Physics Manual2022 - 23

PHYSICS MANUAL & OBSERVATION BOOK (2022-2023) 1
DACCAN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
DAR-US-SALAM, HYDERABAD
PHYSICS
PRACTICAL MANUAL
(2022 -23)
&
OBSERVATION BOOK
Department of p h ys i c s
NAME: ________________
BRANCH: _____ SEM : ______
R. No.:______________
Department of Science, Humanit ies &Management

Prepared and compiled
By
Department of Physics
Dr. Syed Tahseen Hussain H.O.D- Physics,
Dr. M.A.Basheer & Mr.Md.Habib Ali
Teaching & Non-Teaching staff

CONTENTS
Pg.No Date Sign.
Exp. Name of the Experiment & purpose P.No D/M/Y Remarks

NO
1 ENERGY GAP
3
Determine the Energy Gap of
a Semiconductor diode (Ge ,Si & LED).
2 B-H Curve
Trace the B-H loop of the ferromagnetic specimen & 7
Calculate the Energy loss in a specimen.
3 THERMISTER
9
Study the characteristics of Thermister &
Determine the Constants A& B.
4 P-N Junction diode

13
Study the Characteristics of a PN-Junction diode &
Determine the Resistances
5 Semiconductor LASER
15
Determination of Wavelength of Semiconductor LA
S E R
6 OPTICAL FIBER
19
Calculate the Numerical aperture (NA),
Acceptance angle
7 SOLAR CELL
Study the Characteristics of a Solar cell &
Determine Fill factor, series resistance.
8 MALUS LAW
To verify the Malus Law of intensity of Light..
DIFFRACTION GRATING
To determine the wavelength of a given light
radiation using a diffraction grating.
9
10 VIVA-VOCE
Frequently asking questions
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP
AIM: To determine the forbidden energy gap of a given semi conductor germanium silicon and LED.
APPARATUS: Forbidden energy gap kit, 9V battery, semi-conductor diode (Germanium, Silicon, and
LED) and coconut oil.
Theory: The current – voltage characteristic of a P-N Junction is given by

  nKT
qv


I  I S e  1 …………………………. (1)
 
Where ‘I’ is the forward junction current, ‘I s’ is reverse saturated current ‘V’ is the junction voltage ‘q’ is
the electronic charge, ‘K’ is the Boltzmann constant, ‘T’ is the temperature in Kelvin and ‘n’ is a
constant.
The reverse saturation current is given by

Is = BT3 e –Eg/nKT ……………………….. (2)
Where ‘B’ is constant and ‘Eg’ is the energy gap. Combining equations (1) and (2) we get
V = Eq + nKT nKT x log (BT3)…………… (3)
q q q a
in the operating range of the diodes, the temperature dependence is mainly determined by the term
nKT/q. hence a plot of Vvs T gives a straight line. The straight line extrapolated to O0 k gives the energy
band gap in electron volts.
Graph
PROCEDURE:
1) There are two jacks (JB . JD) on the front panel. JB is connected to 9.0 V battery using a plug.
The diode under investigation is to be connected to the JD.
2) Switch on the mains supply you will observe some numbers on the digital panel meter.
3) Connect a 9.0 V battery to Jack JB.
4) Connect the diode under investigation to Jack JD.
5) Adjust the current through the diode for a convenient value, say 80 A varying the
potentiometer P.
6) Place the diode in an oil batch. It is convenient to take oil heated to 1500 C in a closed vessel
and to place the diode in the oil.
7) Take the voltage across the diode as a function of temperature. At each temperature adjust the
diode current to the chosen value by adjusting the potentiometer.
8) Allow oil to cool and take at least 10 measurements in the range 250C to 1200C.
9) Draw a graph between the junction voltage and absolute temperature.
10) Extrapolate the graph to O0 K. The values expressed in electron volts gives the band energy
gap of the material of diode.
11) Repeat the experiment with a silicon diode and LED.
Observation & Calculations:
Current fixed at 80µA
Temperatures Junction voltage (m V)
0 0
C K Germanium Silicon (Si) LED
(Ge)
RT (273 + RT)
120 393
110 383
100 373
90 363
80 353
70 343
60 333
50 323
40 313
30 303
PRECAUTIONS:
1) Don’t interchange Battery and Diode cords.
2) Check the voltage of battery. It should be 9V on load.
3) Avoid use of water for temperature variation as any amount of conduction may lead to short
circuiting of the diode.
4) If there is any trouble, please check the polarity of the diode. The end of the diode must go to
the –ve end of the battery.
Result:
Germanium : Eg = ______________ eV
Silicon : Eg = ______________ eV
LED (Gap) : Eg = ______________ eV
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
B-H CURVE
AIM : To trace the B-H loop (hysteresis) of a ferromagnetic specimen using a

