1/1

Physical
1 considerations in
site selection

Ove Arup & Partners

Industrial Division

Additional Material Contributed by Evan Davies

MA, MIEH, DipInstAc, DMS
Team Manager, Pollution Control Group
Leicester City Council

Contents
1.8.3 Statutory liabilities for former contaminative
1.1 Environmental considerations of valley or hillside sites 1/3 activities: Environmental Protection Act 1990,
1.1.1 The effect of topography on prevailing winds and Part IIA 1/22
strengths 1/3
1.1.2 Design for wind 1/4
1.1.3 The factored basic wind speed approach 1/4
1.2 Road, rail, sea and air access to industrial sites 1/4
1.2.1 Introduction 1/4
1.2.2 Design considerations 1/4
1.2.3 Forms of site access 1/5
1.2.4 Providing access to the road system 1/5
1.2.5 Selection of sites 1/5
1.2.6 Checklist 1/5
1.3 Discharge of effluent and general site drainage 1/6
1.3.1 Effluent 1/6
1.3.2 Site drainage 1/7
1.4 Natural water supplies, water authority supplies and the
appropriate negotiating methods and contracts 1/8
1.5 Water storage, settling wells and draw-off regulations 1/10
1.5.1 Water storage 1/10
1.5.2 Draw-offs 1/13
1.6 Problem areas associated with on-site sewage treatment for
isolated areas 1/13
1.6.1 Cesspools 1/14
1.6.2 Septic tanks 1/14
1.7 Landscaping on industrial and reclaimed land 1/15
1.7.1 General 1/15
1.7.2 Contaminated land 1/15
1.7.3 Non-contaminated land 1/16
1.8 Legislation on contaminated land of concern to the plant
engineer 1/17
1.8.1 The UK, EU and world context 1/17
1.8.2 Planning Controls 1/17
 Environmental considerations of valley or hillside sites 1/3

1.1 Environmental considerations of the air rises above the condensation level in the wave
valley or hillside sites and dissipating at the downward edge as the air falls
again.
1.1.1 The effect of topography on prevailing Conditions are frequently suitable for the formation
winds and strengths of lee waves over the UK, an effect that is routinely
exploited by glider pilots to obtain exceptionally high
Apart from the obvious influence of topography in produc- altitudes. The combination of lee waves with strong
ing shelter or the enhanced exposure to wind (discussed wind, sufficient to produce damage to structures in the
later), the influence of large topographic features can be bands of accelerated flow, is fortunately rare, but an
sufficient to generate small-scale weather systems which analysis of the Sheffield gale of 16 February 1962 by
are capable of producing significant winds. Three types the UK Meteorological Office showed that this was a
of wind are associated with topography: case where strong winds were further enhanced by lee
waves.
Diurnal winds
Gravity winds 1.1.1.4 Other factors
Lee waves
Other factors to account for topography with regard to
1.1.1.1 Diurnal winds valley or hillside sites should include possible inversion
and failure to disperse pollutants. Temperature inversion
Under clear skies in daytime the slopes of hills and occurs when the temperature at a certain layer of the
mountains facing the sun will receive greater solar heating atmosphere stays constant, or even increases with height,
than the flat ground in valley bottoms. Convection then as opposed to decreasing with height, which is the norm
causes an upslope flow, called anabatic wind, which is for the lower atmosphere. Inversions may occur on still,
generally light and variable but which can often initiate clear nights when the earth and adjacent air cool more
thunderstorms. At night, the upper slopes lose heat by rapidly than the free atmosphere, or when throughout a
radiation faster than the lower slopes and the reverse effect layer high turbulence causes rapid vertical convection so
happens, producing downslope katabatic winds. However, that the top of the turbulent layer may be cooler than the
the denser cold air falling into the warmer valley can next layer above it at the interface.
produce strong winds in a layer near the ground. The The running of a cool air flow under a warm wind
higher the mountains, the stronger is the effect. As the is another cause of temperature inversion. As a rule,
mountains in the UK are not very high, it is not surprising the presence of an inversion implies a highly stable
that the speeds of katabatic winds do not approach those atmosphere: one in which vertical air movements are
of large depressions. rapidly damped out. In such a situation, fog and airborne
pollutants collect, being unable to move freely or be
1.1.1.2 Gravity winds dissipated by convection.
Additional dispersal problems may occur when the
The effect of katabatic winds can be much enhanced if prevailing wind occurs perpendicular (or nearly so) to the
greater differences in air temperature can be obtained from valley or hill ridge line. This may lead to speed up and
external sources. A continuous range of mountains can turbulence over the valley or it may simply reduce the
act as a barrier to the passage of a dense mass of cold effect of airflow carrying away airborne pollutants.
air as it attempts to displace a warmer air mass. Cold air It is possible to obtain wind data for almost any location
accumulates behind the mountain range until it is able in the world, although these frequently require modifica-
to pour over the top, accelerating under gravity to give tion and interpretation before they can be used. Addresses
strong winds down the lee slope. The mountains of the UK of advisory offices for the UK are listed below.
are not high enough to produce gravity winds of speeds
sufficient to damage buildings. 1.1.1.5 Advisory offices of the Meteorological
Office
1.1.1.3 Lee waves
Under certain conditions of atmospheric stability, stand- For England and Wales:
ing waves may form in the lee of mountains. This wave Meteorological Office
motion is an oscillating exchange of kinetic and poten- London Road
tial energy, excited by normal winds flowing over the Bracknell
mountain range, which produces alternately accelerated Berkshire RG12 2SZ
and retarded flow near the ground. Sustained lee waves at For Scotland:
the maximum amplitude are obtained when the shape of Meteorological Office
the mountain matches their wavelength, or when a second 231 Corstorphine Road
range occurs at one wavelength downstream. The exis- Edinburgh EH12 7BB
tence of lee waves is often indicated by clouds which
are unusual in that they remain stationary with respect For Northern Ireland:
to the ground instead of moving with the wind. These Meteorological Office
clouds are continuously forming at their upwind edge as Progressive House
1/4 Physical considerations in site selection

1 College Square East the foot of the upwind slope, where ‘sharp’ topography
Belfast BT1 6BQ offers a greater degree of shelter.

