IPU OS Unit 2 Notes

Operating Systems
ETCS 304
UNIT 2
Chapter 3: Processes
Dept of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

LECTURE 1: Processes
 Process Concept
 Process Scheduling
 Operations on Processes
 Interprocess Communication
 Examples of IPC Systems
 Communication in Client-Server Systems
Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Operating Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI
Systems
Objectives
 To introduce the notion of a process -- a program in
execution, which forms the basis of all computation
 To describe the various features of processes,
including scheduling, creation and termination, and
communication
 To explore interprocess communication using shared
memory and message passing
 To describe communication in client-server systems

Systems
Process Concept
 An operating system executes a variety of programs:
 Batch system – jobs
 Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
 Textbook uses the terms job and process almost
interchangeably
 Process – a program in execution; process execution must
progress in sequential fashion
 Multiple parts
 The program code, also called text section
 Current activity including program counter, processor
registers
 Stack containing temporary data
 Function parameters, return addresses, local variables
 Data section containing global variables
 Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time

Systems
Process State
 As a process executes, it changes state
 new: The process is being created
 running: Instructions are being executed
 waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
 ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
 terminated: The process has finished execution

Systems
Diagram of Process State

Systems
Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process
(also called task control block)
 Process state – running, waiting, etc
 Program counter – location of instruction to
next execute
 CPU registers – contents of all process-
centric registers
 CPU scheduling information- priorities,
scheduling queue pointers
 Memory-management information –
memory allocated to the process
 Accounting information – CPU used, clock
time elapsed since start, time limits
 I/O status information – I/O devices
allocated to process, list of open files

Systems
CPU Switch From Process to Process

Systems
Threads
 So far, process has a single thread of execution
 Consider having multiple program counters per
process
 Multiple locations can execute at once
 Multiple threads of control -> threads
 Must then have storage for thread details, multiple

program counters in PCB

Systems
Process Scheduling
 Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU for
time sharing
 Process scheduler selects among available processes for
next execution on CPU
 Maintains scheduling queues of processes
 Job queue – set of all processes in the system
 Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main
memory, ready and waiting to execute
 Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device
 Processes migrate among the various queues

Systems
Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues

Systems
LECTURE 2
Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Representation of Process Scheduling
 Queueing diagram represents queues, resources, flows

Systems
Schedulers
 Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be executed
next and allocates CPU
 Sometimes the only scheduler in a system
 Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently (milliseconds)  (must be fast)
 Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be brought
into the ready queue
 Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes)  (may be slow)
 The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
 Processes can be described as either:
 I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short CPU
bursts
 CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very long CPU bursts
 Long-term scheduler strives for good process mix

Systems
Addition of Medium Term Scheduling
 Medium-term scheduler can be added if degree of multiple
programming needs to decrease
 Remove process from memory, store on disk, bring back in
from disk to continue execution: swapping

Systems
Context Switch
 When CPU switches to another process, the system must
save the state of the old process and load the saved state
for the new process via a context switch
 Context of a process represented in the PCB
 Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful
work while switching
 The more complex the OS and the PCB  the longer the
context switch
 Time dependent on hardware support
 Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU
 multiple contexts loaded at once

Systems
Operations on Processes
 System must provide mechanisms for:
 process creation,
 process termination

Systems
Process Creation
 Parent process create children processes, which, in
turn create other processes, forming a tree of
processes
 Generally, process identified and managed via a
process identifier (pid)
 Resource sharing options
 Parent and children share all resources
 Children share subset of parent’s resources
 Parent and child share no resources
 Execution options
 Parent and children execute concurrently
 Parent waits until children terminate

Systems
Process Termination
 Process executes last statement and then asks the operating
system to delete it using the exit() system call.
 Returns status data from child to parent (via wait())
 Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system
 Parent may terminate the execution of children processes
using the abort() system call. Some reasons for doing
so:
 Child has exceeded allocated resources
 Task assigned to child is no longer required
 The parent is exiting and the operating systems does not allow
a child to continue if its parent terminates

Process Termination
 Some operating systems do not allow child to exists if its parent has
terminated. If a process terminates, then all its children must also
be terminated.
 cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc. are
terminated.
 The termination is initiated by the operating system.
 The parent process may wait for termination of a child process by
using the wait()system call. The call returns status information
and the pid of the terminated process
pid = wait(&status);
 If no parent waiting (did not invoke wait()) process is a zombie
 If parent terminated without invoking wait , process is an
orphan

LECTURE 3

Interprocess Communication
 Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating
 Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other
processes, including sharing data
 Reasons for cooperating processes:
 Information sharing
 Computation speedup
 Modularity
 Convenience
 Cooperating processes need interprocess communication
(IPC)
 Two models of IPC
 Shared memory
 Message passing

Systems
Communications Models
(a) Message passing. (b) shared memory.