cathode ray oscilloscope and to evaluate the energy loss in the specimen.
APPARATUS: B-H curve unit and C.R.O
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT:
One of the specimens used in the unit is made using transformer stampings. There are
two windings on the specimen (primary and secondary). The primary is fed to low A.C
voltage (50Hz). This produces a magnetic field H in the specimen. The voltage across R 1
(Resistance connected in series with the primary) is proportional to the magnetic field. It is
given to the horizontal input of the CRO. The A.C magnetic field induces a voltage in the
secondary coil. This voltage is applied to passive integrating circuit. The output of the
integrator is proportional to B and fed to the vertical input of the CRO.
As a result of the application of a voltage proportional to H to the horizontal (input)

axis and a voltage proportional to B to the vertical (input) axis, the loop is formed as shown
in the figure.
This transformers core may be replaced by a ferrite ring. One may study the variation
of the energy loss of the ferrite ring as function of temp and determine the curie temp.
PROCEDURE:
1) Determination of the energy loss in the transformer core:
a. There are twelve terminals of the panel. Six patch cards are supplied with the kits.
The value of R1 can be selected by connecting terminal D to A or B or C.
(A-D = 5 oh: B-D = 15 ohm; C-D=50 ohm)
Connect A to D. Connect the primary terminals of the specimen to P, P and secondary

to S,S terminals
b. Adjust the CRO to work on external mode (the time based is switched off). Adjust the
horizontal and vertical position controls such that the sport is at the centre of the CRO
screen.
c. Connect terminal marked GND to the ground of the CRO. Connect terminal H to the
horizontal input of the CRO. Connect terminal V to the vertical input of the CRO.
Switch on the power supply of the unit. The hysteresis loop is formed.
d. Adjust the horizontal and vertical gains such that the loop occupies maximum area on
the screen of the CRO. Once this adjustment is made do not disturb the gain controls.
e. Trace the loop on a translucent graph paper. Estimate the area of the loop.
f. Remove the connection from CRO without disturbing the horizontal and vertical gain
controls.
g. Determine the vertical sensitivity of the CRO by applying a known AC voltage say I
volt (peak to peak). If the spot deflects by X cms for 1 volt, the vertical sensitivity is
I/X x 10-2 (Volts/m)
h. Determine the horizontal sensitivity of the CRO by applying a known AC voltage say
I volt (peak to peak). Let the horizontal sensitivity be S H (Volts/m).
N1 R2 C
i. The energy loss is given by   2  SV  S H  Area of the loop
N 2 R1 A  L
joules/cycles/unit volume.
1) Energy loss in a ferrite core – Determination of Curie Temperature:
a. Disconnect the transformer core specimen from the unit.
b. Connect the ferrite ring to the unit as described earlier.
c. Place the ferrite specimen in a transformer oil bath.
d. Vary the temperature of the bath and determine the energy loss at each temperature.
e. As the temperature increases, the area of the loop decreases. At the curie temp, the
loop becomes a straight line indicating zero loss.
1) Details of Transformer Core:-
C2=4.7 x 10-6 F
N1=No.of turns in a primary transformer N2= No.of turns in a secondary transformer
= 200 turns = 400 turns
R1 = Resistance=50 Ω R2 = Resistance =68 x 103 Ω
A = cross sectional area of the L = inductor = 23 x 10-2 m
transformer core= 2.8 x 10-4 m2
1 1
Sv =Vertical sensitivity(CRO) = SH=Horizantal sensitivity(CRO) =
8.4  10  2 0.6  10  2
Observations & Calculations:
N1 R2 C
  2  SV  S H  Area of the loop Joules/cycles/unit volume.
N 2 R1 A  L
Area of the loop == ________mm2
RESULTS: The energy loss in a given specimen is: joules/cycles/unit volume.

