1.

SPATIAL DATA INPUT TECHNIQUES IN GIS

Manual Digitizing

Automatic Scanning

Coordinate Entry

Conversion of existing digital data

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1. Digitizing
• Digitizer consist of an electronic device with a hand held
magnetic pen and a table upon which map is placed
• The features on the map is traced by the magnetic pen
and sent to the computer and stored
Tracing is done in two modes:
• Point mode: single points are traced one at a time. Eg.
Tracing the location of well, school etc.
• Stream mode: many points are traced on regular
intervals of time. Eg. Tracing of roads, boundaries etc.
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• Error in digitizing
• Gaps
• Overshoot
• Spikes
• Duplicate
• Disconnection
• Measurement errors

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• Advantages of digitizing
• Easy to learn
• No skilled labour required
• Attribute data can be added during digitizing
• High accuracy
• Disadvantages of digitizing
• Tedious activity
• Require post processing
• Slow processing

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Scanning

• Scan the paper map using

scanner
• Automatically capture
spatial data
• Rapid rate of input
• But it require manual
editing after scanning

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• Scanning devices can capture
spatial data at a very high
speed
• However, these scanners are
often quite expensive and are
usually unable to recognize
text and symbols
• Scanned data also requires a
large amount of editing,
which is done manually,
therefore it can be more time
consuming

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 Co-ordinate Entry
• Spatial data can be
created by entering
co-ordinate of each points
• It is very costly but it is
very precise

Conversion of existing data

• Converting available
digital map into GIS
format maps

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 GIS OPERATIONS

1. Spatial data input

2. Attribute data input and management
3. Data display
4. Data exploration
5. Data analysis
6. GIS modelling

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2. ATTRIBUTE DATA INPUT

1. Manual typing
2. Uploading excel sheets

• Attribute data reside as rows and columns

• Row represents spatial feature and column
represents corresponding attribute data

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 GIS OPERATIONS

1. Spatial data input

2. Attribute data input and management
3. Data display
4. Data exploration
5. Data analysis
6. GIS modelling

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3. DATA DISPLAY
• In the form of maps (maps are most effective in
communicating spatial information)
• Maps can be used for data visualization and
presentation
• A map for presentation usually has a number of
elements: title, subtitle, body, legend, north arrow,
scale bar, neat line and acknowledgement
• Uses legends and indices

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 GIS OPERATIONS

1. Spatial data input

2. Attribute data input and management
3. Data display
4. Data exploration
5. Data analysis
6. GIS modelling

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4. DATA EXPLORATION
• Trend
• Relationship
• Classification
• Here, instead of a traditional data
management system, data analyst visually
check what is in a data subset and
characteristics of data
• Characteristics include size or amount of
data, completeness of data, correctness of
data and possible relationship among the data

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 GIS OPERATIONS

1. Spatial data input

2. Attribute data input and management
3. Data display
4. Data exploration
5. Data analysis
6. GIS modelling

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5. DATA ANALYSIS
• Vector data analysis
• Raster data analysis
• Terrain mapping and analysis
• View shed and water shed analysis
• Spatial interpolation
• Path analysis and network application

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 GIS OPERATIONS

1. Spatial data input

2. Attribute data input and management
3. Data display
4. Data exploration
5. Data analysis
6. GIS modelling

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6. DATA MODELLING
• Binary modelling
• Regression modelling
• Process modelling
• Data model defines how spatial features
are represented in GIS (two types of
models are used – Vector data model and
raster data model)

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 DATA MODELS
RASTER DATA MODEL

• Raster data also referred to as raster image

• Cells that make raster – pixels

• Two dimensional array of pixels arranged in rows and columns

structure (x axis – column indicator, y axis – row indicator)

• Size of cells in a raster file is important (Smaller cells improve

quality as they contains more details)

• Cell (pixel) size is referred as resolution. Spatial resolution of a

raster is the smallest size of geographic area represented by a pixel
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• Each and every geographical feature is represented only through
pixels in raster data. There is nothing like point, line or polygon.
If it is a point, in raster data it will be a single pixel, a line will be
represented as linear arrangement of pixels and an area or polygon
will be represented by contiguous neighbouring pixels with
similar values.

• In raster data one pixel contain only one value (unlike vector data
where a point, a line or a polygon may have number of values or
attributes) that’s why only one geographical feature can be
represented by a single set of pixels or grid cells.

• Hence a number of raster layers are required if multiple features

are to be considered (For example- land use, soil type, forest
density, topography etc.)