Systems
Cooperating Processes
 Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the
execution of another process
 Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the
execution of another process
 Advantages of process cooperation
 Information sharing
 Computation speed-up
 Modularity
 Convenience

Systems
Producer-Consumer Problem
 Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer
process produces information that is consumed by a
consumer process
 unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the
size of the buffer
 bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer
size

Systems
Interprocess Communication – Shared Memory
 An area of memory shared among the processes
that wish to communicate
 The communication is under the control of the
users processes not the operating system.
 Major issues is to provide mechanism that will
allow the user processes to synchronize their
actions when they access shared memory.
 Synchronization is discussed in great details in
Chapter 5.

Systems
Interprocess Communication – Message Passing
 Mechanism for processes to communicate and to
synchronize their actions
 Message system – processes communicate with each
other without resorting to shared variables
 IPC facility provides two operations:
 send(message)
 receive(message)
 The message size is either fixed or variable

Systems
Message Passing (Cont.)
 If processes P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:

 Establish a communication link between them
 Exchange messages via send/receive

Systems
Synchronization
 Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking
 Blocking is considered synchronous
 Blocking send -- the sender is blocked until the message is
received
 Blocking receive -- the receiver is blocked until a message
is available
 Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
 Non-blocking send -- the sender sends the message and
continue
 Non-blocking receive -- the receiver receives:
 A valid message, or
 Null message
 Different combinations possible
 If both send and receive are blocking, we have a rendezvous

Buffering
 Queue of messages attached to the link.

 implemented in one of three ways
1. Zero capacity – no messages are queued on a link.
Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous)
2. Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages
Sender must wait if link full
3. Unbounded capacity – infinite length
Sender never waits

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wYxbt4yCjpcfUDz-TgD_ainZ2K3MUZ&index=12
GATE QUESTIONS
 1. Which of the following need not necessarily be saved on a context switch between processes?
 (a) General purpose registers
 (b) Translation look-aside buffer
 (c) Program counter
 (d) All of the above
 Answer: (b)
 2. The maximum number of processes that can be in Ready state for a computer system
with n CPUs is
 (A) n
 (B) n2
 (C) 2n
 (D) Independent of n

 3. The following C program is executed on a Unix/Linux system:
 #include <unistd.h>
 int main()
 {
 int i;
 for (i=0; i<10; i++)
 if (i%2 == 0) fork();
 return 0;
 }
 The total number of child processes created is ________.
 4. Consider a system with 3 processes that share 4 instances of the same resource type. Each process can request a
maximum of K instances. Resource instances can be requested and released only one at a time. The largest value
of K that will always avoid deadlock is ____.

Chapter 4: Threads
BVCOE NEW DELHI

Chapter 4: Threads
 Overview
 Multicore Programming
 Multithreading Models
 Thread Libraries
 Implicit Threading
 Threading Issues
 Operating System Examples
Department of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

Objectives
 To introduce the notion of a thread—a fundamental
unit of CPU utilization that forms the basis of
multithreaded computer systems
 To discuss the APIs for the Pthreads, Windows, and
Java thread libraries
 To explore several strategies that provide implicit
threading
 To examine issues related to multithreaded
programming
 To cover operating system support for threads in
Windows and Linux

Motivation
 Most modern applications are multithreaded

 Threads run within application
 Multiple tasks with the application can be implemented
by separate threads
 Update display
 Fetch data
 Spell checking
 Answer a network request
 Process creation is heavy-weight while thread creation is
light-weight
 Can simplify code, increase efficiency
 Kernels are generally multithreaded

Multithreaded Server Architecture

Benefits
 Responsiveness – may allow continued execution if

part of process is blocked, especially important for user
interfaces
 Resource Sharing – threads share resources of
process, easier than shared memory or message passing
 Economy – cheaper than process creation, thread
switching lower overhead than context switching
 Scalability – process can take advantage of
multiprocessor architectures