1.1.1.6 Advisory service of the Building Research 1.1.3.2 S2 – Ground roughness, building size and
Establishment height above ground factors
The factor S2 takes account of the combined effect of
The Advisory Service ground roughness, the variation of wind speed with height
Building Research Station above ground and the size of the building or component
Bucknalls Lane part under consideration. In conditions of strong wind the
Garston wind speed usually increases with height above ground.
Watford WD2 7JR The rate of increase depends on ground roughness and
also on whether short gusts or mean wind speeds are
1.1.2 Design for wind being considered. This is related to building size to take
account of the fact that small buildings and elements of a
A structure may be designed to comply with any of the building are more affected by short gusts than are larger
following information: buildings, for which a longer and averaging period is more
appropriate.
1. No specific details available.
2. Specified basic wind speed and relevant site data. 1.1.3.3 S3 – Statistical factor
3. Specified design wind speed, with or without FOS.
4. Specified survival wind speed, with or without FOS. Factor S3 is based on statistical concepts and can be varied
from 1.0 to account for structures whose probable lives are
When details are given they should be checked, if only shorter (or longer) than is reasonable for the application
by comparison with equivalent wind speeds derived from of a 50-year return-period wind.
first principles, to ensure that they are reasonable.
Depending on the specified requirements the wind 1.1.3.4 S4 – Directional factor
speeds may or may not utilize gust wind speeds as in
CP3 (3) or mean hourly wind speeds, v, with applied In the latitudes occupied by the UK (50–60° N) the
gust factors. climate is dominated by westerly winds and a band of
low pressure between Scotland and Iceland. The basic
wind speed may be adjusted to ensure that the risk of
1.1.3 The factored basic wind speed approach it being exceeded is the same for all directions. This is
achieved by the wind speed factor S4 .
The current British Standard Code of Practice (CP3: When applying S4 , topography factor S1 and the terrain
Chapter V: Part 2: 1972) uses a basic gust wind speed, V, roughness, building size and height above ground factor
multiplied by a series of S factors which adjust the basic S2 should be appropriately assessed for that direction.
values to design values for the particular situation. CP3
uses up to four S factors:
1.2 Road, rail, sea and air access
S1 : Topography factors to industrial sites
S2 : Ground roughness, building size and height above
ground factors 1.2.1 Introduction
S3 : Statistical factor
S4 : Directional factor Many industrial processes and factories require spe-
cific accessibility for one particular form of transport.
Examples of the above include distribution warehous-
1.1.3.1 S1 – Topography factors ing, transport operations (particularly intermodal such
The effect of local topography is to accelerate the wind as through seaports) and those industries dealing with
near summits or crests of hills, escarpments or ridges and bulk commodities (e.g. oil refineries). For other industries
decelerate it in valleys or near the foot of steep escarp- access to strategic modal networks is important in order
ments or ridges. The extent of this effect on gust wind to be competitive where cost of transport and time sav-
speeds is generally confined to the region 1.0–1.36. Local ings are a significant factor. Examples of these operations
topography is considered significant when the gradient of include air freighting and fresh-food deliveries. A third
the upwind slope is greater than 5 per cent. category would include those establishments which would
The shape of the upwind slope affects the degree of require high-visibility sites to enhance their reputation in
shelter expected near the foot of the slope when the the marketplace.
slope is shallow and the flow remains attached. When
the changes in slope are sudden, so that upwind slope 1.2.2 Design considerations
can be approximated by a single straight line for more
than two-thirds of its length, then the shape is ‘sharp’. It is difficult to give specific advice on this subject as
Otherwise the changes of slope are gradual and the shape there is a very large range of industrial undertakings. The
is ‘smooth’. This distribution is relevant for sites close to awareness for, and acceptability of, access is dependent
 Road, rail, sea and air access to industrial sites 1/5

on the types of goods to be moved and the frequency the major road. Therefore careful consideration needs to
and method of movement. In some undertakings there be given to the ability of the proposed access to cover
is a major movement between different transport modes traffic capacity and road safety adequately.
which is concentrated either at ports or at major road/rail The local county council is the highway authority,
interchanges. in non-metropolitan areas, for all other roads, although,
In addition to the amount of commercial traffic it is in many instances the local authority (generally, city or
vital to consider the movement associated with employees district) may have agency powers for the roads within
and visitors, which themselves can generate large numbers its area.
of vehicular and pedestrian movements. For very large It will be necessary to forecast the amount of traffic
manufacturing sites there will also be the need for acces- to be generated by the development within the site and
sibility for public transport, which, for a large workforce, to propose a form of junction which not only deals with
may need to be supplemented by investment in subsidized the site’s traffic but also adequately caters for the existing
travel. traffic on the road. Tests for capacity are required and
Site access will reflect the nature of the existing local attention should also be given to the safety of operation
transport system and will need to be designed to cater of the proposed access.
for the anticipated future traffic flows associated with Various types of junctions are available and include
on-site development. At the extreme of the range this simple priority T-junctions, traffic signals and round-
could include a significant on-site infrastructure, poten- abouts. In proposing any junction improvements or new
tially involving small bus stations for staff or private rail junction it is necessary to be aware of land ownership in
sidings for goods heavily committed to using the rail net- order to ensure that all improvement works can be car-
work. Special consideration might also need to be given to ried out within highway land or land within the proposed
customs facilities, where operations include cross-border development site.
movements with or without bonding operations. As part of the planning approvals it is increasingly
common to provide road-improvement schemes which are
1.2.3 Forms of site access sometimes off-site and are necessary to deal with site-
generated traffic, which has detrimental effects on the
Access to the road network can range from a simple local road network. These off-site improvement schemes
factory gate or location on a business park to a major can be obtained within legal agreements referred to as
industrial complex requiring its own major grade sepa- Section 106 Agreements. These are undertaken with the
rated interchange due to the high traffic volumes on the local planning authority or with Section 278 Agreements,
strategic road network. New site developments will need undertaken directly with the highway authority. Generally,
to cater for future traffic growth and must be adequate to these Agreements require the applicant of the proposed
deal with a design life over the foreseeable future. site to carry out specified highway improvement schemes
Access to the rail system must be negotiated with to an agreed timetable relevant to the planning application.
British Rail and may involve the use of a Section 8 In the above examples the location of the site adjacent
Grant, where it can be demonstrated that the use of the to a strategic route network is an important consideration.
rail network minimizes lorry traffic on the road system.
It will be necessary to incorporate security arrangements
to prevent trespass on the rail line and some form of
1.2.5 Selection of sites
signalling arrangement will be necessary for the junction Suitable sites are normally limited to those areas designed
and sidings. Major complexes may run their own railway in Development Plans as being for industrial or commer-
network, including a private shunting engine. cial uses. Such land should be capable of being accessed
Access to a seaport will be limited by the ability of directly from the primary or secondary distributor roads
total traffic generated by the docks and the incorporation in the area. Segregation of lorries and lorry access from
of these traffic movements into the local road system. residential areas should be achieved where possible.
Air traffic access may be constrained by the operational The utilization of existing or the provision of new
aspects of the airport. Otherwise, the road-related traffic rail heads will also be a determining factor for some
will be dealt with in a manner similar to that of seaports, operators, and frequently the rail sidings do not have
except that the vehicles are likely to be smaller in size good road access. In these cases extensive improvement
and of lower traffic volumes, reflecting the higher-value measures may be necessary to provide adequate space and
goods being transported by air. geometrical requirements.

