نحو ثالث
نحو ثالث
نحو ثالث
Stage: Third
Course: Second
Teacher: Prof. Ayad Hammad Ali
Academic Year: (2020-2021)
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Quirk and Greenbaum (1973: 59) define the term noun phrase "the noun
phrase typically functions as subject, object, complement of sentences, and
as complement in prepositional phrases". These functions are explained in
the table below:
No Structures Functions of Noun Phrase
1. The girl is Mary Smith. Subject
2. We gave the pretty girl an apple. (NP= Det + Adj + N) Indirect object
3. We gave the girl an apple. (NP= Det + N) Direct object
4. She was a pretty girl. Subject complement
5. The pretty girl in the corner is Mary Smith. Prepositional
complement
1. Proper Nouns
NB: Adjectives that we make from proper nouns also usually start with a
capital letter, for example Shakespearian Theater, Orwellian Community,
and Chomskyan Theory.
2. Common Nouns
Most nouns are common nouns. Common nouns refer to people, places and
things in general like 'chair' or 'dog'. Any noun that is not a personal name is
a common noun.
Common
People Inanimate
3. Concrete Nouns
Concrete noun name people, places, animals, or things that are or were
physically tangible—that is, they can or could be seen or touched, or have
some physical properties. Examples: man, rice, head, car, furniture, mobile
phone:
4. Abstract Nouns
6. Uncountable Nouns
Rule: We never use uncountable nouns with the indefinite article (a/an).
Uncountable nouns are always singular.
7. Collective Nouns
8. Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. Most
compound nouns are [noun + noun] or [adjective + noun]. Each compound
noun acts as a single unit and can be modified by adjectives and other nouns.
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4.5 Determiners
A determiner is used to modify a noun. It refers to something specific or
something of a particular type. This function is usually performed by
articles, demonstratives, possessive pronouns, or quantifiers.
4.10 Postdeterminers
NB: When a sentence contains two numerals; cardinal and ordinal, the
ordinal comes first followed by the cardinal as shown in the example below:
- The first three books were bulky.
NB: items like next, last, another and other are called general ordinals,
which may be used freely before or after cardinals according to the meaning
denoted by the speaker:
3. Quantifiers are words or phrases which are used before a noun to indicate
the amount or quantity including 'some', 'many', 'a lot of', 'a few', little, etc.
Consider the following examples of quantifiers:
- There are some books on the desk. (Countable Noun)
- There is little sugar in my coffee. (Uncountable Noun)
4.13 Quantifiers
See the definition above. There are two small groups of closed-system
quantifiers.
1. Many, (a) few, and several co-occur only with plural count nouns,
- The few words he spoke were well chosen.
2. Much and (a) little co-occur only with non-count nouns,
- There has not been much good weather recently.
The meanings of these quantifiers are explained in the examples below:
- The German is a good musician. (Singular & Definite (the): Generic Meaning)
-A German is a good musician. (Singular & Indefinite (a): Generic Meaning)
- The Germans are good musicians = good musicians. (Plural & Definite (the):
Generic Meaning)
There are two kinds of adjectives that can act as noun-phrase head with
generic reference:
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2. Binoculars Shorts
3. Pliers Suspenders
4. Scales Glasses
5. Scissors
4.34. Other Pluralia Tantum Nouns Ending in (-s):
Puralia Tantum (Literally means ―Plural Only‖) refers to the nouns that
only occur in the plural, such as:
- The Middle Ages - The Commons
- Amends - Customs (Customs Duty/Office)
- Annals - Clothes
- The Antipodes - Contents
- Archives - The Lords (The House of Lords)
- Arms (weapons) - Fireworks
- Arrears
(1). Zero plural which is the most common form in contexts of hunting,
e.g.:
- We caught only a few fish. (Hunting or Gaming)
(2). Regular plural which is used with animals when there is a reference to
different individuals or species, e.g.,:
- The fishes of the Mediterranean. (Species)
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4.58. Gender
- John has been to London, but he came back home two days ago.
(Masculine Pronoun)
- Daisy attended the birthday party, but she soon went out. (Feminine
Pronoun)
The pattern of pronoun substitutions for singular nouns give us a set of ten
gender classes as shown below:
4. Common refers to using the word baby to name a very small child or
animal. As we can use (who-she/he/it or which-it).
3. Higher Organism refers to using the names of countries, like France and
England. We can substitute these nouns with the pronouns (which – it- she).