Single and Multithreaded Processes

User Threads and Kernel Threads
 User threads - management done by user-level threads library
 Three primary thread libraries:
 POSIX Pthreads
 Windows threads
 Java threads
 Kernel threads - Supported by the Kernel
 Examples – virtually all general purpose operating systems,
including:
 Windows
 Solaris
 Linux
 Tru64 UNIX
 Mac OS X

Multithreading Models
 Many-to-One
 One-to-One
 Many-to-Many

Many-to-One
 Many user-level threads mapped to

single kernel thread
 One thread blocking causes all to
block
 Multiple threads may not run in
parallel on muticore system because
only one may be in kernel at a time
 Few systems currently use this model
 Examples:
 Solaris Green Threads
 GNU Portable Threads

One-to-One
 Each user-level thread maps to kernel thread
 Creating a user-level thread creates a kernel
thread
 More concurrency than many-to-one
 Number of threads per process sometimes
restricted due to overhead
 Examples
 Windows
 Linux
 Solaris 9 and later

Many-to-Many Model
 Allows many user level threads
to be mapped to many kernel
threads
 Allows the operating system to
create a sufficient number of
kernel threads
 Solaris prior to version 9
 Windows with the ThreadFiber
package

Two-level Model
 Similar to M:M, except that it allows a user

thread to be bound to kernel thread
 Examples
 IRIX
 HP-UX
 Tru64 UNIX
 Solaris 8 and earlier

GATE QUESTIONS
 1. Which one of the following is FALSE?
 (A) User level threads are not scheduled by the kernel.
 (B)When a user level thread is blocked, all other threads of its process are blocked.
 (C) Context switching between user level threads is faster than context switching between kernel
level threads.
 (D) Kernel level threads cannot share the code segment.
 2. A multithreaded program P executes with x number of threads and uses y number of locks for
ensuring mutual exclusion while operating on shared memory locations. All locks in the program
are non-reentrant, i.e., if a thread holds a lock l, then it cannot re-acquire lock l without releasing
it. If a thread is unable to acquire a lock, it blocks until the lock becomes avilable.
The minimum value of x and the minimum value of y together for which execution of P can result in a
deadlock are:
 (A) x=1, y=2
 (B) x=2, y=1
 (C) x=2,y=2
 (D) x=1, y=1

GATE QUESTIONS
 3. A thread is usually defined as a "light weight process" because an operating system (OS) maintains smaller data
structures for a thread than for a process. In relation to this, which of the following is TRUE?
 (A) On per-thread basis, the OS maintains only CPU register state
 (B)The OS does not maintain a separate stack for each thread
 (C) On per-thread basis, the OS does not maintain virtual memory state
 (D) On per-thread basis, the OS maintains only scheduling and accounting information

Chapter 6: CPU Scheduling
Operating Systems CSE DEPARTMENT, BVCOE NEW DELHI

LECTURE 1: CPU Scheduling
 Basic Concepts
 Scheduling Criteria
 Scheduling Algorithms
 Thread Scheduling
 Multiple-Processor Scheduling
 Real-Time CPU Scheduling
 Operating Systems Examples
 Algorithm Evaluation

Objectives
 To introduce CPU scheduling, which is the basis for

multiprogrammed operating systems
 To describe various CPU-scheduling algorithms
 To discuss evaluation criteria for selecting a CPU-
scheduling algorithm for a particular system
 To examine the scheduling algorithms of several
operating systems

Basic Concepts
 Maximum CPU utilization

obtained with
multiprogramming
 CPU–I/O Burst Cycle –
Process execution consists of
a cycle of CPU execution
and I/O wait
 CPU burst followed by I/O
burst
 CPU burst distribution is of
main concern
Histogram of CPU-burst Times

CPU Scheduler
 Short-term scheduler selects from among the processes
in ready queue, and allocates the CPU to one of them
 Queue may be ordered in various ways
 CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
1. Switches from running to waiting state
2. Switches from running to ready state
3. Switches from waiting to ready
4. Terminates
 Scheduling under 1 and 4 is nonpreemptive
 All other scheduling is preemptive
 Consider access to shared data
 Consider preemption while in kernel mode
 Consider interrupts occurring during crucial OS activities

