
Assessment Exercises …………………………………………..................................................
Tutor-Marked Assignment ……………………………………...................................................
Final Examination and Grading ………………………………...................................................
Course Marking Scheme ………………………………………..................................................
Course Overview/Presentation ………………………………….................................................
What you will Need in this Course ……………………………..................................................
Tutors and Tutorials …………………………………………….................................................
Assessment Exercises ..................................................................................................................
How to Get the Most from This Course ………………………..................................................
Conclusion ………………………………………………………...............................................
Summary ………………………………………………………..................................................
POL317 Public Policy Analysis is a one semester course in the third year of B.sc (Hons.) degree
in Political Science. It is a three unit credit course designed to enable you have a comprehensive
understanding of relevant issues in Public Policy Analysis. This is imperative for students of
Political Science to be equipped with analytical tools on decision making process especially
in a political system. The course begins with a brief introductory module that will expose you
to basic foundational knowledge on Public Policy Analysis. The meaning and definition of
Public Policy, types of Public Policy, the importance of Public Policy Analysis and the nexus
between Public Policy Analysis and other Social Sciences Disciplines are addressed in the first
module to give a solid foundation on the subject matter. The st udy has five (5) modules. Each
of the modules is structured into at least four (4) units. A unit guide comprises of instructional
material. It gives you a brief of the course content, course guidelines and suggestions and steps
to take while studying. You can also find self-assessment exercises for your study.
The primary aim of this course is to provide students of Political Science with a comprehensive
knowledge of Public Policy Analysis. However, the course specific objectives will enable you
to:
The specific objectives of each study unit can be found at the beginning and you can make
references to it while studying. It is necessary and helpful for you to check at the end of the unit,
if your progress is consistent with the stated objectives and if you can conveniently answer the
self-assessment exercises. The overall objectives of the course will be achieved, if you diligently
study and complete all the units in this course.
To complete the course, you are required to read the study units and other related materials. You
will also need to undertake practical exercises for which you need a pen, a note-book, and other
materials that will be listed in this guide. The exercises are to aid you in understanding the
concepts being presented. At the end of each unit, you will be required to submit written
assignment for assessment purposes.
At the end of the course, you will be expected to write a final examination.
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignments
STUDY UNITS
As you can observe, the course begins with the basics and expands into a more elaborate,
complex and detailed form. All you need to do is to follow the instructions as provided in each
unit. In addition, some self-assessment exercises have been provided with which you can test
your progress with the text and determine if your study is fulfilling the stated objectives. Tutor-
marked assignments have also been provided to aid your study. All these will assist you to be
able to fully grasp knowledge of Public Policy Analysis.
At the end of each unit, you will find a list of relevant reference materials which you may
yourself wish to consult as the need arises, even though I have made efforts to provide you with
the most important information you need to pass this course. However, I would encourage you,
as a third year student to cultivate the habit of consulting as many relevant materials as you are
able to within the time available to you. In particular, be sure to consult whatever material you
are advised to consult before attempting any exercise.
ASSESSMENT
Two types of assessment are involved in the course: the Self-Assessment Exercises (SAEs), and
the Tutor-Marked Assessment (TMA) questions. Your answers to the SAEs are not meant to be
submitted, but they are also important since they give you an opportunity to assess your own
understanding of the course content. Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs) on the other hand are
to be carefully answered and kept in your assignment file for submission and marking. This will
count for 30% of your total score in the course.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
At the end of each unit, you will find tutor-marked assignments. There is an average of two
tutor-marked assignments per unit. This will allow you to engage the course as robustly as
possible. You need to submit at least four assignments of which the three with the highest marks
will be recorded as part of your total course grade. This will account for 10 percent each, making
a total of 30 percent. When you complete your assignments, send them including your form to
your tutor for formal assessment on or before the deadline.
Self-assessment exercises are also provided in each unit. The exercises should help you to
evaluate your understanding of the material so far.
These are not to be submitted. You will find all answers to these within the units they are
intended for.
There will be a final examination at the end of the course. The examination carries a total of 70
percent of the total course grade. The examination will reflect the contents of what you have
learnt and the self-assessments and tutor-marked assignments. You therefore need to revise your
course materials beforehand.
The following table sets out how the actual course marking is broken down.
ASSESSMENT MARKS
Four assignments (the best four of all the Four assignments, each marked out of 10%, but
assignments submitted for marking) highest scoring three selected, thus totalling 30%
Final Examination 70% of overall course score
Total 100% of course score
Unit 4 Public Policy and Social Sciences: The Nexus Week 4 Assignment 1
This course builds on what you have learnt in the 100 Levels. It will be helpful if you try to
review what you studied earlier. Second, you may need to purchase one or two texts
recommended as important for your mastery of the course content. You need quality time in a
study friendly environment every week. If you are computer-literate (which ideally you should
be), you should be prepared to visit recommended websites. You should also cultivate the habit
of visiting reputable physical libraries accessible to you.
There are 15 hours of tutorials provided in support of the course. You will be notified of the
dates and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your tutor as
soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your
assignments, and keep a close watch on your progress. Be sure to send in your tutor marked
assignments promptly, and feel free to contact your tutor in case of any difficulty with your self-
assessment exercise, tutor-marked assignment or the grading of an assignment. In any case, you
are advised to attend the tutorials regularly and punctually. Always take a list of such prepared
questions to the tutorials and participate actively in the discussions.
ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First is the Tutor-Marked Assignments;
second is a written examination. In handling these assignments, you are expected to apply the
information, knowledge and experience acquired during the course. The tutor-marked
assignments are now being done online. Ensure that you register all your courses so that you can
have easy access to the online assignments. Your score in the online assignments will account for
30 per cent of your total coursework. At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final
examination. This examination will account for the other 70 per cent of your total course mark.
Usually, there are four online tutor-marked assignments in this course. Each assignment will be
marked over ten percent. The best three (that is the highest three of the 10 marks) will be
counted. This implies that the total mark for the best three assignments will constitute 30% of
your total course work. You will be able to complete your online assignments successfully from
the information and materials contained in your references, reading and study units.
The final examination for POL 217: Public Policy Analysis will be of two hours duration and have
a value of 70% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of multiple choice and fill-
in-the-gaps questions which will reflect the practice exercises and tutor- marked assignments you
have previously encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed. It is important that you use
adequate time to revise the entire course. You may find it useful to review your tutor-marked
assignments before the examination. The final examination covers information from all aspects of
the course.
1. There are 21 units in this course. You are to spend one week in each unit. In distance
learning, the study units replace the university lecture. This is one of the great advantages of
distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study materials at your
own pace, and at a time and place that suites you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to the lecturer. In the same way a lecturer might give you some
reading to do. The study units tell you when to read and which are your text materials or
recommended books. You are provided exercises to do at appropriate points, just as a
lecturer might give you in a class exercise.
2. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the
subject matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is integrated with other units and the
course as a whole. Next to this is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know
what you should be able to do, by the time you have completed the unit. These learning
objectives are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is finished, you must go
back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit, then you
will significantly improve your chance of passing the course.
3. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources.
This will usually be either from your reference or from a reading section.
4. The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any
trouble, telephone your tutor or visit the study centre nearest to you. Remember that your
This is a theory course but you will get the best out of it if you cultivate the habit of
relating it to political issues in domestic and international arenas.
SUMMARY
„Public Policy Analysis‟ introduces you to general understanding of the contemporary tools
in analysing public policy. It gives you a clue on the scientific approach to the
understanding and analysis of public policy. All the basic course materials that you need
to successfully complete the course are provided. At the end, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of Public Policy Analysis;
discuss the framework guiding policy analysis;
have an understanding of the implication and consequences of public policy
List of
Acronyms
Behxhet, B.(2017) Public Policy Analysis and the Criteria for Evaluation of the Public
Policy European Journal of Economics, Law and Social Sciences Vol 1 No 2
Eneanya, A.N. (2010) . Policy Research, Analysis, and Effective Public Policy Making in
Nigeria. Lagos: Concept Publications Ltd.
Frank, F.(2007) Handbook of Public Policy Analysis: Theory, Politics and Methods Taylor
and Francis Group
Ikelegbe, A.O. (1996). Public Policy Making and Analysis. Benin-City: Uri Publishing
Ltd.
Korel, G. and Robin, L.(2018) Public Policy Making in a Globalized World Sabanci
University
Oshionebo, B.O. (1998). “Development Policy-making Management Skills and the
Public Sector Manager”. In NCEMA Policy Analysis Series, Vol. 4, No. 2.
Salamon, M.(2002) The New Governance and the tools of Public Action: An Introduction
in L. M Salamon(ed) The tools of Government : A Guide to the new Governance, New
York: Oxford University
Peters, B. (2002). The Politics of tool Choice in L. M Salamon(ed) The tools of
Government: A Guide to the new Governance, New York: Oxford University
INTRODUCTION
This module gives background information on Public Policy Analysis. It looks at the
meaning and various scholarly definition of the concept of Public Policy. The
typology of public policy is given adequate analysis while the significant of the
subject matter is thoroughly examined in this module. The module concludes with
analysis of the nexus between public policy analysis and other fields in the social
sciences
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public Policy Analysis is one of the branches of Political Science. The evolution of the
subject to the study of politics became imperative after the second world. The
paradigm shift from the historical and descriptive method of studying political
phenomenon necessitated the decision making approach as an alternative in the study
of politics. The attention and focus on institutional and structural arrangement was
redirected towards understanding the decision making process that shape the
behaviours of government and political institutions. With the new thrust in research,
Public Policy Analysis became one of the vital subjects in the field of Political
Science. Several factors were responsible for this, namely:
1) Awareness that policies and government programmes need to be
understood by the citizens;
2) The roles of decision makers in the modern day government must be
comprehended and analysed
3) The study of institution and structural arrangement must reflect
understanding of the behavioural approach of policy makers;
4) The yearning of political scientists for scientific approach and analysis of
government policies and decision making process.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students would be able to:
understand the meaning of public policy
define public policy analysis
understand the characteristics and rational for the study of Public Policy
analysis
This increased interest has been accompanied both by grandiose claims for how
“policy science” can improve the decision-making capacity and the outputs of
government, and imitative relabeling as “public policy” of traditional courses in
government or public administration. A study of the origins of this interest can help
us to understand the current status of policy science and policy analysis. In brief,
past studies on public policy have been mainly dominated by scholars of
political science and public administration and have tended to concentrate more on
the content of policy, the process of its formulation and its implementation. The
study of public policy has evolved into what is virtually a new branch of the
social sciences- the so called policy sciences (Dror, 1968:8-9). This concept of
policy sciences was first formulated by Harold Lasswell in 1951. Today, the
policy sciences have gone far beyond new and naïve aspirations for societal relevant
knowledge. The policy science movement grew out of a quest for a science of
policy. Its key proponents among others were Yehezkel Dror and Harold
Lasswell. According to Dror (1971:3), “policy science is a new supra-discipline,
oriented towards the improvement of policy-making and characterized by a series of
paradigms different in important respects from contemporary normal science.