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Classification of raster images
1. BINARY IMAGE
• Bi-tonal or two tone images
• Each pixel have value either 0 or 1
• Each pixel uses 1 bit of information
• Objects in a binary raster image is called raster objects
2. GREYSCALE IMAGE
• Image represented with continuous tones as uniform shades of grey
• Each pixel uses 8 bits of information producing 256 shades of grey
• Humans can distinguish 40-50 shades of grey

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3. COLOUR IMAGE
• A digital image that has colour information for each pixel
• 8 bits per pixel gives out 256 colours and images called indexed
colour images
• 16/24/32 bits per pixel producing millions of colours and images
called true colour images
• Size as well as quality of true colour image is far better than
indexed colour image

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VECTOR DATA:
• It represent any geographical feature through point, line or polygon or
combination of these.
• Point: A point in GIS is represented by one pair of coordinates (x & y).
It is considered as dimension-less object. Most of the times a point
represent location of a feature (like cities, wells, villages etc.).

• Line: A line or arc contains at least two pairs of coordinates (say- x1,
y1 & x2, y2). In other words a line should connect minimum two
points. Start and end points of a line are referred as nodes while points
on curves are referred as vertices. Points at intersections are also called
as nodes. Roads, railway tracks, streams etc. are generally represented
by line.

• Polygon (or Area) : It is a closed line with area. It takes minimum

three pairs of coordinates to represent an area or polygon. Extent of
cities, forests, land use etc. is represented by polygon.
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 Raster vs Vector
Raster Vector

1. Represents object as a pattern of dots Represents object as points or set of lines

(pixels) drawn between specific points
2. Location Rows and columns Location (X Y, X Y Z)

3. File size is larger File size is smaller

4. All objects are a series of pixels, no identity Individual identity for discrete objects like
for discrete objects other than pixel line, polygon
5. Simple data structure Complex data structure

6. Difficult to edit Easy to edit

7. Compatible with remote sensing imagery Not compatible

8. Continuous data Discrete data

9. Temperature, air pressure, Soil pH, Administrative borders, linear features,

elevation, flow and distance are some roads and rivers are some example for vector
example for raster data. data.
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• A reference system used for locating objects in 2 or 3
dimensional space

• Different co-ordinate systems used are:

1. Geographical co-ordinate system

2. Projected co-ordinate system

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GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

• Also known as global or spherical coordinate system

• It is a three dimensional co-ordinate system
• Any location on earth can be referenced by a point with latitude
and longitude
• Pole – Point where the axis of rotation meets the earth’s surface
• Latitude – Imaginary lines that run horizontally around the globe
between two poles
• Longitude – Imaginary lines that run vertically around the globe.
Also known as meridian
• Equator – An imaginary line on the earth with zero degree latitude
• Prime Meridian – Zero degree longitude that divides earth into
two halves. Runs through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in
Greenwich also called Greenwich meridian
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• Prime meridian and equator serve as the baselines of the
geographic coordinate system
• Latitude is measured as positive along North pole up to +90º
and negative along South pole up to - 90º
• Lines of equal latitudes are called parallels
• Longitude is measured positive along East up to +180º and
negative along West up to -180º
• Lines of equal longitude is called meridian

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PROJECTED COORDINATE SYSTEM

• Also called plane coordinate system

• Two dimensional representation of earth
• It is used to locate objects on a flat surface (on
paper maps or digital map)
• Location of a point is identified by the coordinate
pair (x,y) and the origin lies at the centre of the
grid (0,0)
• Reference line is horizontal and vertical line
passing through the origin

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• Top: Round data is described with meridians, parallels, and latitude-longitude
values.
• Bottom: Flat data is described with x,y units. Projection parameters use both kinds
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of descriptions.
• Systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of
location on the surface of a sphere or ellipsoid into locations
on a plane using mathematical and geometric relations
• Transformation involves distortion in size, shape, relative
location etc..
• 3D surface to 2D plane
Three steps
• Selection of model for the shape of earth (sphere, ellipsoid)
• Transform geographic coordinates to plane coordinates
• Reduce the scale
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• There are limitless ways to project the image of the
globe to paper
• Every projection has its own sets of advantages and
disadvantages. There is no best projection
• The transformation from earth surface to a plane
surface always involves distortion and no map
projection is perfect
• This is why hundreds of map projections have been
developed for map making
Type of map projections
• Map projection can be classified by either the
preserved property or the projection surface
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 MAP PROJECTIONS
• Portray the Earth on a Flat surface.
• Distortions always occur:
 Scale
 Area
 Direction
 Angles (local shapes)

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Cartographers group map projections, by the
preserved property into following classes:

Types of Projections
i. Conformal—where angles are preserved
ii. Equal Area (Equivalent)—where areas are
preserved.
iii. Equidistance—where distance is preserved
between two points.