1.2.4 Providing access to the road system 1.2.6 Checklist

Before access is obtained to any road it is necessary The following list, while not exhaustive, identifies many
to obtain the consent of the relevant highway author- of the issues which will need careful consideration. In
ity. In England the Department of Transport is the high- many instances it might be necessary to seek the advice
way authority for all motorways and trunk roads. Direct of a specialist traffic consultant, either in the design of
access to motorways is generally prohibited and the policy a scheme or in access, or to negotiate with the highway
regarding access to trunk roads is to minimize the number authority the impact of a proposed development and any
of accesses and to encourage the free flow of traffic on attendant road-improvement schemes.
1/6 Physical considerations in site selection

1. Types of operation to be carried out 1.3 Discharge of effluent and general site
• Number of lorries drainage
• Staff cars
• Visitors’ cars 1.3.1 Effluent
• Rail/water/air access
• Public transport provision 1.3.1.1 Introduction
• Cyclists The control of drainage and sewerage systems and of
• Pedestrians sewage disposal is governed entirely by Parliamentary
Acts and statutory regulation. The Building Regulations
2. Types of site
1985 and Public Health Acts 1936 and 1961 cover sewer-
• Large single site
age, sewage disposal, drainage and sanitation for buildings
• Industrial estate
and other public health matters. The Public Health Act
• Segregation of access for lorries and cars
1937 (Drainage of Trade Premises) and the Control of
• Capacity of access and need for improvement
Pollution Act 1974 deals, among other things, with the
• Ensure no queueing back onto highway
disposal of trade and industrial effluent.
• Ensure sufficient on-site space for all vehicles to
enter highway in forward gear
• Ensure off-highway loading/unloading 1.3.1.2 Methods of treatment
• Access for emergency vehicles
Two methods of treatment can be considered:
3. Access arrangements 1. On-site treatment and disposal; and
• Junction types – priority 2. Off-site treatment and disposal.
– roundabout
– signals Where on-site treatment is to be undertaken considera-
• Access width should be a minimum of 6.1 m to allow tion should be given to the following:
lorries to pass each other (7.3 m ideal)
• Single access could cope with up to 250 lorry 1. Where large volumes of effluents are produced and/or
movements per day different types of contaminants, large equipment
• Any gate or security barrier to be set in at least areas may be required. Sufficient space must also
20 m from public highway to avoid blockage or be allowed for maintenance and inspection of such
interference to pedestrians equipment.
• Minimum centre line radius to be 12 m 2. Settlement/storage areas for effluent need to be sized
• Minimum entire live radius to access road to be not just for average flow but also for peak peri-
60 m. Widening on bends may be required ods. Where production is based on a shift system,
peak flows created during holiday periods (shutdown,
4. Manoeuvring space major maintenance, etc.) should be considered.
• Turning circle for articulated vehicles to be 26 m 3. Where effluents require primary, secondary and possi-
diameter minimum bly additional tertiary treatment, attention should be
• For draw-bar vehicles this can be reduced to 21 m paid to the various treatment processes with regard
• Turning head for rigid lorries only needs to be 35 m to personnel safety and public sensitivity to on-site
long treatment.
• Turning head for articulated vehicles should be 53 m 4. Where concentrated alkali and/or acids are stored
long. Kerb radii need to be 9 m and used on-site as part of the treatment process,
• Loading bays at 90° to road should be 31 m deep care should be exercised to prevent misuse, fire,
including the road width. Bay should be 3.5 m wide and security and health hazards. The provision of
• Strong site management is required to ensure mano- emergency showers, eye-wash stations, etc. needs
euvring space is kept clear of storage/goods/debris careful consideration.
at all times 5. If equipment malfunctions during the treatment pro-
• Headroom clearance should be a minimum of 4.65 m cess, adequate precautions should be taken to prevent
with careful consideration to ensure all pipework, the discharge of untreated effluent. Such precautions
etc. is above that level. Approach gradients to flat should be the provision of emergency collection tasks
areas will reduce the effective height. or the use of approved, licensed, effluent-disposal
traders.
It is emphasized that the above checklist is not exhaus- 6. Where accidental discharge of untreated effluent does
tive. Any reductions in the standards identified above will occur the water authority and/or environmental health
lead to difficulty of operation, tyre scrub, potential dam- officer should be advised immediately. All steps
age to vehicles and buildings, and general inefficiency. should be taken to limit the extent and intensity of
Cost effectiveness could also be hindered due to loss of any potential contamination.
time caused by blocked-in vehicles. Safety is also a highly 7. Where small and/or single contaminant effluents
important factor which should be prominent in any deci- are encountered, packaged treatment plants may be
sion making. acceptable. Consideration should, however, be given
 Discharge of effluent and general site drainage 1/7

to capital cost, payback period, reliability of equip- discharge directly to a watercourse, lake, etc. without
ment, maintenance, plant-life expectancy and conta- passing through an interceptor.
minant-removal efficiencies. 2. The surface water runoff from paved/hard standing
8. Pipework material for conveying effluent to treatment areas is also dependent on rainfall intensity calculated
plants should exhibit resilience to corrosive attack by from the geographical locations of the site and storm-
the effluent as well as scouring and erosion created return period. However, the return period for a site
by the material content of the effluent. will be far higher than for a building in order to
9. Consideration should be given to plant operation in a ensure prevention of persistent flooding of the site.
shift system and any requirements for an analyst to be In many instances the local authority may specify
present during operational/non-operational periods. the storm-return period as the design criterion. The
10. Precautions must be taken against freezing for exter- water authority and/or National Rivers Authority will
nal pipework, tanks, meters, gauges, and monitoring determine the maximum quantity of surface water
equipment. that may discharge to a watercourse or river. Where
11. Assessments should be made for electrically operated development of a greenfield site or an extension to an
process equipment which may require an essential existing building takes place, the rate of stormwater
power supply in the event of a mains failure. runoff may necessitate the provision of a balancing
12. The quality of the effluent discharge must be regularly pond or reservoir.
checked. Depending on the quantity and type of While the drainage design may be able to cater for
discharge, this may require an in-house laboratory and minimal surcharging, any substantial rise in floodwater
analysis room. can be contained by the balancing pond and minimize
13. The quantity of final treated effluent may be limited flooding to the site and damage to plant ecology.
by the water authority, and monitoring of the final Lining of a balance pond must be considered to prevent
outfall may have to be considered in conjunction with water seepage. Suitable linings are clay or butyl rubber
a holding tank. sheeting.
14. Large or small on-site treatment plants will create Where potential flooding to the site is minimal an
sludge concentrates which require disposal. Where alternative to the balance pond could be an open-trench
large quantities of sludge occur, on-site de-watering system which could provide on-site storage and added
filters may be considered with dry sludge cakes prop- security to watercourses.
erly removed from site by licensed contractors. Alter- The open-trench system provides easy maintenance
natively, small quantities of wet sludge concentrates and may obviate the need for highway kerbs and gul-
may be removed and disposed of by similar contrac- leys, but requires adequate security to prevent vehicle
tors. collision.
Surface water from hard standing areas subject to
Where off-site treatment is undertaken the following petrol and oil contamination (e.g. car parks) must pass
should be considered: through an interceptor prior to discharge to a water-
1. Cost comparison with on-site treatment. course, surface-water drain, etc. The sizing of petrol/oil
2. Availability of approved, licensed contractors to handle interceptors varies between local authorities/District
the type of effluents being considered. Council areas. Many agree that the first 5 minutes of
3. Reliability of licensed contractors during emergency, surface-water runoff is the most contaminated, and
weekend and holiday periods. accept a reduced interceptor size, while allowing a
4. Space requirements for holding untreated effluent prior higher flow rate, caused by increased storm intensity,
to removal from site. to bypass the interceptor chamber (see Figures 1.1 and
5. Accessibility, safety and security associated with the 1.2).
holding vessels by the vehicles of the licensed con- 3. Subsoil drainage may be required for the following
tractors. reasons:
6. Suitable pumps may be required to pump from holding (a) Seasonal fluctuations in water-table level may
tanks into licensed contractor vehicles. cause isolated flooding. Subsoil drainage may be
considered to keep the water-table level relatively
constant.
1.3.2 Site drainage (b) Where underground springs occur, laying of sub-
The discharge of surface water from a site may originate soil drainage may be considered to maintain water-
from three potential sources: level equilibrium within the subsoil to permit
building construction or similar activities.
Rainwater from building(s) (c) Draining of permanently flood land such as marsh
Surface-water runoff from paved/hard standing areas or bogland.
Subsoil drainage (groundwater)
1.3.2.1 Gravity or pumped discharge
1. The rainwater runoff from buildings is dependent on
the geographical location and storm-return period spec- Wherever practical, surface-water runoff should be desig-
ified. (Reference should be made to BS 6367.) Rain- ned for gravity discharge, preferably located at the lowest
water runoff from a roof is relatively clean and can part of the site. However, where a gravity system is
1/8 Physical considerations in site selection