Policy Science is regarded as a higher transition from policy analysis. It believes
in the enhancement of methods, techniques and systematism (Ikelegbe, 1994:14).
However, the line delineating policy analysis from policy science is blurred.
Most advocates of policy sciences are policy analysts and the shift of emphasis to
policy science is nothing but to create identity as a discipline for solving social
problems.
However, the use of “public policy” as a label for a field of governmental activity and
involvement is both a common and an apparently common-sense one. It covers past,
current, and potential activities. It makes no distinction between policy as aspiration
and policy as achievement- and it does not readily distinguish between policy as
action and policy as inaction. On a more practical level, it will quickly become
evident that the everyday language of policy “fields” and “areas” suggests a degree of
boundary definition and self-containment which simply does not hold up when we
attempt, for example, to draw sharp dividing lines between economic, foreign, and
defence policies.
Other areas in which policy can be conceptualized are:
Besides, each level of government – central, state and local-may have its
specific or general policies. Then, there are “megapolicies”. General
guidelines to be followed by all specific policies are termed “megapolicy”.
Put differently, Olaniyi (1998) in his reference to Roberts and Edwards (1991)
posits that any policy made by the political actors concerning a targeted goals and
methods of attaining them remains a public policy. The concern of policy is
towards achieving a particular goal in a specified situation. Basically, it might be
long term or short term goal but policies are made to attain targeted goals. Be that
as it may, public policy is a set of inter-related decisions by political actors or
group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving them
with a specified situation.
Put differently, Roberts and Clark (1982) submit that public policy is a series of
government steps towards solving problems which require allocation of resources
in order to aid the implementation process of the policy. This implies government
decision making to suit the demands of the general public. In another way, it is not
only decision taken by government that can be categorised as public policy.
Nevertheless, public policies in modern political systems do not, by and large, just
happen. They are instead design to accomplish specified goals or product definite
results, although these are not always achieved. Second, policies consist of courses
or patterns of action taken over time by governmental officials rather than their
separate, discrete decisions. Third, public policies emerge in response to policy
demands, or those claims for action or inaction on some public issue made by other
actors – private citizens, group representatives, or legislators and other public
officials-upon government officials and agencies. In response to policy demands,
public officials make decisions that give content and direction to public policy.
These decision ns may enact statutes, issue executive orders or edicts, promulgate
administrative rules or make judicial interpretations of law.
As rightly by Sambo (1999: 283), some basic elements differentiate public policy
from private policies and other forms of policy
(1) Public policy is a purposive course of action or goal- oriented action rather
than a random or chance behaviour.
(2) Public policy consists of courses or patterns of action by government
officials.
(3) Public policy is what governments actually do, not what they intend to do or
say they are going to do. However, this is still a subject of debate since
future plans of governments over certain matters of concern can be seen as a
commitment to resolving such issues within the set time. This also follows
from Sharkansky's position that a policy is a proposal (1978).
(4) Public policy involves some forms of overt government action to affect a
particular problem; it involves a decision by government officials not to take
action, to do nothing on some matter on which governmental involvement is
,
sought.
(5) Public policy is based on law and is authoritative. That means public policy
is legally binded with coercive while private policy does not. For instance,
the monthly sanitation in some states in Nigeria has a legal and authoritative
force which attracts punishment for anybody that breaches it.
Public policy can also be studied for political and administrative reasons in order to
ensure that governments select and adopt appropriate policies. The study of
public policy has much to offer to the development of administration in different
sectors of the economy. It will enable the administration to engage in such
issues as are of public importance and are concerned with the transformation of
values into public policy-making and demanding the meaningful actions of public
servants.
The social scientists, especially political scientists, manifest concern with what
governments should do with appropriate public policy. They contend that
political science cannot be “silent” or “impotent” on current social and political
problems and that political scientists and academics in public administration have a
moral obligation to put forward a particular policy on a particular problem. They
should advance the level of political knowledge and improve the quality of
public policy in whatever ways they think best, notwithstanding the fact that
substantial disagreement exists in society over what constitutes appropriate policies.
Public policy improves the democratic or political capacities of people, and not
simply the efficiency and effectiveness of delivery of goods and services.
Finally, the field of public policy has assumed considerable importance in response
to the increasing complexity of the society. It is not only concerned with the
description and explanation of the causes and consequences of government activity,
but also with the development of scientific knowledge about the forces shaping
public policy. The study of public policy helps to understand the social ills of the
subject under study.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Describe the nature of Public Policy
4.0 CONCLUSION
The intellectual breakthrough in the field of politics led to the movement from
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has been able to examine the meaning and definition of public policy
analysis. The unit also exposes students to the evolut ion of public policy
analysis and the paradig m shift from tradit ional and inst it ut ional
approach to a more scient ific met hodology as enunciat ed by t he
Behaviouralist s which invar iably enhanced better understanding of t he
behaviour of decision makers. This gives more holist ic analysis to public
policy. It is concluded wit h rat ional for the study of public policy
analysis
Eneanya, A.N. (2010). Policy Research, Analysis and Effective Public Policy-
Making in Nigeria. Lagos: Concept Publications Ltd.
Lasswell, H. and Deiner, D. eds. (1951). The Policy Sciences. Standford: Universit y
Press.
Sapru, R.K. (2010). Public Policy: Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation, (2nd
edition). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Classification of Policy
3.2 Policy Types
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Some social scientists and scholars have attempted to discuss typologies of policy
issues. These facilitate comparison between issues and policies. Governments at all
levels in the Nigeria – national, State, and Local- have increasingly active in
developing public policies. Every year, a large volume of laws and ordinances flow
from the nation, state, and local legislative bodies. That volume of laws in turn
is greatly exceeded by the quantity of rules and regulations produced by
administrative agencies acting on the basis of legislative authorizations. This
proliferation of public policies has occurred in such traditional areas of
governmental action as foreign policy, transportation, education, welfare, law
enforcement, business and labour regulation, and international trade. In this unit,
we shall discuss the classification and policy types.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Identify the categories of public policy and
Policy types
Symbolic policies, in contrast, have little real material impact on people. They do
not deliver what they appear to deliver; they allocate no tangible advantages and
disadvantages. Rather, they appeal to people‟s cherished values, such as: peace,
patriotism and social justice. The material – symbolic typology is especially useful
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Highlight the importance of public policy
3.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to examine the classifications of public policy issues.
Given the large number and complexity of public policies, the task of trying to
make sense of them is enormous. This unit summarizes number of general
typologies that political scientists and others have developed for categorizing public
policies. Although, these categories are convenient for designating various sets of
policies and organizing discussions about them, they are not helpful in developing
generalizations, because they do not reflect the basic characteristics and content of
policies. The discussion of typologies will also provide the reader with a
notion of the scope, diversity, and different purposes of public policies.
Policies have been classified into categories as: substantive and procedural policies.
Substantive policies involve what government is going to do, such as constructing
highways, paying welfare benefits. On the other hand, procedural policies pertain to
how something is going to be done or who is going to take action. Moreover, some
social scientists and scholars have attempted to discuss the typologies of policy
issues. This typology differentiates policies by their effect on society and the
relationships among those involved in policy formation. The policy types include:
distributive policy, redistributive policy, regulatory policy, constituent policy,
material and symbolic policies. These categories are convenient for designating
various sets of policies and provide reader with a notion of the scope, diversity and
different purposes of public policies.
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Conceptualization of Public Policy Analysis
3.2 Elements of good policy analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public Policy analysis involves the study of the causes, processes, formation,
implementation and consequences of public policy. It entails the description,
explanation and prescription of particular policy choices and content, the
determination of strategies or techniques for optimal policy-making. It uses
collected data to systematically explain, describe and prescribe public policies with
the aid of social science methods, theories and approaches. The study of public
policy prepares and helps us to cope better with the future. It improves our
knowledge about the society. An important part of the study of public policy is
concerned with society‟s future. In this unit, we shall examine the meaning of
Public Policy Analysis and the common denominator of various definitions.
2.0 OBECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students would be able to:
Conceptualize public policy analysis and
Understand the elements of good Policy Analysis
However, policy takes different forms. There is thrust to designate policy as the
“outputs” of the political system, and in a lesser degree to define public policy as
“more or less interdependent policies dealing with many different activities. Dror,
(1968) defines policies as “general directives on the main lines of action to
be followed”. Peter Self defines policies as “changing directives as to how tasks
should be interpreted and performed”
Public Policy analysis, therefore, has been variously defined by scholars. Public
policy analysis is a set of techniques and criteria applies in evaluating public policy
options and to rationalize the selection among the development and implementation
of the policy. According to George Kent, Public Policy Analysis is a systemic
analytical and creative way to study the purpose of an action from the government
and its agencies. Given this, it indicates that Policy Analysis is an enquiry towards
understanding the purpose of decision taken by the authority. On the other hand, it is
an expository mechanism to understand decision making process.