4. Lower Animal refers to small-sized animals like ant and for which the
pair of pronouns (which-it) can be used only.
The second type is different because its nouns have two gender forms that
are marked by the derivational relationships, as shown in the table below
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Some speakers use gender marker, which means using gender title male or
female or boy or girl before the dual noun, such as:
NB:
When such nouns are used generically, there is no need to use gender
marker:
If any student (whether male or female) calls my name, tell him I will be back
sooner.
I met a (handsome) student and he was very happy for meeting me.
I met a (beautiful) student and she was very happy for meeting me.
Syntactically, the adjective ‗handsome‘ describes the boy/man who is good-
looking, whereas the adjective ‗beautiful‘ describes the girl/woman who is
good-looking.
Common gender nouns are intermediate in use between personal and non-
personal nouns. For example, the word ‗baby‘ can be used to refer to a child
or animal because the small newly born creatures – being human or animal
are called babies. Therefore, one can say:
4. 62 Collective Nouns
NB: The word ‘police’ is treated as a plural noun in both UK English and
US English:
The police are looking for the criminal.
The word army is a collective noun, which can be used as a singular noun or
a plural noun, depending on the situation:
1
- The committee [ has ] met and [ it has ] rejected the proposal.
[have ] [ they have ]
2
In case (1), the sentence is singular in that the speaker uses (has) in the first
clause, and in the second clause he also uses singular subject (it) and
singular auxiliary (has). This means that the speaker indicates one unit.
In case (2), the sentence is plural in that the speaker uses (have) in the first
clause, and in the second clause he also uses plural subject (they) and plural
auxiliary (have). This means that the speaker indicates the different
members of the committee.
1. Specific Nouns: army, clan, class, club, committee, crew, crowd, family,
flock, gang, government, group, herd, jury, majority, and minority.
2. Generic Nouns: the aristocracy, the bourgeoisie, the clergy, the elite, the
public, the gentry, the laity, and the proletariat.
3. Unique Nouns: the Arab League, (the) Congress, the Kremlin, the
Papacy, Parliament, the United Nations, the United States, and the Vatican.
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4. 63 Higher Animals
Also, there is another class which is called common higher animals, and
for which pronoun patternings are used like (which-it) (who-she/he)
including horse, cat, bird, turtle, crocodile, etc. Since no sex distinction is
made or known for the speaker, the pronoun ‗he‘ is more usual than she.
Suppose that someone saw a horse, be he is not expert or familiar with its
gender, he will use ‗he‘, to say:
This horse is energetic as a proof he can run 88 km/h.
1. When the names of countries denote geographical units, they are treated
as inanimate, .g.,:
Looking at the European map, we see France here. It is the largest country
in Europe.
2. When the names of countries are used as political or economic units,
they are treated as feminine, .g.,:
France has been able to increase her exports by 10 per cent over the last
sixth months.
England is proud of her poets.
What a lovely ship! What is she called? Well, she is called Ashton Brown.
Lower animals do not differ from inanimate nouns in terms of our present
linguistic criteria. This means both the animal ‗snake‘ and the inanimate
‗box‘ are replaced by the pronouns (which) and (it). However, sex
differences can be indicated by a range of gender markers for any animate
noun when they are felt to be relevant:
B. The Marked Genitive Case: It refers to the grammatical case that marks
a noun. It designates a grammatical case, typically indicating possession,
measure, origin, or other close association, as in The Door’s Key.
The forms of the irregular nouns are different from the regular ones fore-
mentioned:
4. 69 Two Genitives
The case of genitive has two structures when its case indicates
possessiveness or belongingness:
Here it does not refer to the origin; rather it refers to the availability of
something, i.e., something found in something. Thus, it should be:
C. The other factor that influences our choice of genitive is the information
focus. The genitive (-s) enables us to focus on noun, whereas the of-
structure genitive makes us focus on another noun, as illustrated in the
examples below:
2. Having looked at all the funnels, he considered that the most handsome
was the funnel of the Orion.
In sentence (1), the speaker focuses on the first noun ‗ship‘, and he wants to
bring the attention of the listeners or readers to the noun ship only. On the
other hand, the speaker in sentence (2) focuses on the funnel in the sense
that he captivated the attention of the listeners or readers on the word
‗funnel‘, and mentioned it at the beginning of the sentence. As he did not
care about the ship itself called Orion.