Ventilating pipe
Surface

Invert of Outlet
Inlet pipe inlet pipe

B
B

530
25 25 25

750

750
990

Section A-A
900

A A

900 900 900

Plan

Figure 1.1 A traditional three-chamber petrol interceptor. (Dimensions are in millimetres.) All pipes within the chambers through which
liquid passes should be of iron or another equally robust petrol-resistant material

impractical or impossible a pumped discharge must be A wide variety of Acts of Parliament govern the supply
considered. of water to domestic and industrial premises. Within
When sizing a pumped discharge the following should these Acts the statutory undertakings for preventing waste,
be evaluated: undue consumption, misuse and contamination of water
1. Pumps, valve controls, etc. to be in duplicate; supplied by the various authorities.
2. Maximum discharge permitted into watercourse by Having established the respective local regional water
water authority; authority and water company, the following is a list of
3. Discharge duty to be twice dry weather flow subject information that the water authority will require to assess
to (2) above; a consumer’s needs:
4. Will essential power supply be required to both pumps?
5. Space requirements for pumps, including installation, 1. Project name
maintenance and inspection. 2. Site address
3. Building size (m2 )
Figures 1.3–1.7 show edge and bank details for storm- 4. Number of occupants and anticipated multiple use/
retention reservoirs and Figure 1.8 and Table. 1.1 relate tenancy
rainfall intensity, duration and return period. 5. Building usage
6. Point of supply connection - height above ground
1.4 Natural water supplies, water 7. Anticipated flow rated for the following uses:
authority supplies and the appropriate (a) Domestic
negotiating methods and contracts (b) Industrial
(c) Fire
There are three major sources of water supply: (Note: Flow rates should include average and max-
imum demands and the periods throughout the year
Borehole during which supplies are required.)
Rivers 8. Cold water storage volume
Service reservoir
(a) Domestic
The majority of water supplies are provided from a (b) Industrial
combination of all three. (c) Fire
 Natural water supplies, water authority supplies and the appropriate negotiating methods and contracts 1/9

Surface Covers as required

60
Static 1½ d
d water B
B level Outlet
Inlet
150

900 Battle board

over full width
3d

Slot over 1½ d
full width
Section A-A

Slot Outlet pipe

(dia d )
900

A A

900 1800 d
Inlet pipe
(dia d )
Plan

Figure 1.2 An alternative two-chamber petrol interceptor. (Ventilation not shown: dimensions are in millimetres)

50−100 mm limestone rubble 'Terram' 1000

in gabion mattress 0.7 mm thick
Roll width 4.5/5.3 m
Water level
170 mm
1:6 150 mm
armour layer of larger
boulders or stone

0.5 mm 'Fibretex' sheet Subsoil

30-50 mm overlaps at joints
Section

'Fibretex' 30-75 mm dia.

95% polypropylene and 5% polyester Crushed stone
170 g/m2 Subsoil 100 mm depth
Laid vertically on slopes
'Terram' 1000
Figure 1.3 Rip-rap bank (‘Fibretex’/stone) 300 m overlap at joints
and sewn or stapled

Figure 1.4 Rip-rap bank (‘Terram’/stone)

Once the water authority has established that a water
supply is available, the following information should be 3. An indication of which mains may be considered for:
obtained by the consumer: (a) Domestic use
(b) Industrial use
1. Copy of water authority bye-laws. (c) Fire use
2. Marked-up layout drawing indicating location, size, 4. Confirmation as to whether the water main passes
depth and maximum and minimum pressure of the through any adjacent property which may involve
main in the vicinity of the site. easements to gain access for maintenance, etc.
1/10 Physical considerations in site selection

Three no. 8 × 200

80 × 200 timbers, butt jointed, staked timbers
elm or greenheart Gravel or hoggin
50−75 mm on hardcore

400−500 mm

100 × 200
50−75 mm gravel Timber piles timber wale
Concrete
Section Concrete on anchor
Piles: 75 × 75 mm, 1000 mm long,
elm teak or greenheart hardcore base
Three no.
Figure 1.5 Piling margin 80 × 200
staked
timbers
5. Confirmation as to whether the water flow and pres- Figure 1.7 Board wall/path
sure will be affected by usage from adjacent build-
ings.
6. Confirmation as to whether a guarantee of security of 15. Provision of a fixed time-frame installation pro-
supply can be provided throughout the year, including gramme.
any anticipated periods of drought.
7. Confirmation of the source(s) of water supply and While the above list is not exhaustive, it provides an indi-
provision of a current water analysis. cation of the necessary negotiated issues to be resolved
8. Confirmation that the authority will supply the water between a consumer (or their representative) and the water
meter and housing. authority.
9. Confirmation of the authority’s preferred pipe mate-
rial for incoming mains and any materials not recom-
mended due to aggressive soil. 1.5 Water storage, settling wells and
10. Confirmation that direct mains boosting is allowed. draw-off regulations
11. Provision of rates of charges (depending on annual
1.5.1 Water storage
consumption), including any proposed EC levy.
12. Confirmation of costs of maintenance and metering The Water Supply Byelaws Guide (1989) gives detailed
charges. information on the systems and devices necessary to
13. Provision of details relating to any future authority prevent waste, undue consumption and contamination of
plans which may affect supplies to the site. water. Care must be taken when assessing water storage,
14. Confirmation of total capital cost of supplying a water as some water authorities have special powers to restrict
supply. total water storage retained for a given building and/or

200 mm
Roughsawn wale
100 × 150 mm on tangents Fill
50 × 150 mm on curves

25 mm dia.
tieback rod Anchor
Piles: Red pine, pressure
treated, 200 mm
300 mm
diameter
6° 0.25 m of 50 mm gravel
(1:10) per linear 300 mm of wall

Section

Figure 1.6 Piling edge

 Water storage, settling wells and draw-off regulations 1/11

A
A

A Thurso

Ullapool
B B

Inverness
Mallaig B B
Aberdeen

A C

B
Oban
Dundee
B
B C B C
Glasgow Edinburgh D
Ayr C Berwick

Strabane C Moffat
C
C Belfast Carlisle Newcastle
D
C
Armagh Whitby
D
C Kendal
D D
E
Leeds
D E
Manchester
F Grimsby
Bangor E
F
Derby
King's lynn
Aberystwyth D
F
C G
Fishguard Birmingham F
D E Cambridge Ipswich
Brecon F
Cardiff Oxford
London F
Bristol
F Southend
Minehead
E Salisbury
Brighton Dover
D Dorchester
Plymouth Exeter Hastings
E
D F