However, Quade (1975), views Public Policy Analysis as “any type of analysis that
generates and presents information in such a way as to improve the basis for policy-
makers to exercise their judgment”. On his part Chandler and Plano, (1988:96)
posit that policy analysis involves “systematic and data-based alternative to intuitive
judgments about the effects of policy or policy options”. Ikelegbe (1994:5), defines
it as the study of the causes, processes, formation, implementation and consequences
of public policy.
Dye (1976) defines policy analysis “as finding out what governments do, why they
do it and what difference it makes”. He labels policy analysis as the “thinking
man,s response” to demands. He observes that specifically public analysis involves:
1. A primary concern with explanations rather than prescription;
2. A rigorous search for the causes and consequences of public policies; and
3. An effort to develop and test general propositions about the causes and
consequences of public policy and to accumulate reliable research findings
of general relevance.
Policy analysis as a technique puts data to use in, or deciding about, estimating and
measuring the consequences of public policy. Its purpose is twofold. It provides
maximum information with minimal cost about:
(i) The likely consequences of proposed policies, and
(ii) The actual consequences of the policies already adopted.
For our purpose, policy analysis can be conceptualized as the study of the
formation, implementation and evaluation of public policy, the values of policy-
makers, the environment of the policy-making system, the cost of policy alternatives
and the study of policies for improving policy-making (meta-policy). Its goal is
to improve the basis of policy-making and generate relevant information needed to
resolve social problems. Public policy analysis is aimed at improving the basis
for public policy making.
(iii) USEFULNESS
Usefulness as its lowest level involves doing policy research that is not
referred to by the people who make policy in the subject-matter area. At
the next level is research referred to by policy makers orally or in a
citation, even if the research cited is not on the winning side. At a higher
level is research that reinforces pre-conceived decisions. Policy
researchers should be pleased if their research accelerates a worthwhile
decision that otherwise might be delayed. At the highest level is the rare
case of policy research that converts decision makers from being negative
to being sensitive, or vice versa, on an issue.
(iv) ORIGINALITY
Originality refers to the extent to which policy research differs from
previous research, although even highly original research builds and
synthesizes prior research.
,
(v) FEASIBILITY
Feasibility is an additional criterion for judging proposed policy research,
as contrasted to completed policy research. Feasibility is concerned with
how easily research can be implemented given the limited time, expertise,
interest, funds, and other resources of the researcher.
SELF-ASSESSMENT ASSIGNMENT
Discuss the term Public policy analysis
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have been able to discuss the meaning of Public policy analysis in this unit. A
Public policy analysis is a set of techniques that seeks to answer the question of
what the probable effects of a policy will be before they actually occur. Thus,
Public policy analysis is aimed at improving the basis for public policy making, the
content, the knowledge about the outcomes and impact of public policy and ways
and means of improving public policy performances
5.0 SUMMARY
Public policy analysis is a multi-disciplinary and systematic investigation aimed at
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Relationship between Social Science and Policy Analysis
3.2 Relationship between Politics and Policy Analysis
3.3 Relationship between Public Administration and Policy Analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public policy is inter-disciplinary in nature. It borrows methods, theories, and
techniques from other disciplines, such as Economics, Psychology, Sociology, Law,
Political science and Public Administration. As a policy analyst, there is the need
to borrow certain skills and knowledge that are needed to solve social problems. In
this unit, we shall examine the relationship between Social Science, political Science
and public Administration on one hand and Public Policy analysis on the other.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students would be able to:
Describe the relationship between Social Science and Public Policy Analysis
Explain the relationship between politics and public policy and
Explain the relationship between Public Administration and Public Policy
Prewitt (1983) supports the venerable view that the social sciences have a mission in
“debunking” societal myths and practices. Social science research is only one
source of information used in the policy process and often its impact may amount to
no more than confirming pre-existing suspicions. It is sometimes useful in re-
defining a policy problem, offering a fresh perspective or filling gaps in what people
know. Some have suggested that this should become the goal of social
science policy research. Lindblom and Cohen (1979) suggest that providing
organizing frameworks or perspectives is “sometimes the major contribution” of
professional social inquiry to social problem-solving. Weiss (1983) suggests that the
current literature on evaluation shows that “research does seem to contribute a series
of concepts, generalizations and ideas that often come to permeate policy
discussion”. Sharpe (1977:50) sees a considerable, but indirect role for social
scientists in “changing the climate of ideas about how a policy problem is viewed”.
While there are still those who argue for greater “relevance” in the social sciences
(Lapalombara, 1982), the literature review in Glaser et al (1983), suggests that the
prevailing view is closer to Moore‟s. It stresses the distance between social
science and policy analysis and suggests that the usefulness of social science to
practical policy problems will either be slight or exceedingly general.
This portrait is, however, both inaccurate and inappropriate. It is inaccurate because
academic social scientists still train most of those who go on to do applied,
professional policy analysis. Academic social scientists routinely serve on
commissions and do applied policy research, professional policy analysis.
Academic social scientists routinely serve on commissions and do applied policies
research on a consulting basis. Academics write articles and books reflecting on
and assessing public policies and social science methods are at the core of policy
analysis. In fact, a considerable portion of research, investigations and the
development of rigorous methodologies, in policy studies have been undertaken by
Economists, Psychologists, Sociologists and other disciplines.
From this collection of social sciences, one can readily perceive that the study of
governmental policy problems is clearly an inter-disciplinary activity, since many
disciplines have something to contribute. For any social scientist, it would be too
much to acquire expertise in all the perspectives relevant to public policy study.
Indeed, it would simply be unrealistic to expect every policy analyst to become an
The relationship between politics and analysis at its best is iterative (repetitious).
The importance of the political setting and the consumption of analysis at all stages
of the policy process from agenda setting onwards. Even after an option has been
selected, the role of policy analysis - and politics – is far from over. Analysis
is seen, therefore, gas supplementing the more overtly political aspects of the
policy process rather than replacing them. There is no such thing as totally
“neutral” analysis. Values are at the centre of policy-making.
At the operational level, policy analysis tools and techniques can equally facilitate
the translation of overall policy objectives into workable action programmes. For
these reasons, public policy has become an important sub-unit of public
administration.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Policy-making and social sciences are related because of long-standing and
continuing inquiry into the political, economic, social, scientific, technological
administrative and environmental issues and problems pertaining to state
administration. Its scope and perspectives have become broader and more crucial
following the rapidly expanding responsibilities of governments, generated, in
turn, by the challenging and complex demands of economic and social development
of the nation. The activity has, therefore, embraced participants from different
disciplines and specialization, including politicians, administrators, social scientists,
physical and natural scientists, technologists and citizens at large.
5.0 SUMMARY
Policy analysis is related to Social Sciences, Politics and Public Administration.
It adopts social science techniques to resolve social problems. For a policy analyst
to be effective, he requires knowledge of social science disciplines, such as:
Political Science, Sociology, Economics, Psychology, Statistics, Philosophy and
even Law. In short, policy analysis is an applied social science discipline. Its
methods, study and training is inter-disciplinary, particularly within the social
science and humanities. In particular, administrators have become more involved in
analysis because of their direct responsibility to make the system of public
administration more effective, efficient and responsive to the needs of economic and
social development. Thus, policy analysis is an applied social science discipline.
Its method, study and training are inter-disciplinary particularly within the
social sciences and humanities. Moreover, Policy analysis is a sub-field
within Political Science and Public Administration. This explains the reason it
is studied in the departments of Political Science and Public Administration.
Public analysis is, therefore, aimed at improving the basis for public policy-
making, the context, the knowledge about the outcomes and impact of public policy
and ways and means of improving public policy performance. Public policy
analysis is entirely problem-centred. Its object, especially at its prescriptive body is
to ameliorate current societal problems that require governmental or public action.
It is involved on the prescription of policies and strategies for tackling social
problems. In policy advocacy, it helps to influence future policy choices. Finally,
policy analysis encapsulates analysis of policy content, process output and policy
evaluation as well as process advocacy and policy advocacy.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public policy is what government chooses to do or not to do. It is government actions
or proposed course of action directed at achieving certain goals. Its scope includes
variety of areas and issues, such as: economy, education, health, defence, social
welfare, foreign affairs, transportation and housing. Policy analysis is the study of
public policy. It is the study of the causes, processes, formation, implementation and
consequences of public policy. In this unit, we shall examine the scope and
characteristics of Public Policy Analysis.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 SCOPE OF PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS
Policy analysis can be delineated into two broad areas:
(1) It involves policy research and analysis and is directed at better policy-
making. Generally, it involves marshalling techniques, models, policy
choices and strategies;
(2) Policy analysis involves impact evaluation research. This research is aim at
improving the performance of existing policies. This is mainly programme
evaluation studies. The programme evaluation could be prospective or
retrospective. Prospective evaluation assesses the programme alternatives in
terms of feasibility, capability and prospects, prior to implementation. The
However, the scope and sheer size of the public sector has grown enormously is all
the developing countries in response to the increasing complexity of technology,
social organization, industrialization and urbanization. At present, the functions of
practically all governments, especially of the developing countries, have significantly
increased. They are now concerned with the more complex functions of nation-
building and socio-economic progress. Today, the government is not merely the
keeper of peace, the arbiter of disputes, and the provider of common goods and day-
to-day services. It has, directly or indirectly, become the principal innovator, the
major determiner of social and economic programmes and the main financier as well
as the main guarantor of large-scale enterprises.
In many developing countries, there is great pressure on government to accelerate
national development, make use of up-to-date and relevant technological innovations,
adopt and facilitate necessary institutional changes, increase national production, make
full use of human and other resources, and improve the level of living. These trends
and developments have, therefore, enhanced both the size and scope of public policy.
In our everyday life, we are affected by myriad of public policies. The range of
public policy is vast: from the vital to the trivial. Today, public policies may deal
with such substantive areas as defence, environmental protection, medical care and
health, education, housing, transportation, taxation, inflation, science and technology,
and so on.