EXPERIMENT NO. 03
TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS OF A THERMISTOR
AIM: To draw the temperature characteristics of thermistor and to evaluate

the constants (A & B).
APPARATUS: Thermistor, Thermistor characteristics Kit, connecting wires, beaker

containing oil, thermometer and heater.
THEORY: A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor. It is made up of mixtures

of oxides of cobalt, magnesium, manganese and nickel or uranium. A
thermistor is available in many shapes such as a rod, disc, or a bead.
Most of the thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. A resistor has a positive temperature coefficient of
resistance and at least up to 1000C the resistance of a resistor varies
linearly with temperature. A thermistor on the other hand, has a non-
linear variation of resistance increase of temperature given by the
relation
R=AeB/T.
Where A and B are constants and T is the absolute temperature. The

constants A and B are characteristic of the thermistor used. It is our
aim to determine R as a function of T and to evaluate the constants A
and B.
Procedure: A wheat stone bridge is set up as shown in the figure (1) make the
connections as shown in figure (1).
The thermistor is connected in the fourth arm of the bridge while P, Q,

R form the other three arms. P and Q represent the ratio arms. Take
P=Q=470 Ohms and balance the bridge with the thermistor in the
beaker containing oil maintained at the room temperature. The value of
R which is obtained for balancing the bridge gives the resistance of the
thermistor at room temperature. Heat the beaker till the temperature of
oil reaches 900C and now again determine the value of R that balances
the bridge. Similarly determine the resistance (R) of the thermistor at
regular intervals of 50C each, while cooling. Tabulate the results in the
tabular form.
Draw a graph between resistance and absolute temperature. It should be as shown in figure
(2).
It is noted that R decreases exponentially with increase in temperature.
EVALUATION OF CONSTANTS ‘A’ AND ‘B’
The resistance of the thermistor is given by R = Ae B/T __________ (1)
Taking logarithms on both sides we get loge R = loge A + B __________ (2)

T
Now draw a graph with loge R on the y-axis and I/T on the x-axis. A straight line graph is
obtained with negative intercept on the y-axis (as shown in fig. 3)
The slope of the line gives B.
To calculate the constant A take the logarithm to the base 10 of the formula (1). then
Log10 R = Log10 A + B Log10 e

T
Log10 A = Log10 R B × 0.4343 _________ (3)
T
Hence take the value of R corresponding to some temperature T K and substitute in eq. (3)
along with the value of B already evaluated.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No Temperature of 1/T Resistance of the Loge R

Thermistor thermistor (R)
T0C TK
1 80
2 120
3 160
4 200
5 240
6 280
7 320
8 360
9 400
10 440
11
12
Calculations:
Log10 A = Log10 R B × 0.4343

T
RESULTS:
The Temperature characteristics of given thermistor is drawn and
1. The value of Constant A =------------ 
2. The value of Constant B=------------- K

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
JUNCTION DIODE
AIM : To study the forward and reverse characteristics of a junction diode using
junction diode trainer and also calculate the forward and backward
resistances.
APPARATUS: 1) Junction Diode Trainer, 2) Connecting Wires.
THEORY :
Diodes are important devices in field of electronics and electrical technology. Diodes are
simple p-n junctions and have a number of advantages such as high mechanical and thermal
reliability, high peak inverse voltage combined with low reverse current, how forward
voltage drop high efficiency and extreme compactness. Sample p-n junctions, have low
resistance to current flow in one direction (anode to cathode), and high resistance to current
flow in the opposite direction (cathode to anode).
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the circuit for the respective forward or reverse bias conditions as shown in the
figures.
2) By varying the voltage note down the values of current and voltage.
3) Plot a graph from the obtained values.
4) Plot a graph between voltage and current for forwrad & reverse bias of the given
P-n junction diode.
Circuit Diagram:
Observations& Calculations:
S.No. Observations Forward Bias S.No Observations Reserves Bias