Figure 1.8 Key to rainfall tables (to be read with Table. 1.1)

site. Early consultation with the water authority is also 3. To limit the pressure on the distribution system, so
recommended when large volumes of water storage/usage reducing noise and waste of water due to high-pressure
are anticipated, especially if heavy demand is required for mains and enabling higher-gauge and cheaper material
industrial purposes. to be used;
The necessity of water storage may be outlined as 4. To provide a reserve of water for firefighting purposes;
follows: 5. Additional protection of the mains from contamination,
i.e. prevention against back siphonage.
1. To protect against interruption of the supply caused by
burst main or repair to mains, etc.; In designing the water storage capacity, account should
2. To reduce the maximum of demand on the mains; be taken of the pattern of water usage for the premises
1/12 Physical considerations in site selection

Table 1.1 Series of tables relating rainfall intensity, duration and Table 1.1 (continued )
return period Rainfall amount 3.5 mm in 2 minutes, occurring on average once
Rainfall amount 1.5 mm in 2 minutes, occurring on average once in 5 years (2 min M5)
in 5 years (2 min M5)
Duration Intensity (mm/hr)
Duration Intensity (mm/hr) (mins)
50 mm 75 mm 100 mm 150 mm 225 mm
(mins)
50 mm 75 mm 100 mm 150 mm 225 mm
1 5 mths 1 2 20 180
1 4.5 35 185 1800 – 2 6 mths 1.75 4.5 35 320
2 5.5 55 300 3500 – 3 7 mths 2 19 60 700
3 10 175 800 – – 4 9 mths 4 12 100 800
4 20 210 – – – 5 10 mths 4.5 18 185 1800
5 40 400 2000 – – 10 4 yrs 20 95 750 –
10 300 300 – – – Return period (months/years)
Return periods (years)

Rainfall amount 4 mm in 2 minutes, occurring on average once

in 5 years (2 min M5)
Rainfall amount 2 mm in 2 minutes, occurring on average once
in 5 years (2 min M5)
Duration Intensity (mm/hr)
(mins)
Duration Intensity (mm/hr) 50 mm 75 mm 100 mm 150 mm 225 mm 275 mm
(mins)
50 mm 75 mm 100 mm 150 mm 225 mm
1 4 mths 7 mths 1.5 7 50 180
2 5 mths 8 mths 2 18 110 450
1 1.75 7 35 325 4000
3 5 mths 1.75 4 35 250 700
2 2 18 60 850 –
4 6 mths 1.75 6 40 350 1000
3 4.5 35 175 1800 –
5 7 mths 2 7.5 50 650 –
4 7 45 350 3000 –
10 2 yrs 7.5 40 300 3500 –
5 8 60 750 4000 –
10 45 450 2500 – – Return period (months/years)
Return period (years)
Rainfall amount 4.5 mm in 2 minutes, occurring on average once
in 5 years (2 min M5)
Rainfall amount 2.5 mm in 2 minutes, occurring on average once
in 5 years (2 min M5) Duration Intensity (mm/hr)
(mins)
50 75 100 150 225 275 300
Duration Intensity (mm/hr) mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
(mins)
50 mm 75 mm 100 mm 150 mm 225 mm
1 3 mths 5 mths 9 mths 4.5 40 75 350
1 7 mths 3 8 90 1000 2 3 mths 6 mths 2 7 55 190 750
2 1.5 5 20 300 2500 3 4 mths 1 3 18 120 350 1100
3 2 7.5 40 500 – 4 6 mths 1.5 4.5 20 200 450 1600
4 3 15 60 800 – 5 6 mths 2 5 38 250 650 –
5 4 20 100 1000 – 10 1 yr 6 50 200 1800 1900 –
10 15 150 700 – – Return period (months/years)
Return period (months/years)
Notes: For intensities of 225 mm per hour and above, alternative
means of protecting the building other than increasing the size of
rainwater pipes etc. should be considered, such as the provision
Rainfall amount 3.0 mm in 2 minutes, occurring on average once of overflows or additional freeboard.
in 5 years (2 min M5) The average roof should have a duration/runoff time not exceeding
two minutes. Periods of greater duration shown for information
and completeness only.
Duration Intensity (mm/hr)
(mins)
50 mm 75 mm 100 mm 150 mm 225 mm and, where possible, to assess the likely frequency and
duration of breakdown from the water authority mains.
1 6 mths 1.75 4.5 35 400
2 7 mths 2.5 10 60 750
When dealing with domestic water storage this is usually
3 8 mths 4.5 18 190 2000 provided to meet a 24-hour demand and, when consid-
4 9 mths 7 20 350 3000 ering health care premises, Hospital Technical Memoran-
5 2 yrs 11 40 – – dum 27 outlines minimum recommended water-storage
10 7 yrs 40 300 – – capacities for differing types of hospital wards.
Return period (months/years) However, to apply the same philosophy to industrial
buildings would be incorrect, and due consideration must
 Problem areas associated with on-site sewage treatment for isolated areas 1/13

be given to the effect of loss of water supply to the Water consumption for commercial and industrial pre-
process/manufacturing production. mises are metered and costed on a per cubic metre
When assessing water storage the following should be of usage basis, with additional costs for reading and
considered: maintenance of the meter station(s). It is important that
assessment of water usage is as accurate as possible, as
1. Where there is a requirement for large volumes of water charges are based on a sliding scale, i.e. as volume
water, storage may be sized on quantity of usage per of water usage increases, cost per unit decreases.
shift; Where production in new premises is to be phased with
2. Frequency of interruption to mains supply; peak usage only being attained after a period of years it is
3. Space requirements; important to consider this during initial discussions with
4. Cost of water storage tank and associated supports;
the relevant water authority when negotiating unit rate
5. Protection against frost;
costs.
6. Type of industrial usage and effect of loss of water
See Figures 1.9–1.17.
supply to production;
7. Minimizing the risk of Legionnaires’ Disease.

1.5.2 Draw-offs 1.6 Problem areas associated with

on-site sewage treatment for isolated
In the UK, maximum draw-off from water mains dif- areas
fers throughout the various water authorities. What may
be acceptable in one area may not be acceptable in The outfall of a foul-water drainage system should dis-
another. Water mains may generally be able to supply charge into a foul-water or combined drainage system
direct to domestic buildings but not to industrial premises, (foul and surface water). Where such a drainage system
where constant flow and negligible fluctuation in pres- is not conveniently available and cannot economically be
sure is required. Contamination of water supply by back extended to a site, other methods of foul-water disposal
siphonage is of major concern to water authorities. will be necessary, either a cesspool or a septic tank.

Flow meter

Plug cock

C.l. Surface box

Overall height required

clear opening
for waste recorder.

610 mm × 300 mm
Clearance

300 mm

100 mm
760 mm standard

Pre-cast concrete
150 mm intermediate
sections
internal
measurement
610 mm × 300 mm
75 mm
180 mm
150 mm

Pre-cast concrete wall unit

Screw down stop cock
with slots for pipes (100 mm deep)
(optional) on long
Internal measurement 610 mm × 300 mm
rising supply pipes

Figure 1.9 Standard pipe installations for water flow meter and frost cock
1/14 Physical considerations in site selection

NOTE: Concrete surround

100 mm deep × 380 mm sq.
In verges and fields.

190 mm
C.I. Valve box (Base 210 mm. sq)
To fit pre-cast section.
Pre - cast concrete
Adaptor unit
Packing 130 mm × 130 mm to
180 mm × 180 mm int. dim.