3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF POLICY ANALYSIS
Many scholars have outlined certain characteristics of policy analysis, as follows
(Rhodes, 1979a:27; Dror, 1968:241-4; Spring, 1970):
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we examined the scope and characteristics of Public Policy Analysis.
Public policy analysis is aimed at improving the basis for public policy making, the
content, the knowledge about their outcomes and impact of public policy and means
of improving public policy performance. Public policy analysis is entirely problem-
centred. Its object, especially at its prescriptive context is to ameliorate current
societal problems that require governmental or public action. It attempts to
systematically gather data to describe or explain public policies with the aid of social
science methods and techniques for policy makers or decision makers.
INTRODUCTION
This module captures some basic terminologies in policy analysis. These terms would assist
your understanding of relevant points in explaining the functionality of decision making
process. This is followed with the approaches in the study of Public Policy Analysis. The
theoretical postulations will assist you in understanding diverse views and lens in assessing
public policies. The last unit of the module reflects the decision making process using policy
cycle to indicate how public policies are developed.
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Basic Terminologies in Policy Analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The understanding of public policy analysis requires basic knowledge of some
relevant terminologies. This will enhance student analytical strength in
classification and clarification of policy process and decision making. Those
terminologies are constantly used in the public policy discourse. In essence, the
terminologies simplify our understanding of public policy analysis.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students would be able to:
Understand the underlying terminologies in public policy analysis;
Identify the relevance of those terminologies to policy analysis
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What do you understand by Policy Statement?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to explain the relevant terminologies in public
policy analysis. The importance of those terms is that it assists our
understanding and assessment of different government approaches to issues
5.0 SUMMARY
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Descriptive Approach
3.2 Prescriptive Approach
3.3 Qualitative Approach
3.4 Quantitative Approach
3.5 Micro-analytic Approach
3.6 Macro-analytic Approach
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are several approaches and methods of studying public policy analysis.
However, two major schools of thought emerged as to what should be the approach
to study policy analysis. One school of thought holds on to the view that policy
analysis could be studied using the descriptive approach, while the other school of
thought argues in favour of the prescriptive paradigm. In this unit, we shall
examine the two schools of thought.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students would be able to:
Describe the descriptive approach to the study of policy analysis and
Explain the prescriptive approach to the study of policy analysis
(1) Descr ipt ive st ud ie s are more of academic exercise geared towards the
needs of policy actors;
(2) The studies seek the understanding of policy processes, policy problem and
situations;
(3) They are more concerned with the investigations of policy contents,
implementation, output and impact of particular policies. Thus, many
descriptive studies are at the micro-level;
(4) Many descriptive studies are evaluator. However, many of the evaluator
studies are retrospective and relate to studies of on-going or completed
programmes.
,
In summary, this school of thought believes that public policy in this paradigm
should be described and explained. The approach investigates and reports on the
typical behaviour of policy makers. We can explain the approach as follows:
The idea of prescriptive approach is the need to add value to the study of public
policy beyond descriptive perspective. However, the prescriptive approach is
typically dependent on the nature, beliefs and perception of the policy makers. The
policy makers make initiation on policy to be formulated and which sometimes
might not suit or solve the fundamental problem of a man in the society.
Macro studies focus on general aspects of policy analysis. The approach takes
a global view of policy making and analysis and emphasizes the development of
broad knowledge and understanding of the nature of public policies. The objective
of macro studies is to provide an insight into the nature of public policies and
prepare analysts for operating effectively in any policy analysis territory. Macro
studies provide broad concepts, theories, tools and models for policy making and
analysis in a broad range of policy environments. The approach repudiates the
narrow focus and specificity of case studies with all its deficiencies.
Some macro studies concentrate on describing the dynamics of policy making and
analysis, actions and inter-actions between groups, individuals and institutional
structures. Some narrow their focus on theories and models to explain and interpret
policy issues. Other groups of macro studies direct attention to different policy
areas. Policy area study is different from cases studies in that there are myriad of
cases in a policy area, for example, Economic, Education, Agriculture, Health,
Foreign policies and so on. The study of these areas permits in-depth studies of
policy analysis in the policy areas.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to explain the descriptive, prescriptive, qualitative,
quantitative, micro-analytical and macro-analytic approaches to the study of
policy analysis. The approaches relate to the study of policy research.
Descriptive studies are usually qualitative with some mix of quantification.
Prescriptive studies, on the other hand, could also use qualitative or quantitative
methods, but are largely quantitative. However, combination of qualitative and
quantitative approaches which can be referred to as mixed mode of analysis
can be applied.
5.0 SUMMARY
Eneanya, A.N. (2010). Policy Research, Analysis and Effective Public Policy-
Making in Nigeria. Lagos: Concept Publications Ltd.
Ikelegbe, A.O. (1994). Public Policy-making and Analysis. Benin-City:
Uri
Publishing Ltd.
Owolabi, J. (2005). Policy making and Educational Policy Analysis.
Uganda: Makerere University Printery.
Wildavsky, A. (1979). “Policy As Its Own Cause”. In Wildavsky, A. Speaking
Truth to Power. Boston: Little Brown.
Yanow, D (2000) Conducting Interpretative Policy Analysis Newbury Park CA: Sage
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 System theory
3.2 Group theory
3.3 Elite Theory
3.4 Institutional theory
3.5 Widow Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Studies
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Adopting theories to explain public policy has provided a deep and better
understanding of policy process. Theorising public policy has also assisted us to
see the linkage between politics and policy making. The application of theories in
policy analysis is to appropriately comprehend government and political actions.
This will make us to appreciate what informs a policy and the consequence of the
policy. Generally, theories provide explanation for social phenomenon
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students would be able to:
Analyse the importance of theory in policy analysis
Explain various theoretical approaches to the study of policy analysis
This theory is borrowed from the Biological Science in explaining life processes
considering the contribution of each other towards the stability of the environment
(Ham and Hill, 1985; Ebenezer, 2011). However, the theory was adopted and
popularized by David Easton to the study of political system. This informs the basis
to view public policy from the response of a political system as a result of the
demands arising from its environment. Public policy simply indicates an
interaction of the political system with environment forces brought to bear
on it. According to Easton (cited in Sambo, 1999:290) a political system is that
“system of interaction in any society through which binding and authoritative
The input into the political system from the environment consists of demands and
supports. The environment consists of all those conditions and events external to the
boundaries of the political system. Demands are the claims made by individuals and
groups on the polit ical system for action to satisfy their interests. This generally
revolves around request from the people on what action government is expected to
take
Source: Olaniyi(1998:58)
The usefulness of systems theory for the study of public policy analysis is limited
by its highly general nature. It does not say much concerning how decisions are
made and policy is developed within the “black box” called that political system.
Nonetheless, systems theory is a useful aid in organizing inquiry into policy
formation. However, the usefulness of the system model is limited due to several
factors. First, this model is criticized for employing the value-laden techniques of
welfare economics, which are based on the maximization of a clearly defined
“social welfare function”. The missing ingredients in the systems approach are the
“power, personnel and institutions” of policy making.
Finally, the extent to which the environment, both internal and external is said to
have an influence on the policy-making process is determined by the values and
ideologies held by the decision-makers in the system. It suggests that policy-
making involves not only the policy content but also the policy-makers perceptions
and values. The values held by the policy-makers are fundamentally assumed to be
crucial in understanding the policy alternatives that are made (Basu, 2004:443).
Public policy, at any given time, will reflect the interest of dominant groups.
As groups gain and lose power and influence, public policy will be altered in
favour of the interests of those losing influence. Group theory, while focusing
attention on one of the major dynamic elements in policy formation, especially in
pluralist societies, such as the United States, seems both to overstate the importance
of groups and to understate the independent and creative role that public officials
play in the policy process. Indeed, many groups have been generated by public
policy. Therefore, the concern of the political system, according to Thomas
Dye (1976: 20), is to resolve group conflict by:
(a) Establishing the rules of the game in the group struggle;
(b) Arranging compromises and balancing interests;
(c) Enacting compromises in the form of public policy; and
(d) Enforcing these compromises
Government institutions give legal authority to policies and can legally impose
sanctions on violators of its policies. As such, there is a close relationship
between public policy and governmental institutions. It is not surprising, then,
that polit ical scientists would focus on the study of governmental structures and
institutions. Institutionalism, with its focus on the legal and structural aspects can
be applied in policy analysis. The structures and institutions and their
arrangements and can have a significant impact on public policy. Traditionally,
the focus of study was the description of government structures and institutions. The
study of linkage between government structures and policy outcomes remained
largely unanalysed and neglected.
The value of the institutional approach to policy analysis lies in asking what
relationships exist between institutional arrangements and the content of public
policy and also in investigating these relationships in a comparative manner. It
would not be correct to assume that a particular change in institutional structure
would bring about changes in public policy. Without investigating the actual
relationship between structure and policy, it is difficult to assess the impact of
institutional arrangements on public policies.
This theory which is also known as streams theory was propounded in 1995 by
Kingdon. The assumption of the theory is that policy analysis requires the understanding
of the three important streams. The streams which are problem stream, political stream
and policy stream are essential to policy making. By the problem stream, it involves the
concentration of the policy makers and the peoples‟ attention on a social problem. Such
problem can be resolved through an existing policy or allowing it to fade away.
The political stream according to Kingdon (1995), focuses on the level at which
government agenda is formulated. This is essential because it captures the development
of government policies. It should be noted that issues in problem stream may or may not
reflect in the political stream. Before any issue can make government agenda, it must
have been agreed on by the core players in the political stream. Those core participants
(players) are known as the visible clusters. They are the people visible at the political
stage. For instance, the lawmakers, the interest groups, the media, the bureaucrats are
related players. The main tool of the cluster members is bargaining.
The third stream known as the policy stream involves the decision agenda of the
government, and the development of different options that can be used to resolve issues
rose in policy problem or those identified in the agenda of government. At this point, the
activities of the hidden clusters become noticed and significant. Those are forces that
influence the alternative policy that would eventually be chosen by government.