Dispatcher
 Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the

process selected by the short-term scheduler; this
involves:
 switching context
 switching to user mode
 jumping to the proper location in the user program to
restart that program
 Dispatch latency – time it takes for the
dispatcher to stop one process and start another
running

Scheduling Criteria
 CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible

 Throughput – # of processes that complete their
execution per time unit
 Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a
particular process
 Waiting time – amount of time a process has been
waiting in the ready queue
 Response time – amount of time it takes from when a
request was submitted until the first response is
produced, not output (for time-sharing environment)

LECTURE 2

Scheduling Algorithm Optimization Criteria
 Max CPU utilization

 Max throughput
 Min turnaround time
 Min waiting time
 Min response time

First- Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling
Process Burst Time

P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
 Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3
The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:
P1 P2 P3
0 24 27 30
 Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

 Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17

FCFS Scheduling (Cont.)
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order:
P2 , P3 , P1
 The Gantt chart for the schedule is:
P2 P3 P1
0 3 6 30
 Waiting time for P1 = 6;P2 = 0; P3 = 3

 Average waiting time: (6 + 0 + 3)/3 = 3
 Much better than previous case
 Convoy effect - short process behind long process
 Consider one CPU-bound and many I/O-bound processes

Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling
 Associate with each process the length of its next CPU

burst
 Use these lengths to schedule the process with the
shortest time
 SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time
for a given set of processes
 The difficulty is knowing the length of the next CPU
request
 Could ask the user

Example of SJF
ProcessArriva l TimeBurst Time

P1 0.0 6
P2 2.0 8
P3 4.0 7
P4 5.0 3
 SJF scheduling chart
P4 P1 P3 P2
0 3 9 16 24
 Average waiting time = (3 + 16 + 9 + 0) / 4 = 7

Shortest-remaining-time-first
 Now we add the concepts of varying arrival times and preemption to

the analysis
ProcessAarri Arrival TimeT Burst Time
P1 0 8
P2 1 4
P3 2 9
P4 3 5
 Preemptive SJF Gantt Chart
P1 P2 P4 P1 P3
0 1 5 10 17 26
 Average waiting time = [(10-1)+(1-1)+(17-2)+5-3)]/4 = 26/4 =
6.5 msec

LECTURE 3

Priority Scheduling
 A priority number (integer) is associated with each process
 The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority

(smallest integer  highest priority)
 Preemptive
 Nonpreemptive
 SJF is priority scheduling where priority is the inverse of

predicted next CPU burst time
 Problem  Starvation – low priority processes may never
execute
 Solution  Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of
the process

Example of Priority Scheduling
ProcessAarri Burst TimeT Priority
P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 4
P4 1 5
P5 5 2
 Priority scheduling Gantt Chart
 Average waiting time = 8.2 msec

Round Robin (RR)
 Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time

quantum q), usually 10-100 milliseconds. After this time
has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the end
of the ready queue.
 If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time
quantum is q, then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in
chunks of at most q time units at once. No process waits
more than (n-1)q time units.
 Timer interrupts every quantum to schedule next process
 Performance
 q large  FIFO
 q small  q must be large with respect to context switch,
otherwise overhead is too high

Example of RR with Time Quantum = 4
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
 The Gantt chart is:
P1 P2 P3 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
0 4 7 10 14 18 22 26 30
 Typically, higher average turnaround than SJF, but better

response
 q should be large compared to context switch time
 q usually 10ms to 100ms, context switch < 10 usec

Time Quantum and Context Switch Time

Real-Time CPU Scheduling
 Can present obvious challenges
 Soft real-time systems – no
guarantee as to when critical real-
time process will be scheduled
 Hard real-time systems – task
must be serviced by its deadline
 Two types of latencies affect
performance
1. Interrupt latency – time from
arrival of interrupt to start of
routine that services interrupt
2. Dispatch latency – time for
schedule to take current process
off CPU and switch to another

Algorithm Evaluation
 How to select CPU-scheduling algorithm for an OS?
 Determine criteria, then evaluate algorithms
 Deterministic modeling
 Type of analytic evaluation
 Takes a particular predetermined workload and defines the
performance of each algorithm for that workload
 Consider 5 processes arriving at time 0:

ONLINE RESOURCES
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L3-wYxbt4yCjpcfUDz-TgD_ainZ2K3MUZ&index=19

GATE QUESTIONS
 1. Consider a set of n tasks with known runtimes r1, r2, … rn to be run on a uniprocessor
machine. Which of the following processor scheduling algorithms will result in the maximum
throughput?
 (a) Round-Robin
 (b) Shortest-Job-First
 (c) Highest-Response-Ratio-Next
 (d) First-Come-First-Served
 2. Which scheduling policy is most suitable for a time shared operating system?
(a) Shortest Job First
(b) Round Robin
(c) First Come First Serve
(d) Elevator
 3. Consider an arbitrary set of CPU-bound processes with unequal CPU burst lengths submitted at
the same time to a computer system. Which one of the following process scheduling algorithms
would minimize the average waiting time in the ready queue?
 (A) Shortest remaining time first
 (B) Round-robin with time quantum less than the shortest CPU burst
 (C) Uniform random
 (D) Highest priority first with priority proportional to CPU burst length
GATE QUESTIONS
 4. Consider three processes (process id 0, 1, 2 respectively) with compute time bursts 2, 4 and 8
time units. All processes arrive at time zero. Consider the longest remaining time first (LRTF)
scheduling algorithm. In LRTF ties are broken by giving priority to the process with the lowest
process id. The average turn around time is:
 A 13 units
 B 14 units
 C 15 units
 D 16 units
 5. Consider three CPU-intensive processes, which require 10, 20 and 30 time units and arrive at
times 0, 2 and 6, respectively. How many context switches are needed if the operating system
implements a shortest remaining time first scheduling algorithm? Do not count the context
switches at time zero and at the end.
 A1
 B2
 C3
 D4

Chapter 5: Process Synchronization
Operating Systems CSE DEPARTMENT,

BVCOE NEW DELHI
LECTURE 1: Process Synchronization
 Background
 The Critical-Section Problem
 Peterson’s Solution
 Synchronization Hardware
 Mutex Locks
 Semaphores
 Classic Problems of Synchronization
 Monitors
 Synchronization Examples
 Alternative Approaches

Objectives
 To present the concept of process synchronization.
 To introduce the critical-section problem, whose solutions
can be used to ensure the consistency of shared data
 To present both software and hardware solutions of the
critical-section problem
 To examine several classical process-synchronization
problems
 To explore several tools that are used to solve process
synchronization problems

Background
 Processes can execute concurrently
 May be interrupted at any time, partially completing
execution
 Concurrent access to shared data may result in data
inconsistency
 Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to
ensure the orderly execution of cooperating processes
 Illustration of the problem:
Suppose that we wanted to provide a solution to the
consumer-producer problem that fills all the buffers. We
can do so by having an integer counter that keeps track
of the number of full buffers. Initially, counter is set to
0. It is incremented by the producer after it produces a
new buffer and is decremented by the consumer after it
consumes a buffer.

Producer
while (true) {
/* produce an item in next produced */
while (counter == BUFFER_SIZE) ;

/* do nothing */
buffer[in] = next_produced;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
counter++;
}

Consumer
while (true) {
while (counter == 0)
; /* do nothing */
next_consumed = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
counter--;
/* consume the item in next consumed */
}

Race Condition
 counter++ could be implemented as
register1 = counter
register1 = register1 + 1
counter = register1
 counter-- could be implemented as
register2 = counter
register2 = register2 - 1
counter = register2
 Consider this execution interleaving with “count = 5” initially:

S0: producer execute register1 = counter {register1 = 5}
S1: producer execute register1 = register1 + 1 {register1 = 6}
S2: consumer execute register2 = counter {register2 = 5}
S3: consumer execute register2 = register2 – 1 {register2 = 4}
S4: producer execute counter = register1 {counter = 6 }
S5: consumer execute counter = register2 {counter = 4}

Critical Section Problem
 Consider system of n processes {p0, p1, … pn-1}
 Each process has critical section segment of code
 Process may be changing common variables, updating
table, writing file, etc
 When one process in critical section, no other may be in
its critical section
 Critical section problem is to design protocol to
solve this
 Each process must ask permission to enter critical
section in entry section, may follow critical section
with exit section, then remainder section