Varies Pre - cast concrete

intermediate sections
internal measurement
180 mm × 180 mm

Figure 1.10 Standard pipe installations for water sluice valve up to 250 mm diameter. Notes: (1) If a valve extension spindle is required,
a galvanized centering support must be provided. (2) Flanged valves with appropriate adaptors must be used. (3) Unless otherwise
directed, pre-cast concrete units shall be bedded on well-compacted granular material Type A brought up from the base of the trench

1.6.1 Cesspools Cesspools should only be utilized in extremely remote

areas and after consideration of all other forms of effluent
A cesspool is a tank normally located underground which disposal has been undertaken.
is designed to store the entire foul drainage discharge
from premises between disposals by tank vehicles(s). The 1.6.2 Septic tanks
following points should be noted when considering the
use of a cesspool: A septic tank is a purification installation designed to
accept the whole sewage/trade discharge from premises.
1. Minimum capacity of 18 m3 measured below the level Its construction is such that it allows the settling out of
the sludge content of the incoming effluent and renders
of the inlet (or as equivalent to approximately 45 days’
the final effluent acceptable, by prior agreement with
capacity);
the water authority, for discharge to a watercourse or
2. It must be covered and impervious to rainwater, soakaway. The sludge within the septic tank decreases
groundwater and leakage; in volume by the action of microorganisms changing the
3. It must be ventilated; sludge from aerobic to anaerobic.
4. It must be positioned such as not to pollute any water The following points should be noted when considering
sources or cause a public nuisance; the use of a septic tank:
5. It must be sited so that the contents may be removed
other than through a building, with reasonable access 1. It should be impervious to rainwater, groundwater and
for tanker vehicles where required; leakage;
6. Its position should also be considered relative to future 2. It must be positioned such that the contents may be
sewerage systems. periodically removed by a tanker vehicle;
 Landscaping on industrial and reclaimed land 1/15

C.I. Surface box

clear opening
610 mm × 460 mm
× 150 mm
Packing
760 mm Minimum

670 mm

Pre - case concrete

intermediate
sections

Internal measurement
610 mm × 460 mm
× 100 mm

Air valve to be set within 150 mm of cover.

Figure 1.11 Standard pipe installations for a double air valve. Note: Unless otherwise directed, pre-cast concrete units shall be bedded
on well-compacted granular material Type A brought up from the base of the trench

3. A percolation filter and/or sub-surface irrigation may plants. The primary problems which have to be solved in
be required to provide aeration and final purification; any scheme for creating a new growing, living landscape
4. The change of bacterial action from aerobic to anaer- out of a reclaimed land are:
obic produces methane gas which must be ventilated
to atmosphere; 1. Contamination in the ground. (There may be contam-
5. Its position should also be considered relative to future ination in the air, but this is beyond the scope of this
sewerage systems; chapter.)
6. Minimum capacity of 27001 to be provided. Subject 2. Soil structure and land drainage within the reclaimed
to local authority approval, the effluent outfall from ground.
a septic tank may be connected to an adopted sewer
subject to quality of outfall and size and location of 1.7.2 Contaminated land
drainage.
It is not unusual for industrial land or land formed from
tipped waste to be contaminated to some degree. Heavy
1.7 Landscaping on industrial and contamination will have to be dealt with as a partic-
reclaimed land ular engineering problem: i.e. to seal, bury or remove
1.7.1 General any highly contaminated material. Moderate contamina-
tion can normally be dealt with in situ by dilution of the
In the context of overall landscaping, here we will concen- concentrated contaminant. Whatever treatment is utilized,
trate on what is normally recognized as soft landscaping, steps must be taken to prevent the leaching of any con-
i.e. that area which includes waterbodies and growing taminants through the soil.
1/16 Physical considerations in site selection

C.I. Cover (Clear opening 380 mm ×

230 mm) × 100 mm deep

75 mm
Pre - cast concrete
480 mm
150 mm intermediate sections
Internal measurement
430 mm × 280 mm

150 mm

Support strap (to be Stop cock

at right angles to head 10 S.W.G. Copper tube
of plug cock.)
Stop cock
only required if air valve
some distance from main.

Air valve to be set within 150 mm of cover.

Figure 1.12 Standard pipe installations for a single air valve. Note: Unless otherwize directed, pre-cast concrete units shall be bedded on
well-compacted granular material Type A brought up from the base of the trench

As far as the effects of contamination are concerned, Where there is a landfill gas-generation problem, active
the main problems associated with harm to plant growth (i.e. pumped) or passive venting, by way of stone-filled
are the presence of particular heavy metals which are trenches at least 1.0 m deep, may be needed. Where active
poisonous to plant life and/or lack of oxygen in the soil venting is appropriate, the commercial use of the gas
growing medium due to the presence of gases produced extracted can be considered.
by the contaminated ground (for example, methane). Lack Contaminated groundwater (leachate) should be kept
of oxygen can also be the result of a poor soil structure, below the root growth zone. Only rainwater or clean
over-compaction (no air voids), etc. irrigation water should meet the needs of plants.
The Department of the Environment sets guidelines for Any waterbodies constructed on the contaminated land
safe limits to heavy metals content in the soil for reasons which are to support aquatic life will need to be completely
of both public and plant health. Before planting regimes sealed against the underlying ground and inlet and outlet
are implemented in any reclaimed ground these heavy water provisions designed so that they are sealed against
metal levels must be assessed and, if high, reduced. One any flow of contaminated water into the waterbody.
acidic or alkaline soil also will need neutralizing and the As a general rule, young, immature plants should be
type of proposed planting chosen for the soil type. chosen for any landscape planting scheme on reclaimed,
As indicated earlier, heavy contamination can be buried, previously contaminated, land. This allows the plants to
sealed or removed. Burying of the material should be well adapt gradually to such an environment. It is not normally
below the root growth zone, and this is normally taken as appropriate to plant mature shrubs and trees to create an
3.0 m below the final ground-surface level. Sealing for instant ‘mature’ landscape in such an environment.
heavy contamination to prevent vertical or lateral leach-
ing through groundwater flow can be with compacted clay 1.7.3 Non-contaminated land
or proprietary plastic membranes. Removal from site of
the contaminants is normally only contemplated in a land- For land that is reclaimed with ‘inert’/non-contaminated
scaped scheme where the material, even at depth, could materials the main problem in creating a good growing
be a hazard to public health directly or phytotoxic to medium tends to be in producing a soil structure profile
plant life. within a limited period of time. It its normal natural state
 Legislation on contaminated land of concern to the plant engineer 1/17

In any scheme for creating a landscape on reclaimed

land the ultimate aim will be not only to create a green
landscape but also to provide an environment in which the
ecosystem will develop quickly. Some important factors
Swabbing point which must be taken into account here are:
(optional)
1. Early structural planting to provide windbreaks and
shelter for younger plants and wildlife to develop.
2. A balanced landscape needs waterbodies. These should
be designed to have shallow margins to provide the
appropriate conditions for wetland planting which, in
turn, provide the balanced habitats for a rich wetland
Detachable joint S.V.
ecosystem.
3. A properly designed planting regime away from the
water bodies will provide cover, space and the natural
habitats for a wider wildlife system.
4. It is not normally necessary to seed waterbodies with
Bypass fish. Fish will be introduced by natural means (e.g. by
aquatic bird life).