According to Kingdon, those hidden clusters adopt the tool of persuasion as opposed to
bargaining of the visible clusters. To Kingdon, government policies are formulated
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Describe the system theory and explain how it could be used to study public policy
analysis
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has been able to expose us to the theoretical framework guiding the analysis of
public policy. The political system which is represented by Easton‟s model emphasises the
operation of political system on the basis of input and output. Also, the group theory
stipulates that policies are reflection of group interest while the elites theory captures the
role of the powerful minority small group that control the policy output in the society. The
institutional theory looks at the role of structural institutional setting in decision making.
The unit is concluded with window theory that specifies the understanding of the essential
streams as a yardstick in policy analysis.
5.0 SUMMARY
Eneanya, A.N. (2010). Policy Research, Analysis and Effective Public Policy-
Making in Nigeria. Lagos: Concept Publications Ltd.
Ham, C. and Hill, M. (1985). The Policy Process in the Modern
Capitalist State. Wheatsheaf Books Ltd.
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Stages in public policy process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Public policy does not happen in a vacuum. It is a combination of many stages with
each of the stages indicating the process involves in decision making. One cannot
understand the purpose and target of a policy, if all the required stages are not
followed to the latter. It is in view of this that this unit will explain various processes
that policy passes through for effective and efficient assessment by a policy analyst.
These stages are independent but interrelated and policy analysts must understand
what informs each of the processes involved in public policy making.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Understand the concept of policy making cycle
Explain the stages in public policy process
However, Anderson, Brady and Bullock, (1978: 8) have suggested a model for
public policy process, which made of six stages:
The process of policy formulation requires wide consultation prior to the initiation
of policy and involvement of stakeholders, particularly labour unions, the
organized private sector, the civil society and lower ties of government, legislative
and executive arms of government and so on.
This is often done by the notion of majority lobby building in legislature. In other
words, a course of action is legitimate when a majority in both houses of
the legislature (National Assembly) approves and the chief Executive affixes his
signature to the measure. So, given the necessity for building majority in a given
course of action, formulators of policies must consider all factors involved in its
legitimating process. However, the most formal adoption strategy is one of
proposal, legislative approval and Presidential (Executive) signature although there
are other adoption strategies that exist in government (Anderson et. al, 1978:9-10).
This is the last stage of the policy process. It involves an attempt to determine
whether a policy has actually worked. It is essential to monitor formulated
policies during implementation. Monitoring involves the assessment of progress on
policies, programmes and projects in comparison with what was initially planned.
Its object is the detection of deviations, so that corrective measures could be
applied. Evaluation, on the other hand, is concerned more with results of a policy or
programme. It tries to determine the relevance, effectiveness and impact of policy
and programme activities in the light of their objectives. It is also concerned with
the efficiency with which programmes are implemented. Such an evaluation
can lead to additional policy formulation to correct deficiencies. Anderson, Brady
and Bullock, (1978) categorized evaluation in two ways:
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit explains the policy process. The main stages of the policy process
described include: problem identification, policy formulation, policy implementation
and evaluation. Public policy is cyclical. Here, Policy issues or problems
identified, filtered and defined during formation and formulation stage of policy
making process. As policy decisions or approval are made and implemented,
criticism in the form of feedback puts new decisions on the policy agenda. This
starts the policy-making cycle all over again.
Anderson, J., Brady, D and Bullock, C.(1978) Public Policy and Politics in America
Duxbury Press
Eneanya, A.N. (2010). Policy Research, Analysis and Effective public Policy-making
in Nigeria.
Lagos: Concept Publications Ltd.
Jones, C.O. (1977). An Introduction to the Study of Public Policy, 2nd Edition.
North
Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press
INTRODUCTION
Policy making does not happen in a vacuum. There are key players known as actors in
policy formulation and execution. This module examines the actors in decision making and
their role. The different models in analysing public policy also surface in this unit. The
tools or instruments of policy making process are well captured in part of the units of the
module while the phases involved in public policy analysis are discussed in the concluding
unit of this module.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Policy Actors
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0
,
INTRODUCTION
Public policy means series of decisions and activities resulting from structured and
recurrent interactions between different key players known as actors. These actors
comprising of public and private individuals who are involved in different
capacities to the emergence of policy designed to resolve social problem. Given
this, the term actor can be designated to connote an individual (minister, member
of the legislative), several individuals, legal entity or social group. In lieu of this,
this unit will look at the various actors involved in policy making. This is because
understanding the policy process without adequate knowledge on who is
responsible for what for the policy making would make the study of public policy
analysis less productive. Those actors which can be categorised into state actors
and non-state actors. The former includes government and its agencies at all organs
(Executive, Legislative and Judiciary) while the non-state actors include policy
makers outside the government bodies (Interest Groups, Mass Media, Political
Parties, Private Individuals etc)
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Explain the role of official Actors in public policy making process
Understand the indirect role of unofficial Actors in public policy-making
process.
3.1 EXECUTIVE
One of the key actors which falls to the category of state actor is the executive. In the
modern political system, the executive is vital when it comes to policy making
process. The executive which is usually headed by the President (Presidential System
3.2 LEGISLATURE
The legislative body is a government institution saddled with the responsibility
of making laws. Asides law making, the legislature controls the purse of the
country. This means the body has the power of appropriation which is done
through budget approval. In any democratic arrangement, either presidential or
parliamentary, the legislature law making power, approval or appropriation of
budget, confirmation of executive nominees such as the ministers and heads of
agencies and parastatals etc have placed the legislative arm as a key player in
public policy making. The legislature is also part of the state actor in policy
making as it belongs to the government institutions that determines authoritative
allocation of values in the society. For instance, the Nigeria‟s national budget
must be endorsed before it can be implemented. This singular power alone
makes the legislative arm to be a major player in decision making and public
policy process.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Examine the role of the executive in public policy
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to discuss the state and non-state actors of public
policy. These are actors are key to our understanding of how public policy are
formulated and as well implemented. The unit concludes that all the highlighted actors
are viable in policy making process
5.0 SUMMARY
The players or actors in public policy have been analysed on the basis of classification.
The first category belongs to the state actors representing government and its agencies.
Eneanya, A.N. (2010). Policy Research, Analysis and Effective public Policy-
making in Nigeria.
Lagos: Concept Publications Ltd.
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Rational Comprehensive Model
3.2 Bureaucratic Model
3.3 Incremental Model
3.4 Belief System Model
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are several models used in analysing decision-making process. .
Instructively, the concern of those models is to select among the
competitive alternatives. This makes it easier for a good analysts to
understand different approaches and models guiding policy makers’
decision process. For easier clarification, four models would be examined.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Understand rational comprehensive model of decision-making
Explain Incremental model of decision –making
analyse bureaucratic institutional model of decision-making
describe belief system model of decision-making and
a. Analysis of the Alternative: The model is of the view that alternatives are
analysed on efficiency and reliable parameters. It states that policy
making is anchored on the effectiveness and reliability of alternative
decisions when it is required.,
4. Selection of the Best Alternative: The models believes that decisions are
made having considered the best available alternatives and its cost
implications.
However, the model is criticized for being idealistic. The reality is that sometimes
decisions are taken on political and environmental factors without considering the
economic and cost implications. This was supported by March and Simon (1958),
decisions are taken sometimes for minimum satisfaction which is against the maximum
benefits of the rational model
However, these assumptions are difficult to attain in real world. There are many
barriers associated with rationality. In rational comprehensive model, all
information required for alternative decisions are not available. All alternatives
cannot be possibly obtained and consequences predicted. Beside, most societal
values do not reach the decision agenda because of powerful elites and interest
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Describe the rational comprehensive model of decision-making
4.0 CONCLUSION
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, four models to the study of public policy analysis has been discussed.
Each of those models gives a better analogy on how decision making is guided and
what makes policy makers to act. The models explain the dynamics and patterns of
decision making process.
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1
,
Use of Models
3.2
,
Scenario Construction
3.3 System Analysis
3.4 Decision Tree
3.5 Path Analysis
3.6 Forecasting
3.7 Cost Benefit Analysis
3.8 Cost Effectiveness Analysis
3.9 Management by Objective
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Policy analysis involves the use of different types of modern management decisio n
techniques and strategies, depending upon the nature of the decisions to be taken.
These techniques are largely different aspects and applications of system analysis
and include operations research, system engineering and network analysis tools
embracing programme evaluation and review techniques (PERT) and Critical Path
Method (CPM), scheduling, planning and programme budgeting system (PPES),
cost-benefit analysis and statistical methods. Others are scenario construction and
paradigms, organization analysis, management-by-objectives, etc. Most of these
techniques have been developed or given greater attention and aimed at clarifying
the task of policy analysts, policy planners and policy-makers. Almost all of these
techniques are based on scientific methods for solving problems and will lead to
rational decision-making.
In this unit, we shall examine various analytical tools and techniques used for
policy analysis.
2.0 OBECTIVES
At the end of unit, students would be able to:
Understand general operational research tools for policy analysis
Describe tools and techniques of policy analysis
The calculated pay off and the per cent chances of probabilities and outcomes. The
calculated pay-off and the percent chances of probabilities, form the basis of
decisions. The decision tree does not postulate techniques or methods of analysis.
Rather, any technique or analytical tool could be used in the valuation of
uncertainties, probabilities and outcome or pay-off. Cost-benefit analysis for
example may be useful in calculating pay-offs. Thus, a decision tree is just a
flow chart or diagram. This seeming inadequacy enables wider applicability of the
model.
3.6 FORECASTING
The policy analysis approach to forecasting requires knowledge of what
techniques are available and of their limitations in theory and practice, but is not
obsessed with methodology or numbers as such. Forecasts cannot predict the
future but they can assist decision-makers to cope with uncertainty and change and
to explore the implications of policy options. The policy options approach to
forecasting also recognizes the crucial importance of how forecasts are consumed
by decision-makers rather than simply with how forecasts are carried out by
experts. Forecasting can be costly and a balance has to be struck between possible
benefits from forecasting and the costs of carrying out forecasts and consuming
them.