Critical Section
 General structure of process Pi

Algorithm for Process Pi
do {
while (turn == j);
critical section
turn = j;
remainder section
} while (true);

Solution to Critical-Section Problem
1. Mutual Exclusion - If process Pi is executing in its critical section, then no other
processes can be executing in their critical sections
2. Progress - If no process is executing in its critical section and there exist some
processes that wish to enter their critical section, then the selection of the processes
that will enter the critical section next cannot be postponed indefinitely
3. Bounded Waiting - A bound must exist on the number of times that other
processes are allowed to enter their critical sections after a process has made a
request to enter its critical section and before that request is granted
 Assume that each process executes at a nonzero speed
 No assumption concerning relative speed of the n processes

Critical-Section Handling in OS
Two approaches depending on if kernel is preemptive or
nonpreemptive
 Preemptive – allows preemption of process when running
in kernel mode
 Non-preemptive – runs until exits kernel mode, blocks, or
voluntarily yields CPU
 Essentially free of race conditions in kernel mode

Peterson’s Solution
 Good algorithmic description of solving the problem
 Two process solution
 Assume that the load and store machine-language instructions are
atomic; that is, cannot be interrupted
 The two processes share two variables:
 int turn;
 Boolean flag[2]
 The variable turn indicates whose turn it is to enter the critical section
 The flag array is used to indicate if a process is ready to enter the critical
section. flag[i] = true implies that process Pi is ready!

LECTURE 2

Algorithm for Process Pi
do {
flag[i] = true;
turn = j;
while (flag[j] && turn = = j);
critical section
flag[i] = false;
remainder section
} while (true);

Peterson’s Solution (Cont.)
 Provable that the three CS requirement are met:
1. Mutual exclusion is preserved
Pi enters CS only if:
either flag[j] = false or turn =
i
2. Progress requirement is satisfied
3. Bounded-waiting requirement is met

Solution to Critical-section Problem Using Locks
do {
acquire lock
critical section
release lock
remainder section
} while (TRUE);

LECTURE 3

test_and_set Instruction
Definition:
boolean test_and_set (boolean *target)
{
boolean rv = *target;
*target = TRUE;
return rv:
}
1. Executed atomically
2. Returns the original value of passed parameter
3. Set the new value of passed parameter to “TRUE”.

Solution using test_and_set()
 Shared Boolean variable lock, initialized to FALSE
 Solution:
do {
while (test_and_set(&lock))
; /* do nothing */
/* critical section */
lock = false;
/* remainder section */
} while (true);

Bounded-waiting Mutual Exclusion with test_and_set
do {
waiting[i] = true;
key = true;
while (waiting[i] && key)
key = test_and_set(&lock);
waiting[i] = false;
/* critical section */
j = (i + 1) % n;
while ((j != i) && !waiting[j])
j = (j + 1) % n;
if (j == i)
lock = false;
else
waiting[j] = false;
/* remainder section */
} while (true);

LECTURE 4

Semaphore
 Synchronization tool that provides more sophisticated ways (than Mutex locks) for process to
synchronize their activities.
 Semaphore S – integer variable
 Can only be accessed via two indivisible (atomic) operations
 wait() and signal()

 Originally called P() and V()
 Definition of the wait() operation

wait(S) {
while (S <= 0)
; // busy wait
S--;
}
 Definition of the signal() operation
signal(S) {
S++;
}
Semaphore Usage
 Counting semaphore – integer value can range over an unrestricted domain
 Binary semaphore – integer value can range only between 0 and 1
 Same as a mutex lock
 Can solve various synchronization problems
 Consider P1 and P2 that require S1 to happen before S2
Create a semaphore “synch” initialized to 0
P1:
S1;
signal(synch);
P2:
wait(synch);
S2;
 Can implement a counting semaphore S as a binary semaphore

Semaphore Implementation
 Must guarantee that no two processes can execute the
wait() and signal() on the same semaphore at the
same time
 Thus, the implementation becomes the critical section
problem where the wait and signal code are placed in
the critical section
 Could now have busy waiting in critical section
implementation
 But implementation code is short
 Little busy waiting if critical section rarely occupied
 Note that applications may spend lots of time in critical

sections and therefore this is not a good solution

Deadlock and Starvation
Deadlock – two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an event that can be
caused by only one of the waiting processes
 Starvation – indefinite blocking