Voltage (V) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Current (µA)
1 0 1 1
2 0.1 2 2
3 0.2 3 3
4 0.3 4 4
5 0.4 5 5
6 0.5 6 6
7 0.6 7 7
8 0.7 8 8
Calculations:
Result:
V-I Characteristics of given junction diode has been verified.
Forward resistance ___________
Reverse Resistance____________
EXPERIMENT NO.5
LASER
AIM : To determine the wavelength of a given Laser Source.
APPARATUS:
Laser Source, Diffraction Grating (2500 LPI), Screen, Scale.
Sin 0
Formula :  A
Nn
Where n = Diffraction Order

λ = Wavelength of the laser source
θ = Diffraction angle
2500
N cm No. of Lines per cm. on the grating.
2.54
THEORY :
The radiation given out by the laser is in mutual agreement not only in
phase but also in the direction of emission and polarization, usually the
number of particles N2 i.e. the population of higher energy level is less than
the population N1 of lower energy level. Marking N2>N1 i.e the number of
particles N2 more in higher energy level than the number of particles N 1, in
lower energy level is called as population inversion. It is one of the basis
requirements of laser action. The method of rising the particles from lower
energy state to higher energy stat is called as pumping. Particle can pass
from the exited state to a normal state under the effect of another external
quanta. This means that the incidence of radiation on the particle which is in
exited state stimulates the emission of similar radiation by the particle, by
transition to lower energy state. This type of emission is called stimulated
emission.
The remarkable feature of the stimulated emission is that is that it is
coherent with the stimulating incident radiation. It is the same frequency
and phase as the incident radiation.
PROCEDURE:
1) Arrange the laser and grating on the optical bench in the same time.
2) Focus the laser beam on the grating and observe the spectrum on the screen.
3) Measure the distance between the screen and grating (Y).
4) Measure the distance between corresponding maxima of the same order (2x).
PRECAUTION:
Do not look at the laser beam directly.

S. Order Distance between X Distance between θ = tan-1 (x/y ) Sinθ Sin
No No(n). corresponding Screen & Grating  cm
order (2X) (Y) Nn
1. 1
1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Calculations :
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
OPTICAL FIBER-MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE
AIM:
To determine the numerical aperture of the PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate) cable.
APPARATUS:
Fiber optic trainer (TH-FOKB3), DC power supply, 1 & 3 meter FO cable N.A. jig,
adapter (9V) and connectors.
THEORY:
The numerical Aperture of an optical system is measure of the light collected by

optical system. It is the product of refractive index of the incident medium and the sine of the
maximum ray angel. Numerical aperture (N.A.) = n1 sin  max…….. (1)
For air n1 = 1
N.A = sin  max ………………………. (2)
For step index fiber, N.A is given by:

N.A. = (n2core – n2clad)1/2 ……………… (3)
For small differences in refractive indices between core and cladding,

N.A. = ncore (2)…………………………………….(4)
Where ‘’ is the fractional difference in the refractive indices of the core and cladding, i.e.,
[(n2core – n2clad)/ n2core]
Light from the fiber end ‘A’ falls on the screen BD. Let the diameter of the light falling on
the screen BD=W. Let the distance between the screen AO=L.
W
N.A  ……………………… (5)
4L
2
W 2
 1
2
Knowing W and L, the N.A. can be calculated and substituting this N.A. value in equation (2)
the acceptance angle ‘ max’ can also be calculated.
Description:
1) The electrical to optical converter. It converts an electrical input to an optical output
P0 the output power of FO LED can be varied with the help of potentiometer knob
marked “SET P0/IF” i.e., by adjusting driving current of FO LED.
2) The optical power meter module: It converts the optical coupled into the sensor to
dBm with the help of DMM and calibration conversion. Keep DMM in 0-2000mV
range. Connect the DMM test leads to the ‘Pout’ sockets, then the optical power in
dBm is given by DMM reading/10 as an example, if the DMM reading is -182, then
the optical power ‘Pout’ is -182/10 dBm (or) -18.2 dBm.
PROCEDURE: The experimental arrangement is shown in figure 3.
The step by step procedure is as follows:
Step1: Insert one end of either one (or) three meter length plastic optical fiber cable in the
“FO LED” until you feel that the fiber is touching micro lens of FO LED. Do not push by
applying undue force that may damage micro-lens. Gently tight the cinch nut that holds the
inserted fiber firmly. Similarly connect another end to ‘N.A. jig’ cinch nut.
Step2: Connect power adapter pin into the socket ‘Vin’ and plug to 230 V AC Line, switch
on ON/OFF switch. Red light will appear at the end of the fiber in the NA jig. To set
maximum output power turn ‘SETPo/lF” knob is clockwise direction. The red light intensity
will increase to it is the maximum FO LED O/P power.
Step3: Hold the provided scaled screen at a distance of 10 mm (L) on N.A. jig A red spot
appears on the screen, measure the diameter (W) of the spot.
(DARK ROOM WILL FACILITATE BETTER VIEWING)