3.8 COST-EFFECTIVENESS
It is a form of systems analysis in which the alternative actions or systems under
consideration are compared in terms of two of the consequences: naira or resource
costs and the effectiveness associated with each alternative. The effectiveness of an
alternative is measured by the extent to which that alternative if implemented
will attain the desired objective. The preferred alternative is usually taken to be
either the one that produces the maximum effectiveness for a given level of
cost or the minimum cost for a fixed level of effectiveness. Cost-effectiveness has
been exhaustively discussed in the last unit of the module.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain what you understand as system analysis to policy
analysis
3.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to examine various tools and techniques of
decision- making. Some of these techniques include: system analysis, cost-benefit
analysis, cost of effectiveness analysis, path analysis, scenario construction,
models and so on. These tools are adopted to analyse and rationalize choices in
policy making.
5.0 SUMMARY
Over the years, attempts have been made by government to improve the contents of
government decision making process. There are several tools and techniques
which are used in the planning, analysis, evaluation and management of government
policies and programmes. These tools include; system analysis, models, scenario
construction, cost-benefit analysis, cost-effectiveness analysis, forecasting, path
analysis and management by objectives. These tools are adopted to analyse and
rationalize choices in policy making.
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Public Participation in Policy Making
3.2 Special Interest and Policy Making
3.3 Policy Change and Policy Termination
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/ Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The study of public policy has given us a basic understanding of the social
problem that invariably warrants decision making towards solving the problem.
However, the participatory process in decision making needs to be explored in
order to actualise the interest of the participants vis a vis decision making.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
explain the participants in decision making
understand the interest of decision makers
This is a belief that those to be affected by a decision or policy have the right to be
involved in the process. By public participation, promotion and sustainability of
decisions can be ascertained. According to Warren (1996), public participation
creates room for democratic deliberation on decision making process. This allows
several individuals‟ input and public inclusion in the activities on any project for the
masses. Generally, public participation facilitates the involvement of the potential
beneficiaries of decision making. Such revolves around public interest and decisions
are influenced by public contributions.
However, the contention has always been what constitutes public participation? How
can public participation in decision-making be increased? In response to this, Dalton
(2004) argues that the reduction in voters turn out in Western Europe was an
indication of citizens‟ frustration in government policies. This was interpreted to be a
gap between decision makers‟ policies and citizens‟ real needs, which might result to
legitimacy crisis of the government. Based on this, three principles must be met to
determine public participation in decision making process. These are:
Basically, policy analyst needs to identify the salient interest a policy intends
to serve. The more the populace lobby their demands to suit the interest of the
deciders, the better for decision making. However, the issue of special interest
in policy making has been criticised thus:
1. It gives space for policy abuse and corruption.
2. The policy makers become autocrats
3. The principle of special interest in policy making defeats democratic
tenets of accountability and transparency
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain the concept of policy interest
4.0 CONCLUSION
Public policy allows multiple dimension to its analysis. This places the field to be
scientific as researchers have diverse instruments to identifying motives and
implications of decision making. Asides having basic knowledge on decision
making processes, the participants in public policy can be ascertained.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have explained policy participation and the dynamics of decision
making using the public participation, policy interest and policy changes as
yardstick of understanding decision making.
INTRODUCTION
Public policy requires a serious planning before a decision can be reached. This makes it
imperative in this module to analyse the strategic planning involved in decision making
process. The development of any country lies in its planning and effective policies. This
module will expose you to the factors responsible for categorisation of countries to
developed and developing. This would be done vis a vis planning as a mechanism. The
module also discusses planning and budgeting system in Nigeria and concludes with
explanation of networking in policy analysis
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Meaning of Planning
3.2 Characteristics of planning
3.3 Basic Steps in Planning
3.3 Strategic Planning
3.4 Relationship between planning and policy analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The essence of planning in any organisation cannot be underemphasised. Planning
assists community, society, institution and individual to be well coordinated on what
to do, how to do it and why it should be done. Public policy requires a rigorous
planning in order to enhance sustainability of targeted goals and objectives. This
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Describe the concept of planning
Know the processes and strategies of planning
Understand the relationships between planning and public policy analysis
4. Evaluating and selecting from the Alternatives: Planning requires to sought from
the alternatives courses and evaluate the strong and weak points. This is about
weighing the various factors in the light of objectives and premises. Selection from
the alternative is adoption of a course of action. This allows selection from different
available alternatives using rational model perspective.
5. Formulation of Plans: After evaluation and selection process, plans are formulated.
This is followed with working out of modalities to enhance proper breaking down of
the goals.
No doubt, planning and policy analysis have relationship as the former emphasises
on how to go about achieving a goal and objective while the latter identifies the
basic needs for public policy to be effective and efficient. Nevertheless, both
variables are import in identifying social problem that requires decision making.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to define the concept of planning, the
characteristics, basic steps in planning, strategic planning and the nexus between
planning and policy analysis.
5.0 SUMMARY
Planning represents a new interest among policy makers in analyzing policy. It
helps policy analysts to know what to plan for, how to plan it and how to carry
out the plan. Planning is thinking before acting, establishing goals before setting
out and appreciating the limitations. .
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Pre-requirement for effective planning
3.2 Problems of planning in the Developing world
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The significance of planning in socio-economic and political development of
any country cannot be undermined. The developed countries are believed to
have attained such feat with the aid of effective planning supported with
visionary leadership. However, most the developing countries and Nigeria in
particular face the challenges of strategic planning vis a vis leadership crisis. In
view of this, this unit explores the pre-requisite requirement for effective
planning and some of the huddles in developing countries as a result of lack of
effective planning.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Understand the pre-requisites for effective planning for socio-economic
development; and
Identify some of the limitations of planning in developing countries
4.0 CONCLUSION
Planning is important in understanding the direction of a country. This unit has
specifically explores the prerequisites elements of good planning. These have
been proven as sources to development of socio-economic and political
atmosphere of countries. However, the limitations face by the developing
countries in the area of planning have showcased why most of the states within
this category are yet to be developed.
5.0 SUMMARY
The relationship between planning and policy analysis has made it easier for
our understanding of developmental approaches to decision making process.
The viability of resources either human or material has been justified in this
unit. This contributes to the placement and categorisation of countries. The
major huddles of developing economies on planning must be tackled to ensure
effective achievement of planning goals and objectives in the societies.
,,
Korel, G. and Robin, L(2018) Public Policy Making in Globalized World Sabanci
University
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Elements of PPBS
3.2 Advantages of PPBS
3.3 Disadvantages of PPBS
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
PPBS embrace and emphasize the three concepts of Planning, Programming and
budgeting. The “Planning” aspect of PPBS involves long-term determination of
goals and specifying the best programmes to attain them. The “programming”
aspect of PPBS involves structuring the budget in terms of goals (programmes).
The budgeting function is the allocation of resources in money terms to achieve the
specified goals, programmes and projects. PPBS is a macro-economic, centralized
top-down policy and long-range planning technique. In this unit, we shall examine
the meaning of PPBS, its elements, advantages, disadvantages.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Explain the concept of PPBS
Understand its elements
Understand its advantages and disadvantages; and
Nigeria‟s experience in its application
3.1 INTRODUCTION
It is an integrated system of planning which involves systematic consideration of
alternatives in the choice of strategies, and programming in the determination
of manpower, material and other needs for accomplishing a programme. Then,
budgeting is added to provide financial backing. In this unit, we shall examine
PPBS is a management tool for providing a better analytical basis for decision-
making and for putting such decisions into operation. The PPBS specifies that
these activities should be integrated and coordinated within an organization. The
integral components of PPBS involve:
(i) Setting of specific objectives
(ii) Systematic analysis to clarify objectives and to assess alternative ways
of meeting them.
(iii) Establishing resource requirements for each alternative
(iv) The framing of budgetary proposals in terms of programmes directed
towards the achievement of the objectives;
(iv) The projection of the costs of these programmes for a number of years
in the future;
(v) Estimating benefits to be gained from each programme alternative in terms
of probable outcome;
(vi) The formulation of plans of achievement on yearly basis for each
programme and
(vii) Testing the long-range fiscal implication of the plan by analysing both
direct and indirect costs;
(viii) Evaluating the annual budget
(ix) Evaluating the success with which programme benefits are achieved;
(x) Revising planning standards; and
(xi) Repeating the cycle to accommodate changes and objectives, goals,
available resources and the institution/agency‟s environment.
(xi) An information system for each programme to supply data for the
monitoring of achievement of programme goals and for the reassessment of
the programme objectives as well as the appropriateness of the programme
itself (Oshisami, 1994:68).
The system was also placing in the hands of officials rather than policy-makers
and politicians, the crucial role of deciding goals, planning programmes, making
crucial decisions and allocating resources. As PPBS emphasized rationalism,
efficiency and change, its introduction was resisted by officials because of the
rigour, time and changes required (Eneanya, 2010:193-4).
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain the Advantages and disadvantages of planning, programming and
budgeting system
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to examine planning, programming and
budgeting system. PPBS is an integrated systems of planning which involves
systematic consideration of alternatives in the choice of strategies, and
programming in the determination of manpower, material and other needs
for accomplishing a programme. Then, budgeting is added to provide financial
backing. PPBS is aimed at attaining organizational goals in an efficient and
effective manner.
5.0 SUMMARY
PPBS is a comprehensive planning and budgeting system which unifies the entire
organizations in terms of coordinating the entire activities and functions of the
organization. It is aimed at attaining organizational goals in an efficient and
effective manner. PPBS is made up of five elements:
(i) A program structure – a classification of the courses of action open to
an organization for attaining its objectives;
(ii) An approved program document that includes precise, quantitative data
on needs, resource inputs, and program outputs extending a number of
years into the future;
(iii) A decision-making process that establishes the functions, rules, and
timetables for the actions required by the PPBS;
(iv) An analysis process for measuring effectiveness and for weighing
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Network Analysis
3.2 Forms of Network Analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students would be able to:
analyse networking policy analysis
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain network analysis
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to describe network analysis construction. Network
analysis is the technique used in planning and controlling well-defined programme or
project and their implementation. Examples of sophisticated forms of networking are:
Critical Path Method (CPM) and Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT).