 A process may never be removed from the semaphore queue in which it is
suspended
 Priority Inversion – Scheduling problem when lower-priority process holds a lock
needed by higher-priority process
 Solved via priority-inheritance protocol

LECTURE 5

Classical Problems of
Synchronization
 Classical problems used to test newly-proposed

synchronization schemes
 Bounded-Buffer Problem
 Readers and Writers Problem
 Dining-Philosophers Problem

Bounded-Buffer Problem
 nbuffers, each can hold one item

 Semaphore mutex initialized to the value 1
 Semaphore full initialized to the value 0
 Semaphore empty initialized to the value n

Bounded Buffer Problem (Cont.)
 The structure of the producer process
do {
...
/* produce an item in next_produced */
...
wait(empty);
wait(mutex);
...
/* add next produced to the buffer */
...
signal(mutex);
signal(full);
} while (true);

Bounded Buffer Problem (Cont.)
 The structure of the consumer process
Do {
wait(full);
wait(mutex);
...
/* remove an item from buffer to next_consumed */
...
signal(mutex);
signal(empty);
...
/* consume the item in next consumed */
...
} while (true);

Readers-Writers Problem
 A data set is shared among a number of concurrent processes
 Readers – only read the data set; they do not perform any updates
 Writers – can both read and write
 Problem – allow multiple readers to read at the same time
 Only one single writer can access the shared data at the same time
 Several variations of how readers and writers are considered – all involve some form of
priorities
 Shared Data
 Data set
 Semaphore rw_mutex initialized to 1
 Semaphore mutex initialized to 1
 Integer read_count initialized to 0

Readers-Writers Problem (Cont.)
 The structure of a writer process
do {
wait(rw_mutex);
...
/* writing is performed */
...
signal(rw_mutex);
} while (true);

Readers-Writers Problem (Cont.)
 The structure of a reader process
do {
wait(mutex);
read_count++;
if (read_count == 1)
wait(rw_mutex);
signal(mutex);
...
/* reading is performed */
...
wait(mutex);
read count--;
if (read_count == 0)
signal(rw_mutex);
signal(mutex);
} while (true);

Readers-Writers Problem
Variations
 First variation – no reader kept waiting unless
writer has permission to use shared object
 Second variation – once writer is ready, it
performs the write ASAP
 Both may have starvation leading to even more
variations
 Problem is solved on some systems by kernel
providing reader-writer locks

Dining-Philosophers Problem
 Philosophers spend their lives alternating thinking and eating

 Don’t interact with their neighbors, occasionally try to pick up 2 chopsticks (one at a
time) to eat from bowl
 Need both to eat, then release both when done
 In the case of 5 philosophers
 Shared data
 Bowl of rice (data set)
 Semaphore chopstick [5] initialized to 1

Dining-Philosophers Problem Algorithm
 The structure of Philosopher i:
do {
wait (chopstick[i] );
wait (chopStick[ (i + 1) % 5] );
// eat
signal (chopstick[i] );
signal (chopstick[ (i + 1) % 5] );
// think
} while (TRUE);
 What is the problem with this algorithm?

Dining-Philosophers Problem Algorithm (Cont.)
 Deadlock handling
 Allow at most 4 philosophers to be sitting
simultaneously at the table.
 Allow a philosopher to pick up the forks only if
both are available (picking must be done in a critical
section.
 Use an asymmetric solution -- an odd-numbered
philosopher picks up first the left chopstick and
then the right chopstick. Even-numbered
philosopher picks up first the right chopstick and
then the left chopstick.

LECTURE 6

Problems with Semaphores
 Incorrect use of semaphore operations:
 signal (mutex) …. wait (mutex)
 wait (mutex) … wait (mutex)
 Omitting of wait (mutex) or signal (mutex) (or both)
 Deadlock and starvation are possible.