The factor of information focus is congruent with the preference for using
the of-genitive structure with partitives.
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4. 72 Choice of –s Genitive
The following four animate noun classes normally take the (-s genitive):
Personal Name
Personal Noun
Collective Noun
Higher Animal
The inflected (-s) genitive is also used with certain kinds of inanimate
nouns:
(a). Geographical and Institutional Names:
Europe’s Future (Geographic)
The school’s history (Institution)
4. 76 Ellipsis
Ellipsis means the deliberate omission of a word from a sentence or an
utterance of material which is logically necessary but is recoverable from the
context. Etymologically, the term comes from the Greek ‗elleipsis‘, meaning
"to leave out" or "fall short." Sometimes a group of words are left out of a
sentence. It is used to shorten the sentence in written and verbal forms of
speech. As it is used to pausing in a sentence in order to leave an effect.
Here the word Bill's would normally mean 'where Bill lives' which could
mean a house or a flat or an apartment, etc.
Also, ellipsis can be applied to proper names when they denote commercial
firms or corporations.
Types of Ellipsis:
Textual ellipsis leaving out an element which does not affect the meaning or
context, e.g.,:
Situational ellipsis: Situational ellipsis often means we do not need to use the
subject pronoun I, especially at the beginning of a clause. This is quite
informal:
[I] Hope you have a nice holiday.
The noun modified by the –s genitive may be omitted if the context makes
its identity clear:
4. 77 Double Genitive
The rule of double genitive can be: Double genitive = preposition 'of' +
possessive noun or possessive pronoun.
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4.78 Pronouns
Pronouns constitute a heterogeneous class of items with numerous subclass.
Despite their variety, there are several features that pronouns have in
common that distinguish them from nouns:
4.79 Case
Pronouns like nouns have cases, and the cases that pronouns have are two:
common that includes (somebody; indefinite) and genitive that includes my
preceding nouns and mine follows be. Six pronouns have subjective,
objective and genitive grammatical cases.
Subjective I we he she they who
Objective me us him her them Who(m)
Genitive my our his her their whose
4.80 Person
First Speaker (1st) refers to the speaker (I) and the plural speakers (we).
Second Speaker (2nd) refers to the person (s) being addressed (you).
Third Speaker (3rd) refers to one or more other persons or things , such as
he, she, it, they).
She wants to join the Master Program, but her average is low.
They met him in Syria ten years ago.
Whose book is this? It‘s mine.
You told us about the truth, but it was not clear because we missed its final
part.
She saw herself in the mirror.
We use the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another when two or
more people do the same thing. Therefore, we can bring together two
sentences, such as:
John likes Mary + Mary likes John = John and Mary like each other
One another
Universal pronouns are any pronouns that are all-encompassing, such as all,
each, and every– followed by a word like –thing or –body. Two of them take
genitive (‗s), everyone‘s and everybody‘s.
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1. Some adjectives cannot be predicted from their forms unless they are used
in a real context in which the word is determined as an adjective or adverb.
For instance, consider the word ‗tender‘, which can be used as a noun
meaning ‗bid‘ or an adjective meaning ‗kind or gentle or (of food) easy to
bite through and cut‘.
2. Others have derivational suffixes, and they are formed through adding
either derivational or inflectional suffixes, such as disaster → disastrous.
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- The pretty girl smiled at me. (Attributive adjective preceding the noun 'girl').
- The girl is pretty.
- This area is dangerous. (Predicative adjective following the noun)
Adjectives are attributive when they come before nouns, namely they are
placed between the determiner and the headword:
- The beautiful painting, his main argument.
- He pushed the window open. (Co) (As a result, the window was open).
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Postpositive Adjectives
Postpositive adjectives are adjectives that follow the nouns they modify.
Examples:
He is being careful.
Be careful.
- That was a very funny film. (Very is an adverb premodifying the adjective funny)
- It is extremely good of you. (Extremely is an adverb premodifying the adjective
good)
- She has a really beautiful face). (Really is an adverb premodifying the adjective
beautiful)
- They are smoking very heavily. (Very (adverb) modifies the adverb heavily)
- They left him well behind. (Well is an adverb premodifying the particle "behind")
- The city council (City is a noun premodifying the headword noun council)
- August weather (August is a noun premodifying the headword noun weather)
- The council of the city. (Council is a complement to the Prep Phrase city)
- A poem about love. (Poem is a complement to the Prep Phrase love)
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