They are both used as modelling techniques for simple and complex projects,
respectively.
5.0 SUMMARY
107
Eneanya, A.N. (2010). Policy Research, Analysis and Effective Public Policy in
Nigeria. Lagos: Concept Publications Ltd
108
INTRODUCTION
There are various dimensions for policy analysis. This module will explore all the necessary
framework guiding policy analysis. The cost benefit and effectiveness will be explained as well to
enrich our understanding of decision making. The essence of cost analysis cannot be undermine in
policy analysis. The module will also expose you to some government policies in the area of
education, health and agriculture. The assessment of those sectors would be done using their
targeted objectives and goals as yardsticks. The constraints in policy analysis are well captured in
the last unit of this module.
CONTENTS
109
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Effectiveness
3.2 Unintended Effects
3.3 Equity
3.4 Cost
3.5 Feasibility
3.6 Acceptability
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Policy Analysis is guided with different dimensions. This informs diverse techniques in
analysing public policy. This unit focuses on six analytical framework that enrich
understanding of public policy analysis. The framework such as effectiveness, unintended
effects, equity, cost, feasibility and acceptability would be analysed vis a vis policy
making.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Understand the framework of analysing public policy
Distinct the dimension of each of the policy analysis framework
3.1 EFFECTIVENESS
The first element that can be used in assessing the success of a public policy is
effectiveness towards its objectives (Salamon, 2002). For instance, any policy on health
issue is to remedy problem regarding health sector. In order to promote health policy, it
is necessary to underscore the impact of the public policy made. This indicates
effectiveness of a policy is a vital framework that can be used in analysis and evaluation.
By this, it is possible to report the effects of the policy under study in order to aggravate
the target problems. Though sometimes, it takes time to judge the ultimate effects of a
policy, nevertheless, it is required to ascertain the success of a decision. However, in a
situation whereby to examine the link between public policies and their ultimate effects
proves difficult, hence the value of taking into account intermediate effects. It becomes
necessary to deconstruct the chain of expected effects between the public policy under
110
This is a consideration which is usually given to identify the effects produced as a result
of implementation of a policy. Such effects that are unrelated to the set objectives which
are external to the chain of the main goals. Given the complexities of human societies,
policy might not be regulated to achieve the targeted goals alone, there is every tendency
to have unintended effects which can be produced in all kinds of areas. For instance,
health policy might have socio-economic implications which ordinary are not part of the
objective but surface as unintended effects.
3.3 EQUITY
This is a framework to access whether the policy produces different effects on various
group of people. This involves categorization of the people by age, religion, gender,
socio-economic status, etc. By this, one can understand if the policy gives room for
inequality in the distribution of goods and services to the targeted population. It is very
important to take into account equity and not just general effectiveness of a policy.
Because sometimes policy might be generally effective but create inequalities among the
people. This is a signal that not all policies are equally distributed. For example, policy
on nutritional feeding is mostly less effective among the uneducated and lower income
earners, whereas the group generally are more affected with the problem of
overweighting and obesity.
3.4 COST
In a policy analysis, we think of financial cost government incurred in implementing a
policy. However, a policy can also generate gains, though it is necessary to also
consider costs of other factors (Salamon, 2002). A policy designed to improve health
facility would invariably contributes to government revenue. This serves as a gain for
the policy makers (government) at the long run. However, the relative cost can also be
analysed. There is need to compare the cost of the policy under consideration with the
cost of other potential policies. This consideration is valid to finalise at cost effective
policies.
3.5 FEASIBILITY
This dimension is about examining the technical feasibility of the policy being
analysed. By feasibility study, it can be done on the basis of given consideration to the
available and required resources. It incorporates personnel, technology and material
resources that a policy is required to achieve its objectives. It is also necessary to
verify the conformity of the proposed policy with the existing legislation (Ciliska &
Thomas, 2011). This will give a policy analyst better awareness about the distribution
of responsibilities between levels of government. Before a policy can be made,
consideration must be given to powers distributions among the various levels of
government. This will ascertain the legitimacy of a policy. Invariably, policy must
target the right decision makers for adoption. The essence of feasibility study in policy
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3.6 ACCEPTABILITY
According to Swinburn (2005), acceptability refers to how the policy being
proposed is judged by the stakeholders. It focuses on subjective element of the
actors that are making judgement on a policy. This means it partly depends on the
external factors influencing policy under study because the position of each actor
or judge is determined by his or her understanding, knowledge, beliefs, values and
interest which might be political, economic or otherwise (Peters, 2002). A policy
that fails to gather enough support (including the support from public opinion) is
likely to have difficulty in terms of adoption and implementation. Invariably, it
might face difficulty in achieving the targeted goals or desired effects. However,
weak acceptability does not mean that a policy should be abandoned or shelved. In
fact, a good policy analyst might be able to present the policy to stakeholders
convincingly in a way that their fears might be addressed. What makes effective
analysis of policy to gain acceptability is by identifying the beneficiaries of the
policy and clarify the goals and objectives of such policy in a convincing manner.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain the framework of policy analysis
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has been able to expose us to the framework of policy analysis. Each of the elements
of the framework makes a policy analyst to be guided with effective instrument of measuring
the relevance and success of a policy. With the understanding of the highlighted techniques, a
policy analyst can be scientifically guided in policy analysis.
5.0 SUMMARY
The essence of technical tools in policy analysis cannot be undermined. The six techniques
in this unit makes the study of public policy a more robust and scientific inquiry to our
understanding of decision making process. The success and failure of a policy is
basically on effectiveness and acceptability of the policy at large.
112
Frank F.(2007) Handbook of Public Policy Analysis: Theory, Politics and Methods Taylor
and Francis
113
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 CBA Technique
3.2 CEA Technique
3.3 Comparative analysis of CBA and CEA
3.4 Critiques of CBA and CEA
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/ Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are several analytical techniques in policy analysis ranging from system analysis,
linear programming, simulation, decision tree analysis, cost-benefit analysis, cost-
effectiveness analysis and others. However, the central focus in this unit is to compare
the cost benefit and cost effectiveness analytical tools
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Explain the meanings of Cost-Benefit Analysis and Cost-Effectiveness
Analysis;
Understand the differences between Cost-Benefit Analysis and Cost-
Effectiveness Analysis
Cost-benefit analysis is in theory a much more powerful tool for decision-making than
cost effectiveness. It can be used, for example, to choose between such diverse
114
3.3.1 DIFFERENCES
(i) The potential merit of cost benefit analysis over cost effectiveness analysis is
that the former allows for analysis across subject areas. When the expressed
ratio of benefits to costs of a program is 1.0, costs are equal to benefits. As the
ratio increases, the benefits accruing have increased. In contrast, cost-
effectiveness analysis would not allow such direct comparisons since the
effects would be expressed in time saved and families able to sustain
themselves. It has limited utility it takes benefit as given;
(ii) The technique does not help to justify the costs to benefits of alternative
programmes;
(iii) Beside, its utilization is difficult because of the quantification or monetization
or enumeration of the benefits of the programme or its alternative;
This practice is known as shadow pricing. The procedure is easiest in dealing with
business- like operations of government such as in providing water and electrical
power and most difficult in areas involving social values. Thus, the relevant concept
of the cost of a public expenditure is the value of the benefits forgone by not
leaving the money in the private sector, where it would be consumed or invested.
There are other means than analysis for providing help to a decision-maker, who has to
arrive at a choice between alternatives. These include: (Oshionebo, 1998:77-83):
Perceived needs of the people that is, relevance of programme irrespective of
cost;
Political and social expediency
Pure intuition with or without divine guidance and “muddling-through” – a
sort of trial and error process in which naturally occurring feedback from
what actually happens, supplemented by limited analysis, serves to provide
the help (Oshionebo, 1998:77-83)
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain Cost-Benefit Analysis
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to discuss cost-benefit analysis and cost-
effectiveness analysis. CBA is a principal analytical tool used to evaluate public
expenditure decisions. It requires systematic enumeration of all benefits and all costs,
tangible and intangible, whether readily quantifiable or difficult to measure, that will
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5.0 SUMMARY
It is an analytical technique for analysing decision of programmes or project. It involves
evaluating all the costs of a programme or project whether tangible or not and all the
benefits accruing to the programme or project whether there are in short term or
long –time in qualitative and quantitative terms. The net benefit (subtracting cost
from benefit) is what paves away to choice or decision. It helps to determine the most
effective and alternative decision-decisions with net social benefits. On the other hand,
Cost effectiveness is useful and applicable to policy makers or project managers in
situations where the objectives and benefits of a programme accomplishment are fixed
and identical and the issue is only the determination of the least cost alternative with
highest effectiveness.
To an analyst using this technique, the benefits are assumed, and the search is for the
lower cost, but maximally effective alternative to attaining the benefits. Cost
effectiveness requires a clear statement of objectives and output. It requires the
comparison of alternatives in relation to alternative objectives. The alternative that
achieves most at the same cost is preferred. Critics have observed that both tools of
analysis have certain limitations which make them inadequate as tools of analysis
and they include critical problem of either approach is that of estimating what are
the causal relationships operative in the problem under analysis. In examining
alternative programs, the analysis will be required to make some assumptions about
causation in order to proceed. Some reliance can be placed upon earlier experiences or
evaluation of existing programs of similar character.