Substitute the measured values (L) and (W) in the N.A. formula.
W
N.A 
4L
2
W 2  1
2
Repeat the experiment for the distances of 5mm, 10mm, 15mm, etc. and note the readings in
the table1.
S.No. L(mm) W(mm) N.A. max (Degrees)

1.
Note:
1) In case the intensity within the spot is not evenly distributed, (it is due to fiber being
under filled) wind three turns of fiber on the mandrel as shown in Figure 4. To hold
the winding in position use a cellophane tape. Now view the spot on the screen. The
intensity will be more evenly distributed.
2) As per the manufacturers specifications

numerical aperture of the given (PMMA)
plastic optical fiber is 0.51. The measure N.A.
may be lower due to the fiber being under
filled.
Result: The Numerical aperture of a given optical fiber is _____

The acceptance angle ________
EXPERIMENT NO.07
SOLAR CELL
AIM : To draw the V-I characteristics of a solar cell and calculate the fill factor
(FF) , series resistance (Rs) and efficiency.
APPARATUS: Solar Cell, Illuminator, Voltmeter, Micro ammeter, Potentiometer, and

connecting wires.
Figure – 1: Idealized equivalent circuit of a solar cell.& Its V-I Graph
THEORY : Solar cell is a shallow p-n junction diode. We know that a built in-voltage
exists across a p-n junction, but this voltage cannot deliver in an external
circuit. However, if light is incident on the junction, there is current in the
circuit. This effect is called the photovoltaic effect.
To understand the principle underlying the photovoltaic effect, let the

junction be illuminated. Under this condition many excess electron-hole
pairs are generated in the regions on either side of the junction via
absorption of photons. As the field within the junction is from n-side to p-
side, the excess minority carries thus generated diffuse to the junction where
they are carried across and become majority carries – the holes generated on
n-side move towards p-side and the electrons generated on p-side moves
towards n-side. If the junction is now open – circuited, the majority carrier
excess charge will build up on both sides of the junction. If the external
circuit is closed, the current will therefore flow therein. This current will
continue so long as there is diffusion of excess electrons from n-side and of
excess holes from p-side. This in turn means that the current will flow so
long as the semi conductor regions are illuminated.
This explains how the incident lights sets up the current flow in the external circuit.
The current flowing through the p-n junction under non-illumination condition is given by
I = Isc (eqv/kT – 1)………….(1)
Where Isc Diode saturation current flowing through the junction is given as
I = Isc (eqv/kt – 1) - IL ………….(2)
Where IL Current due to excitation (under illumination) of excess carries by

solar radiation.
When P-N Junction is used in open circuit mode, so that I –O, V=V oc’ (open circuit
voltage) Then O = IL - Is (eqv/kt – I)
As IL>> Is, then in the above equation, I can be neglected and on simplification we get
VOC = KT/q log(IL/ISC) …………….. (3)
A second limiting case in the solar cell is the one where the output is short circuited
i.e; R=O; V=O; then from equation (2) on simplification, we get.
I = IL = Isc……… (4)
i.e when V = 0 , I in the circuit is equal to the Isc (Isc short circuit current)
The I-V curve of solar cell passes through the fourth quadrant fig. 2(a) indicating that
power can be extracted from it. The curve is more generally represented by figure
2(b)
Figure-2(a) Current – Voltage characteristics of a solar cell under illumination (b)

inversion of (a) about the voltage axis.
If we know Voc, Isc and Vm , Im from graph, that we can calculate the following
parameters.
1) Fill factor = Im Vm ………………………………(5)