Monitors
 A high-level abstraction that provides a convenient and effective mechanism for process
synchronization
 Abstract data type, internal variables only accessible by code within the procedure
 Only one process may be active within the monitor at a time
 But not powerful enough to model some synchronization schemes
monitor monitor-name
{
// shared variable declarations
procedure P1 (…) { …. }
procedure Pn (…) {……}
Initialization code (…) { … }

}
}

Schematic view of a Monitor

Condition Variables
 condition x, y;
 Two operations are allowed on a condition variable:

 x.wait() – a process that invokes the operation is
suspended until x.signal()
 x.signal() – resumes one of processes (if any) that
invoked x.wait()
 If no x.wait() on the variable, then it has no effect on the
variable

ONLINE RESOURCES:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKPCfuZAAEc&list=PL3-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-xQpuZ_UFM&list=PL3-
GATE QUESTIONS
 1.Let m[0]…m[4] be mutexes (binary semaphores) and P[0] …. P[4] be processes.
 Suppose each process P[i] executes the following:

 wait (m[i]); wait(m[(i+1) mode 4]);

 release (m[i]); release (m[(i+1)mod 4]);
 This could cause (GATE CS 2000)
 (a) Thrashing
 (b) Deadlock
 (c) Starvation, but not deadlock
 (d) None of the above
 Answer: (b)

GATE QUESTIONS
 1. Consider Peterson’s algorithm for mutual exclusion between two concurrent processes i and j. The program
executed by process is shown below.
 repeat
 flag [i] = true;
 turn = j;
 while ( P ) do no-op;
 Enter critical section, perform actions, then exit critical
 section
 flag [ i ] = false;
 Perform other non-critical section actions.
 until false;
 2. For the program to guarantee mutual exclusion, the predicate P in the while loop should be (GATE 2001)
 a) flag [j] = true and turn = i
 b) flag [j] = true and turn = j
 c) flag [i] = true and turn = j
 d) flag [i] = true and turn = i
 Answer: (b)
GATE QUESTIONS
 3. Three concurrent processes X,Y, and Z execute three different code segments that access and update certain
shared variables. Process X executes the P operation (i.e., wait) on semaphores a, b and c; process Y executes the
P operation on semaphores b, c and d; process Z executes the P operation on semaphores c, d, and a before
entering the respective code segments. After completing the execution of its code segment, each process invokes
the V operation (i.e., signal) on its three semaphores. All semaphores are binary semaphores initialized to one.
Which one of the following represents a deadlockfree order of invoking the P operations by the processes? (GATE
CS 2013)
 A
 X: P(a)P(b)P(c) Y:P(b)P(c)P(d) Z:P(c)P(d)P(a)
 B
 X: P(b)P(a)P(c) Y:P(b)P(c)P(d) Z:P(a)P(c)P(d)
 C
 X: P(b)P(a)P(c) Y:P(c)P(b)P(d) Z:P(a)P(c)P(d)
 D
 X: P(a)P(b)P(c) Y:P(c)P(b)P(d) Z:P(c)P(d)P(a)

GATE QUESTIONS
 4. A shared variable x, initialized to zero, is operated on by four concurrent processes W, X,Y, Z as follows. Each of the processes W
and X reads x from memory, increments by one, stores it to memory, and then terminates. Each of the processes Y and Z reads x
from memory, decrements by two, stores it to memory, and then terminates. Each process before reading x invokes the P operation
(i.e., wait) on a counting semaphore S and invokes the V operation (i.e., signal) on the semaphore S after storing x to memory.
Semaphore S is initialized to two. What is the maximum possible value of x after all processes complete execution?
 A -2
 B -1
 C1
 D2

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Operating Systems

Dept of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

 Must then have storage for thread details, multiple

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

 Queueing diagram represents queues, resources, flows

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

 The message size is either fixed or variable

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

 If processes P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:

Department of CSE, Dept of CSE,

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

 Queue of messages attached to the link.

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

BVCOE NEW DELHI

Department of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

Department of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

 Most modern applications are multithreaded

Department of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

Department of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

 Responsiveness – may allow continued execution if

Department of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

Department of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

Department of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

Department of CSE, Operating Systems BVCOE NEW DELHI

 Many user-level threads mapped to

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

 Similar to M:M, except that it allows a user

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Department of CSE, Operating Systems

Operating Systems CSE DEPARTMENT, BVCOE NEW DELHI

Operating Systems CSE DEPARTMENT, BVCOE NEW DELHI

 To introduce CPU scheduling, which is the basis for