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119
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, students would be able to:
Understand and analyse government policy on education
Examine government policy in the heath sector
Comprehend public policy on agriculture
The 6+3+3+4 system formal education was actually designed to remove the
imbalance in the 6+5+2+3 and to introduce compulsory pre-vocational core
subjects at the junior secondary school along with Arts and Science subjects. The
aim of t he early introduction of the child into pre-vocational education is to arouse
the interest of the child in science and technology. It was believed that with this
early introduction to science and technology, the system will help to bring
about vocational skills acquisition and technological advancement which are
necessary ingredients for social, economic and political development.
The federal and state governments are responsible for higher education. However,
the performances of the federal and state governments on education are poor. There
has not been enough interest on the part of various governments - federal and states
in the provision of the most valuable aspect of education pre-primary education.
Infrastructural facilities are lacking in most primary school. Instructional facilities
are in short supply. Adequately trained teachers are not enough and those
available are not enough and those available are not motivated enough to improve
their job performance. The results are frequent strikes, disrupting the system and
the increase in the number of private schools being established.
The performances of the tertiary institutions have also not been encouraging.
Industrial strikes by the three unions in the universities, polytechnics and colleges o f
education are rife. These strikes have affected the quality of teaching and learning.
The poor funding of the tertiary institutions have made private tertiary institutions to
get more attentions among the prospective students. The primary and secondary
educations are not effectively maintained as private primary and secondary schools
have overshadowed the public schools. This remains the fear of the Academic Staff
Union of Universities (ASUU) that the poor funding of the Nigeria‟s public tertiary
institutions might result to partial collapse of higher education as obtainable in the
primary and secondary levels.
Before the 1960s, the dominant role of agriculture was taken for granted. With
little support from the government, the agricultural was able to provide food for
increasing population in the country. The industrial sector too was getting raw
materials for building increasing government revenue and creating employment
opportunities for the populace. The little support from the government was
channelled to export crops like cocoa, groundnut, palm produce, rubber and cotton
as food sufficiency did not pose any threat worthy of public attention
The second phase or target of the project was medium/large scale farming. It
was believed that Nigeria would witness a steady decline in the number of small
scale farming and gradual increase in the average size of farms in the coming
decades. This would make government to pursue a strategy to accommodate
medium and large scale farming side by side with the small scale farming. There
was a consideration that favours a large scale farming strategy. This would
improve production and enhance land consolidation. By this, scientific
management techniques and the use of modern input would increase agricultural
productivity. Also, the large scale is believed to generate mass employment.
The project was expected to look into backward integration. Under this strategy,
agro-industries would make use of modern small scale contract farmers to
undertake the production and supply of required agricultural raw materials.
Farmers will be assisted with requisite inputs such as loans and agreement to
purchase the farmers‟ produce and withhold part of the revenue due to the
farmers in payment for outstanding loans.
The major threat to agricultural productivity that affected the goals of ADP was
the discovery of oil in the 1970‟s. The oil boom era led to government diversion
of focus leading to abandoning of agricultural sector. This invariably restricted
the effectiveness of agricultural policy particularly on large scale production.
The mono-cultural economy principle as a result of the country‟s reliance on oil
production was a major setback to agricultural sector. The agricultural
productivity sharply dropped and revenue generation form the sector was
nothing to write home about.
In addition, the plan to engaging the abled youth in farming activities could not
be failed to materialise. The attention on oil sector complicated the problem of
agricultural productivity in Nigeria and more youth got attracted to the oil
business than agriculture. The policy target towards attracting the youth in small
scale and large scale farming became a mirage as majority of the abled young
persons disserted the rural setting for white collar jobs in the urban cosmopolitan
areas.
Be that as it may, most of the state and local government failed to develop a
plan on domestication of the National Health Policy to suit the component
units. The policy is yet to achieve its goals, though as planned, it would be
reviewed in every 5 years. Up till date, most of the Nigeria‟s health facilities
fail to meet the WHO prescribed standard. The political leaders hardly
comply with some of the medical professional advices by not sufficiently
finance the health sector. The budgetary allocation to the health system is not
impressive which leads to the policy as a mere academic exercise.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Examine the impact of National Health Policy on Nigerians
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have examined three sectors that are key to development of any
country. The assessment indicates that more still requited to be done in the
country. The policy makers have developed some good policies but the level
of implementation has always been worrisome.
5.0 SUMMARY
In policy analysis, the impact of assessment makes one to understand the role a
policy has played and how effective or otherwise decisions made are well
executed. The analysis of education, health and agricultural sectors in this unit
expose us towards policy assessment and effective evaluation. The analytical
framework indicates that more needed to be done in the area of health, education and
agriculture.
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Politics constraint
3.2 Budget Constraint
3.3 Institutional Constraint
3.4 Values Constraints
3.5 Expectation from the Society
3.6 Multiple Problems
3.7 Costly Solution
3.8 Uncertainty
3.9 Lack of communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Policy analysis simply put is the study of the causes, processes, formulation,
implementation and consequences of public policy. It involves the description and
explanation of particular policy choices and contents; determination of strategies for
optimal policy.-making, performance, implementation and impact of public policies. It
uses collected data to systematically explain, describe and prescribe policies with the aid
of certain social science methods, theories and approaches. However, almost all
participants in policy formulation have stakes in the configuration that policy takes.
This creates problem to policy analysts. In this unit, we shall examine the constraints
faced by the analyst in the course of decision- making.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students would be able to:
Understand the constraint of politics on public policy analysis;
Understand the constraint of budget in policy analysis;
Appreciate institutional constraint in policy analysis;
Explain the constraint values place on policy analysis;
Understand what the society accept as good policy;
Understand that mult iple cases of a problem can hinder appropriate solution to policy
problems; and
Understand that costly solution to a social problem would affect the
acceptability of a policy
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3.1
,,
CONSTRAINTS OF POLITICS
The activities of political leaders constrain policy analysis. Policy ideas are dropped
because elected politicians and other appointees oppose them. The reaction of
Senators, House of Representatives, the President and Presidential Advisers are
anticipated as proposals are debated. Many ideas are discarded because specialists
cannot conceive of any plausible circumstances which they could be approved by
elected politicians and their appointees. Policy analysis suffers these political
constraints when policy issues are being analysed.
Budgetary constraints also affect policy analysis. Expectations may always outpace
the capabilities of government. Before any proposals is accepted and approved,
decision-makers need to be convinced that it has the resource to do them. As
observed by Kingdom (1984:145-6), “decision-maker need to be convinced that
the budgetary cost of the programme is acceptable; that there is a reasonable chance
that polit icians will approve; that the public in its various facets both mass and activists
will acquiesce”. There must, therefore, be sufficient fund to meet policy expectations,
failure which policy analysis suffers.
Policy analysts also face the problem of institutional acceptance on policy outcomes.
Institutional characteristics limit what can or will be done. Specifically, an agency
accustomed to doing things in a particular way cannot innovate very often. Rather, it
looks for an effort to integrate new demands into existing patterns of doing business.
3.4 VALUES
Though, objectivity is relative as many analysts believe that policy analysis is not value-
free since value judgment also influences how they record or present information.
Nonetheless, policy analysts are more objective than programme administrators
as analysts often recommend alternatives, review consequences before arriving at
policy conclusion, whereas the bureaucrats are national maximizers of self-interests
(Down, 1967, Niskanen, 1971). In relative terms, policy analysts are more objective
where there is no conflict of interests. Policy analysis cannot provide solutions to
problems when there is no general consensus on what the problems are. It is incapable
of resolving societal value conflicts. At best, it can offer advice on how to accomplish
a certain set of end values. It cannot determine what those end values should be.
Furthermore, social science research cannot be value-free. Besides, it is difficult for the
government to cure all or even most of the maladies of the society. The y are
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There are also certain societal problems which may have multiple causes and a
specific policy may not be able to eradicate the problem. There are policies that solve the
problems of one group in society which create problems for other groups. In a plural
society one person‟s solution may be another person‟s problem. This is a constraint to
many policy proposals and such policy analysis proposal to solve such societal problem
becomes an uphill task.
3.8 UNCERTAINTY
As future is always uncertain, it is questionable whether policy analysis can find
solutions to the problems regarding the future of society. Poverty, unemployment,
inequality, and environmental pollution are some of the major problems in the society.
Of course, this is an excuse for failing to strive for a better society. It must be
realized that solutions to these problems may be difficult to find. There are several
reasons for tempering our enthusiasm for policy analysis.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have been able to examine the constraints of policy analysis. Public
policy analysis faces various problems, such as: politics, budget, institution, values and
expectation of members of the society. In spite of the constraints, it seems safe to
say that social scientists can at least attempt to measure the impact of present and past
public policies and make this knowledge available to policy-makers. Reason, knowledge
and scientific analysis are always better than the absence of any knowledge. Lineberry
(1977:135) notes that “policy analysis rests on the assumption that information is better
than no information, and that right questions are better than no questions asked, even
when the answers may not be definitive”.
Policy analysis may not provide solutions to society‟s ills, but it is still an appropriate
tool in approaching policy questions. Policy analysis enables us to describe and explain
the causes and consequences of public policy. Policy analysis is applied to inform
the policy-maker
about the likely future consequences of choosing various alternatives. Policy analysis
guides decision-makers in making optimum choices and outcomes among discrete
alternatives.
5.0 SUMMARY
Policy analysis is limited in solving so many societal problems. Political consideration
and self-interests conflict with objective formulation, selection and evaluation of public
policy. The political system is not often structured for completely rational decision-
making. The solution of societal problems generally implies a rational model, but
government may not be capable of formulating policy in a rational fashion. Instead, the
political system ma y reflect group interests, elite preferences, institutional forces or
incremental changes more than rationalism.
Moreover, expectations of members of the society may be more than the capabilities of
governments leading to budgetary constraints. Progress in any policy area may simply
result in an upward movement in expectations about what policy should accomplish.
Policies that solve the problems of one group in society may create problems for other
groups. Finally, the solutions to some problems may require policies that are more
costly than the problem. In spite of these problems and constraints of policy analysis,
policy analysis is a useful tool that guides policy-makers in making optimum choices
and outcomes among discrete alternatives.
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