Isc Voc
V1 V2 1
2) Series Resistance (Rs) =   -------------------------(6)
I 1 I 2 2
3) Efficiency = P out put power/unit area
P input power/ unit area × 100
Where ∆V1, ∆V2, ∆ I1, & ∆ l2 can be obtained from graph.
PROCEDURE : Complete the circuit connections as shown n the figure – 1(b)
Then place the light source S at the same distance from soar cell. Adjust the potentiometer R L
until you obtain the zero voltage in voltmeter and maximum current in the ammeter (if it
shows out of scale then decrease the light intensity). This maximum current is called the short
circuit current Isc. Then, with the help of potentiometer increase the voltage in equal steps
and note down the corresponding current till you get maximum voltage in the voltmeter. Now
remove all the connections of the circuit and find out the open circuit voltage (Voc.) (i.e.
connecting +ve of cell to the +ve of voltmeter and –ve of the cell to the the –ve of the
voltmeter). Repeat the experiment for other intensities placing the light source at 20cm and
25cm plot the graphs between V and I. select a point ‘P’ on each curve and draw
perpendicular lines from P onto both axes, such that the area covered by the rectangle is
maximum. Note the Vm and Im from each curve and calculate the fill factor for each curve,
then find out the average fill factor. To find out the series resistance find the difference
between two consecutive.
Vm’s and Im’s (i.e. {∆V1, ∆V2, ∆ I1, & ∆ l2 as shown in figure 1) from the graph.

Voc = Isc= Voc = Isc= Voc = Isc=
S.No. Voltage Current S.No. Voltage Current S.No. Voltage Current
V µA V µA V µA
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. See that the light from the source falls on the solar cell.
2. Make sure that connections are made properly and ensure good contact.
RESULT:
2. Fill factor (F) = ………
3. Series resistance=............
4. Efficency=----------
EXPERIMENT NO.8
MALUS LAW
AIM:- To verify the Malus Law of intensity of Light.
APPARATUS:- Polarizer, Analyzer, Collimated source of light, solar cell(2V), and Digital
Millivoltmeter.
PRINCIPLE:-
Malus Law: According to Malus, when completely plane polarized light is incident on the
analyzer, the intensity of the light transmitted by the analyzer is directly proportional to the
square of the cosine of angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer.
i.e, I ∞ cos2θ
Suppose the angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and polarizer is θ.
The completely plane polarized light from the polarizer is incident on the analyzer. If E 0 is
the amplitude of the electric vector transmitted by the polarizer, then intensity I0 of the light
incident on the analyzer is I ∞ E02
The electric field vector E0 can be resolved into two rectangular components i.e., E 0
cosθ and E0 sinθ. The analyzer will transmit only the component E 0 cosθ which is parallel to
its transmission axis. However, the component E 0 sinθ will be absorbed by the analyzer.
Therefore, the intensity I of light transmitted by the analyzer is
I ∞ ( E0 x cosθ )2
I / I0 = ( E0 x cosθ )2 / E02 = cos2θ
I = I0 x cos2θ
Therefore, I ∞ cos2θ. This proves law of malus.
When θ = 0° ( or 180° ), I = I0 cos20° = I0 That is the intensity of light transmitted by the
analyzer is maximum when the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer are
parallel.
When θ = 90°, I = I0 cos290° = 0 that is the intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer is
minimum when the transmission axes of the analyzer and polarizer are perpendicular to each
other.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the positive and negative terminals of the tube to digital mill voltmeter.
2. Fix the bulb to the holder provided on the board
3. Switch “ON” the unit
4. Collect voltage (intensity) readings for different angles of analyzer orientation
between 0 and 360o and note down the readings in table 1.
5. Plot the graph between voltage (intensity) v/s relative angles.
Ideal graph:
S.No Angle between optic axis of polarizer & Voltage on the cell(V)
analyzer(  )
1 0°
2 15°
3 30°
4 45°
5 60°
6 75°
7 90°
8 105°
9 120°
10 135°
11 150°
12 165°
13 180°
14 195°
15 210°
16 225°
17 240°
18 255°
19 270°
20 285°
21 300°
22 315°
23 330°
24 345°
25 360°
EXPERIMENT NO.9
DIFFRACTION GRATING : NORMAL INCIDENCE METHOD
AIM : To determine the wavelength of a given light radiation using a diffraction