Finally, in any projected landscape due consideration

should be given to the future maintenance of the com-
pleted scheme. Unlike a normal building development, a
landscape progressively develops with time. In order to
Detachable joint
maintain the original design concept a clear maintenance
regime and organization should be established early in
the project development process to start as soon as the
S.V. S.V. landscape has been initially established.

1.8 Legislation on contaminated land of

concern to the plant engineer
1.8.1 The UK, EU and world context
The notes below apply specifically to the United Kingdom
context; while the law applying to Scotland and Northern
Swabbing point
Ireland is generally very similar in its effect, there are
(optional)
some variations.
In most cases the same issues will be addressed by
legislation world-wide and, in that sense, this section
Figure 1.13 Standard bulk meter layout for a brick-built chamber can be treated as a “checklist”. However, readers outside
(230 mm brickwork on a concrete base). Notes: (1) The meter the United Kingdom or the EU are urged to check the
should be either on straight or bypass to suit site (i.e. to keep meter
off road). (2) Chamber cover should be approximately 685 mm ×
precise requirements of relevant legislation in the State
510 mm concerned.
EU Directives are binding on member states, includ-
ing the United Kingdom. This means that their main
such a profile would take many many years to develop. requirements must find expression in each member state’s
A good profile will provide an oxygen- and nutrient- legislation although the details of how this is done will
rich soil, not too acid or alkaline, which is well drained. depend on national legislative tradition. Much of the more
Any reclamation project should aim to supply this ideal recent UK legislation will therefore have parallelism with
environment as soon as possible. To do this, a clear and that of other EU countries and this will be extended in
firm specification for the reclamation material and how it coming years.
is to be placed will be needed at the beginning. Extensive
drainage with both the land form and the subsoil will also
be required.
1.8.2 Planning Controls
Imported topsoil or topsoil manufactured from imported Contaminated land often becomes an issue when redevel-
nutrients mixed into existing soil will normally be required. opment is considered: In the UK, development of land is
Topsoil depths will vary in accordance with the planting, subject to approval from the Planning Authority, i.e. the
from 400 mm for grassed areas to 1.5 m for major trees. Local Authority (“Planning Consent”). (Town and Country
Under these conditions instant, mature landscapes can be Planning Act 1990, and various Orders and Regulations
constructed immediately. made thereunder). The development of land known to be
1/18 Physical considerations in site selection

C.I. Surface box

Clear opening 380 mm × 230 mm
75 mm × 100 mm deep
(Light or heavy duty)
150 mm
635 mm
Pre-cast concrete
150 mm intermediate sections
Internal measurements
430 mm × 280 mm

150 mm

Figure 1.14 Standard pipe installations for a fire hydrant. Notes: (1) Hydrant Tee must be appropriate to type of main installed. (2) Depth
of hydrant outlet must not exceed 300 mm below finished ground level. (3) Unless otherwise directed, pre-cast concrete units shall be
bedded on well-compacted granular material Type A brought up from the base of the trench

contaminated or likely to be affected by nearby contam- Investigation will start with a desk study of available
ination will be subject to appropriate conditions. These records and evidence about the history of the land. On
will typically fall into two parts: site, it will usually include sinking trial pits or boreholes
Firstly, the developer will be required to submit and and submitting samples of substrate and ground water for
execute a scheme for the investigation of the land, to the analysis. Where flammable methane or other gases are a
satisfaction of the Local Authority. This will normally problem, gas measurements may be taken for a period
be entrusted to a specialist contractor and will identify of months in specially constructed boreholes. This is
the nature and distribution of the contamination. A risk because the gas regime will vary with barometric pressure
assessment will be carried out and appropriate precautions and rainfall and shorter-term measurements may not give
designed into the development. Potential hazards include: the full picture. The density of the grid of boreholes
or sampling points will be designed to give statistically
• Toxic substances in the soil, e.g. arsenic, heavy metals, robust data.
organic compounds. Secondly, the Consent will require the developer to
• Evolution of gases by landfilled refuse and other mate- submit a scheme, based on the outcome of the investi-
rials. The principal hazard here is from migration of gation, of constructional and other precautions which will
methane into confined spaces such as buildings and eliminate any hazard from the contamination. There may
service ducts/chambers, giving rise to a fire/explosion also, of course, be separate issues of structural design with
hazard. Other gases arising in landfill materials espe- made-up ground.
cially carbon dioxide, can act asphyxiants in confined It should be noted that, in UK practice, land does
spaces. not have to be “completely” free from contamination; in
practice, this would be impossible to define or enforce
Under the terms of the General Development Order, because traces of contaminants are present in all ground;
1988, made under the Town and Country Planning Acts, indeed, many occur naturally. Land being redeveloped,
Local Authorities must keep a map of known, gassing however, must be fit for the use to which it is put.
landfill sites in their area. Any Application for Planning For example, a proposal to construct a factory and asso-
Consent for land within 250 metres of such a site will ciated hard standings on a site moderately contaminated
receive special scrutiny to ensure that no hazard is posed with heavy metals would not cause much concern because
to the development or that appropriate measures are taken. the soil is inaccessible, being covered with concrete. On
 Legislation on contaminated land of concern to the plant engineer 1/19

80 mm.
C. I. Surface box
in concrete surround.
Packing

150 mm
760 mm standard

680 mm approx

150 mm
Pre - cast concrete
intermediate sections
Internal measurement
150 mm 130 mm × 130 mm.

Pre - cast concrete

wall unit
with slots for pipes
(230 mm deep)

Internal measurement.
130 mm × 130 mm

Figure 1.15 Standard pipe installations for a communication pipe stopcock. (It may be necessary to provide a base unit where polythene
is being used)

the other hand, a scheme to build houses on the same site • Ground water drainage arrangements: Fluctuations in
with large gardens, in which young children will play and the water table in a landfill site may affect the gas
vegetables be grown, would require more careful consid- regime. It may therefore be necessary to make positive
eration. arrangements for improved site drainage. If the leachate
Precautions on development sites can be divided into collected is strongly contaminated, it will be necessary
remediation of the site itself (or adjoining land) and to obtain appropriate consents from the utility company
constructional design. and/or the Environment Agency for its discharge to
Examples of site remediation: sewer or watercourse.
• Monitoring arrangements: Ongoing monitoring of gas
• Removal and disposal of the contaminated top layer. concentrations may be required and boreholes may be
• Covering contaminated soil with clean soil from else- sunk at strategic points on the site for this purpose.
where. Gas monitoring may be done manually with portable
• Installation of impermeable membranes and barriers instruments or sophisticated remote automatic systems
to prevent the migration of gas into sensitive areas. installed, where appropriate.
These are usually supplemented by ground venting
arrangements on the gassing side of the barrier. Examples of constructional precautions:
• Site venting arrangements: These are usually passive,
where gas flows under its own pressure via a gas • Positioning and layout of buildings.
drainage system into simple vent stacks. Alternatively, • Selection of building type, e.g. apartments surrounded
where large flows of gas have to be dealt with, mechani- by public spaces rather than houses with individual
cal ventilation may be used. Very large flows of gas may gardens.
be led to a flare-stack, although this would be unusual • Careful structural design of foundation rafts to avoid
on a site which was actually under development. differential settlement and cracking.
1/20 Physical considerations in site selection

224 mm
184 mm 88 mm

20 mm
150 mm

13 mm weathering
+ +
75 mm

150 mm

210 mm
250 mm
210 mm
25 mm 6 mm. diam. bolt holes.