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i) Conformal projection

• Conformal projections preserve local shape

• It preserves shape and direction, but area and
distance will be distorted
• It is used for topographic mapping and
navigation purpose
• Example: Mercator projection, Lambert
conformal conic projection

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ii) Equal area or equivalent projection

• A map projection is equal area if every part as

well as the whole has the same area as the
corresponding part on the earth surface
• No flat map can both be equal area and conformal
• Shape, distance and angles are distorted
• In equal area projections, the meridians and
parallels may not intersect at right angles
• In some instances, especially maps of smaller
regions, shapes are not obviously distorted, and
distinguishing an equal area projection from
conformal projection is difficult
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iii) Equidistant projection

• Equidistant maps preserve the distances

between certain points
• Scale is not maintained correctly by any
projection throughout an entire map
• However, there are, in most cases, one or more
lines on a map along which scale is maintained
correctly
• Area, shape and directions are distorted

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i. Cylindrical projection

ii. Conical projection

iii. Azimuthal projection

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i) Cylindrical Projection
• The projection surface will be a cylinder in this case
• Placing a cylinder tangential to a lighted globe helps in
tracing the lines of longitude and latitude onto the
cylinder, which is then cut lengthwise and laid flat
• The result is an evenly spaced network of straight
horizontal parallels and straight vertical meridians
• Mainly used for the preparation of navigation charts
• Poles cannot be shown in this projection
• Example: Mercator projection
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• This projection is conformal and displays true direction along
straight lines

• The Mercator projection is one of the most common

cylindrical projections and the equator is usually its line of
tangency

• Mostly used for projection of tropical zones

• True scale along central meridians near the equator

• Projections are equidistant along central meridian and standard

parallel
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Cylindrical Projections (examples)
• Equal area:
– Cylindrical Equal Area
– Peters [wet laundry map].
• Conformal:
– Mercator
– Transverse Mercator
• Compromise:
– Miller

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• CYLINDRICAL, CONFORMAL
• The Mercator projection has straight meridians and parallels that
intersect at right angles.
• Meridians are equally spaced straight lines
• Parallels are unequally spaced straight lines
• Scales can be used to measure distances and are true only along
equator or at two standard parallels equidistant at the equator.
• Great distortion of area in polar region
• This projection is often used for navigation for maps of equatorial
regions.

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Mercator projection

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• The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) geographic
coordinate system uses a 2-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system to give locations on the surface of the Earth.

• It is a horizontal position representation, i.e. it is used to

identify locations on the Earth independently of vertical
position.

• Divides the Earth into sixty zones, each a six-degree band of

longitude, and uses a secant transverse Mercator projection in
each zone.

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ii) Conic Projection
• Placing a cone and projecting the surface of the globe into it can
help in map projection
• Earth projected onto a cone which is then cut length wise and laid
flat
• It will be accurate at mid latitude region
• Parallels become concentric circular arcs and meridians become
radial lines
• Example: Lambert conformal conic projection

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Conic Projections (Example)
• Equal area:
– Albers
– Lambert

• Conformal:
– Lambert

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iii) Azimuthal Projection
• Azimuth projections project map data onto a flat surface
touching the globe
• Azimuthal projection is also known as a planar projection or a
zenithal projection
• Map projection is attained using a plane – polar, equatorial,
oblique
• The point of contact may be the North Pole, the South pole, a
point on the equator, or any point in between
• This point specifies the aspect and is the focus of the projection

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 Azimuthal projection (examples)
• Equal area:
– Lambert
• Conformal:
– Sterographic
• Equidistant:
– Azimuthal Equidistant

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GIS APPLICATIONS

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GIS APPLICATIONS

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• GIS in mapping
• Telecom and network services
– incorporate geographic data in to the complex network 
design, planning, optimization, maintenance and activities
• Accident Analysis and Hot Spot Analysis
– minimize accident hazard on roads, the existing road 
network has to be optimized and also the road safety 
measures have to be improved
• Urban planning
– analyze the urban growth and its direction of expansion, 
and to find suitable sites for further urban development
• Transportation planning
– managing transportation and logistical problems
• Environmental impact analysis
– conserve natural resources and environment
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• Landslide hazard zonation using GIS
– ranking different parts of an area according to the degrees 
of actual or potential hazard from landslides
• Agricultutral applications
– create more effective and efficient farming techniques
• Disaster management
• Determine land use / land cover changes, etc.
• Crime analysis
– for crime mapping in law enforcement agencies 
• Infrastructure development
– every phase of infrastructure life cycle is greatly affected 
and enhanced by the enrollment of GIS.

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