grating.
APPARATUS: Plane diffraction grating, spectrometer, spirit level, reading lens, source of
light radiation.
DESCRIPTION:
A plane diffraction grating consists of a parallel-sided glass plate with

equidistant fine parallel lines drawn very closely upon it by means of a diamond point. The
number of lines drawing is about 15,000 per inch. The gratings used in the laboratory are
exact replicas of the original gratings on celluloid film. The celluloid film is fixed to optically
plane glass plate. While using the diffraction grating care should be taken not to touch the
film. It must be handled by the edges of the plate.
PROCEDURE:
Suppose a parallel beam of light from the collimator of a spectrometer is made to fall
normally on a plane diffraction grating erected vertically on the prism table. Let the
telescope, initially in a line with the collimator be gradually turned to one side. First a
spectrum will be seen and is called the first order spectrum. On further turning the telescope,
another spectrum will be seen and is called the second order spectrum. Similarly it can be
repeated on the second side also. It may be possible, on a still further rotation of the
telescope, to observe the third order spectrum. But the number of orders of spectrum that
can be observed with a given grating is limited. With a grating of 15,000 lines per inch two
orders will be fully seen.
With the light normally incident on a grating having N Lines per cm, if  is
the angle of diffraction of a radiation of wavelength λ in the nth order spectrum, then
Sin  0
 A
nN
1 Inch = 2. 54cm
No. of lines per inch =
No. of lines per cm. (N) =

Colour Order of Telescopic Reading 2θ
Spectrum Left Right V1 ~ V1 V2 ~ V2 Mean
(n)
V1 V2 V1 V2 ( V1/ ) ( V2/ ) V1/  V2/ 
2
Violet
Blue
Green
Red
RESULT:
Wavelength of the given colours is
λ Violet =
λRed =
λGreen =
VIVA QUESTIONS
B-H Curve
1. What is B and H, Specify Units.
2. What is the relation between B and H.
3. Define Permeability and Permitivity along with units.
4. What is the other name of B-H curve.
5. What is Hystersis loss?
6. What is residual magnetization or retentivity.
7. What is coercivity.
8. What is the significance of finding the hystersis loss.
9. What is Magnetic Hystersis.
10. What is Magnetic Moment?
Energy Gap
1. Classification of solids based on energy gap.
2. Define energy gap.
3. Define valence band & conduction band .
4. Define semiconductor.
5. Define intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
6. Define P-type and N-type.
7. What are the majority charge carriers in P-type and N-type
semiconductors?
8. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy in a semiconductor.
9. What is the value of conductivity of a semiconductor at zero kelvin.
10. How does resistance of semiconductor vary with temperature?
P-N junction diode
1. Define Diode.
2. Define semiconductor.
3. Define intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
4. Define P-type and N-type.
5. Name different types of diode.
6. Define forward and reverse bias.
7. What is the function of diode?

8. What is mean by potential barrier & depletion layer.
9. What is cuttin voltage or knee voltage
10. What are the applications of semiconductor diodes?
Thermistor
1. Define thermistor
2. What is the function of thermistor
3. How thermistors are fabricated.
4. Name different types of thermistor.
5. What is the basic principle involved in thermistor.
6. What is the principle of wheatstone bridge.
7. What are the disadvantages of wheatstone bridge.
8. What are the significance of constants in thermistor.
9. What is the relation between resistance and tempreature in thermistor .
10. What are the applications of thermistor.
LASER
1) What is mean by LASER?
2) What is the principle of LASER?
3) What are the types of LASERs with examples?
4) Define population inversion.
5) Which type of LASER source using in your experiment?
6) What are the characteristics of the LASER?
7) What is mean by Spontaneous emission and stimulated
emission?
8) Define pumping.
9) Types of pumping mechanism.
10) Example for two energy level
system and three energy level system
of LASERS
OPTICALFIBER
1) Define numerical aperture and acceptance angle.
2) What is mean by total internal reflection?
3) What is optical fiber?
4) What are the different types of optical fibers
5) What is step index fiber
6) What is graded index fiber
7) What are the conditions for total internal reflection?
8) What is the principle involved in light communication in
fibers.
9) Expression for numerical
aperture and acceptance angle.