20 mm
+ +

45 mm
W
Relief lettering formed in

760 mm
concrete flush with face A

305 mm
of post.
T

E
`SEWAGE; where applicable
R

44 mm

160 mm
28 mm 28 mm

100 mm

G.L. G.L.

2 No. 10m.m. dia. M.S.

610 mm
305 mm

reinforcing bars.

75 mm

200 mm 75 mm

Indicator post
100 mm

13 mm weathering
45 mm

100 mm Relief lettering

formed in concrete
W W W flush with face of
A A A post.
305 mm T T T
E E E
R R 1 No. 10 mm. dia. M.S. R `SEWER' where
reinforcing bar
applicable

6 mm chamfers.

397 mm 760 mm

G.L. G.L.

610 mm

Fence or wall marker post

Figure 1.16 Pre-cast concrete indicator and marker posts

 Legislation on contaminated land of concern to the plant engineer 1/21

Cast iron cover to

BS 750 with 216 × 495
clear opening 150 mm
Ground level deep, bedded and
haunched to brickwork

1000 min
Class B engineering
brick, internal
dimensions 675 × 338

First three courses 100 mm HD polythene

to be laid in sand 100 mm ductile iron
fire main to BS
fire main to BS 4772
Polythene/ductile
iron coupling
(a)

600 × 450 clear opening

cover as BS 497
Ground level

800 min
Class B engineering
brick

Mains water service

(b)

Figure 1.17 (a) Fire hydrant pit; (b) stopvalve pit. Note: To each fire hydrant an indicator plate with post to BS 3251 must be provided and
installed

• Incorporation of purpose-made impermeable membranes Construction Industry Research and Information Associ-
into foundation rafts. ation (CIRIA),
• Careful detailing of key structural features such as 6, Storeys Gate,
wall/floor junctions to ensure continuity of the imper- Westminster,
meable layer. London SW1P 3AU.
• Attention to entry points of services into buildings to
eliminate gas migration routes.
• Passive or mechanical venting of sub-floor voids and 1.8.2.1 Standards for ground contamination
other spaces. Detailed concentration limits for soil contaminants can be
• Passive, gravel-filled vent trenches around building found in the following reference documents:-
foundations, giving gas a preferential escape route.
• Fitting of automatic methane alarms in buildings.
• Planning conditions and/or restrictive covenants to con- • The list published by the UK Interdepartmental Com-
trol the construction of sheds, conservatories and the mittee on Contaminated Land (ICRCL): ICRCL 59/83.
like in gardens. • Proceedings of the Conference on Reclamation of Con-
taminated Land: Site Investigation and Materials Prob-
In some cases, management companies supported by lems, Eastbourne, UK, October 1979. (Society of the
financial trusts have to be set up by developers to ensure Chemical Industry, London, 1980). (The “Kelly Indices”
the continuing maintenance of protective arrangements (former GLC), Guidelines for contaminated soils, speci-
over a long period into the future. fically developed for gasworks sites in London).
Readers requiring more detail on the above topics are • The Dutch Soil Clean-up Guideline, Dutch Ministry of
recommended to consult the extensive literature published Public Housing, Physical Planning and the Environ-
by the: ment.
1/22 Physical considerations in site selection

For a terrace housing development in the Midlands raft construction was proposed. The ground conditions
comprised deep structural fill (foundry sand) overlying coal measures strata. Gas was detected in the fill at
concentrations up to 1% and 5% methane and carbon dioxide by volume in air respectively. A cross-section
of the raft is shown below.
Cavity insulation,
Gas membrane to be continuous
if used, should not
across raft slab and cavities
prevent air circulation
and sealed at all joins and lapped
to wall cavity dpc, see Section 8.1.2

dpc cavity tray

Ventilator

Grille

Perforated pipe
placed in to
formation

Ground level sloped

away from ventilator
Edge beam
to prevent ingress of
water or blockage

Figure 1.18 Example of raft construction on gassing ground

In addition, at the time of writing, rapid advances are Contaminated land is land which:-
being made with computer models which will generate
risk assessments from health data on individual contami- “. . . appears to the Local Authority to be in such a
nant species and site parameters. condition, by virtue of substances in, on or under the
land, that significant harm is being caused, or there is a
significant possibility of such harm being caused, or that
1.8.3 Statutory liabilities for former pollution of controlled waters [rivers, lakes, aquifers
contaminative activities: Environmental etc. for which the Environment Agency is responsible]
Protection Act 1990, Part IIA is being, or is likely to be, caused”.

Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (enac- To establish that land is contaminated, it is necessary
ted by Part II of the Environment Act 1995 ) created in the to establish the simultaneous existence of:
UK a new regime for assessing and securing the reme- • A source of contaminant.
diation of sites subjected in the past to contaminative • A “target” which can be harmed by the contaminant.
activities. (i.e. it does not apply to sites where contami- • A means by which the contaminant can travel from one
native activities are still in progress). This regime came to the other.
into effect in 2000. Enforcement is divided between Local
Authorities and (in England and Wales) the Environment This test is known as the Source-Pathway-Receiver
Agency. Linkage.
 Further reading 1/23

The role of the Local Authorities is to: • To determine who should be liable, and in what pro-
portions, for the cost of the remediation work.
• Devise and publish a strategy for identifying, assessing • To record prescribed information about contaminated
and remedying contaminated land in their areas. land and their actions in relation to it in a Register,
• Cause their areas to be inspected to identify contami- which is available for public inspection.
nated land.
• To act as enforcing authority for all contaminated land As well as being responsible for Special Sites, the Envi-
which are not Special Sites. These are sites where ronment Agency provides consultation and guidance to
there are especially hazardous contaminants present or Local Authorities and collates and publishes information
where there are other complications such as the risk of about contaminated land in the UK.
contaminating an aquifer. Persons involved in action by the Local Authority have
extensive rights of appeal to the Secretary of State for the
The Local Authorities have four main tasks: Environment.
Persons who are carrying on, or considering carrying
• To establish who is responsible for the remediation of on, contaminating activities should therefore give care-
the contaminated land. (The “Polluter Pays”). ful consideration to potential future liabilities which they
• To decide, after consultation with the landowner, the may have to bear.
Environment Agency and the person(s) who caused the
contamination, what remediation is required. (The land
need only be fit for the use to which it is to be put, when Further reading
remediation is complete). BS 6297, Code of Practice for the design and installation of small
• To ensure that the remediation is carried out by the sewage treatment works and cesspools
person responsible, either by agreement with them or by BS 6700, Design of water services
The Building Regulations 1985
serving on them a Remediation Notice, which requires Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) Guides
them to carry it out. Code of Practice on Legionnaires’ Disease for health care premises
• In circumstances where no other course of action is DHSS and Welsh Office Health Technical Memorandum 27
possible, e.g. because the person causing the contam- Institute of Plumbing Data Book
Institution of Water and Environmental Management
ination no longer exists, to carry out the remediation Minimising the risk of Legionnaires’ Disease, Technical Memoran-
themselves. dum CIBSE 13