10) Define mode. How many
types of fiber(modes).
Solar Cell
1. What is photo diode?and its charactristics?
2. Which material is suitable to construct a solar cell?
3. What is the basic principle involved in photovoltaic Effect?
4. What is solar cell?Define homojunction and hetro junction solar cell.
5. Draw the V-I charactristics of solar cell?
6. What is emf ?
7. Draw the circuit diagram for solar cell experiment?and the symbol of solarcell.
8. What is Voc,Isc,Im,Vm? Define Fill fcator and efficiency of solar cell.
9. What is the visible range of sunlight?
10. What is effect of light intensity on solar cell.

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PHYSICS MANUAL & OBSERVATION BOOK (2022-2023) 1

Department of Science, Humanit ies &Management

Teaching & Non-Teaching staff

Exp. Name of the Experiment & purpose P.No D/M/Y Remarks

4 P-N Junction diode

Theory: The current – voltage characteristic of a P-N Junction is given by

The reverse saturation current is given by

AIM : To trace the B-H loop (hysteresis) of a ferromagnetic specimen using a

APPARATUS: B-H curve unit and C.R.O

As a result of the application of a voltage proportional to H to the horizontal (input)

1) Determination of the energy loss in the transformer core:

Connect A to D. Connect the primary terminals of the specimen to P, P and secondary

1) Energy loss in a ferrite core – Determination of Curie Temperature:

a. Disconnect the transformer core specimen from the unit.

b. Connect the ferrite ring to the unit as described earlier.

c. Place the ferrite specimen in a transformer oil bath.

1) Details of Transformer Core:-

Observations & Calculations:

Area of the loop == ________mm2

RESULTS: The energy loss in a given specimen is: joules/cycles/unit volume.

AIM: To draw the temperature characteristics of thermistor and to evaluate

APPARATUS: Thermistor, Thermistor characteristics Kit, connecting wires, beaker

THEORY: A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor. It is made up of mixtures

Where A and B are constants and T is the absolute temperature. The

The thermistor is connected in the fourth arm of the bridge while P, Q,

It is noted that R decreases exponentially with increase in temperature.

EVALUATION OF CONSTANTS ‘A’ AND ‘B’

The resistance of the thermistor is given by R = Ae B/T __________ (1)

Taking logarithms on both sides we get loge R = loge A + B __________ (2)

The slope of the line gives B.

Log10 R = Log10 A + B Log10 e

S.No Temperature of 1/T Resistance of the Loge R

Log10 A = Log10 R B × 0.4343

The Temperature characteristics of given thermistor is drawn and

1. The value of Constant A =------------ 

2. The value of Constant B=------------- K

APPARATUS: 1) Junction Diode Trainer, 2) Connecting Wires.

S.No. Observations Forward Bias S.No Observations Reserves Bias

AIM : To determine the wavelength of a given Laser Source.

Where n = Diffraction Order

3) Measure the distance between the screen and grating (Y).

Observations & Calculations:

The numerical Aperture of an optical system is measure of the light collected by

For step index fiber, N.A is given by:

For small differences in refractive indices between core and cladding,

PROCEDURE: The experimental arrangement is shown in figure 3.

The step by step procedure is as follows:

(DARK ROOM WILL FACILITATE BETTER VIEWING)

Observations & Calculations:

S.No. L(mm) W(mm) N.A. max (Degrees)

2) As per the manufacturers specifications

Result: The Numerical aperture of a given optical fiber is _____

APPARATUS: Solar Cell, Illuminator, Voltmeter, Micro ammeter, Potentiometer, and

Figure – 1: Idealized equivalent circuit of a solar cell.& Its V-I Graph

To understand the principle underlying the photovoltaic effect, let the

I = Isc (eqv/kt – 1) - IL ………….(2)

Where IL Current due to excitation (under illumination) of excess carries by

VOC = KT/q log(IL/ISC) …………….. (3)