A

Project Report
on

Study of different water purification techniques

& Assembly of RO water purifier

Submitted
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

by
SHUBHAM SAHU (1713240092)
SHUBHAM ANAND (1713240089)
SANDEEP (1713240080)
SHUBHAM TYAGI (1613240148)
SIDDHANT KASHYAP (1713240093)
Under the supervision of
Prof. Navin Kumar

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GREATER NOIDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
GREATER NOIDA
Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow, U.P.)
May, 2021
 STUDY OF DIFFERENT WATER
PURIFICATION TECHNIQUES &
ASSEMBLY OF RO WATER PURIFIER
A Project Report Submitted
In Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirements
For The Award Of The Degree Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
by

SHUBHAM SAHU (1713240092)

SHUBHAM ANAND (1713240089)

SANDEEP THAKUR (1713240080)

SHUBHAM TYAGI (1613240148)

SIDDHANT KASHYAP (1713240093)

Under The Supervision Of

Prof. Navin Kumar

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GREATER NOIDA INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY,GREATER NOIDA
Affiliated To Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical
University,Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University,Lucknow,U.P.)
May 2021
 GREATER NOIDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

PLOT NO. 7,K.P. Ⅱ,GREATER NOIDA,UP-201310

Affiliated To Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,Lucknow,UP

(Formerly Known As Uttar Pradesh Technical University,Lucknow )

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project report entitled "STUDY OF DIFFERENT WATER

PURIFICATION TECHNIQUES AND ASSEMBLY OF RO WATER PURIFIER" which
is submitted by Shubham Sahu,Shubham Anand,Sandeep Thakur,Shubham Tyagi and
Siddhant Kashyap in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor
Of Technology in Department Of Mechanical Engineering from Greater Noida Institute Of
Technology,affiliated to Dr.A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,Lucknow is a record of
the candidates' own work carried out by them under my supervision.The matter embodied in
this project report is original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

(Dr.RAJEEV KUMAR) (Mr. NAVIN KUMAR)

Prof. & HOD ME Deptt Project Co-ordinator,ME Deptt

 DECLARATION
We therefore certify that, to the best of our knowledge and belief, this contribution is our own
work. It does not contain any material that has been previously published or written by another
person, nor does it contain any material that has been accepted for the award of any other
university or other institute of higher learning degree or diploma, except where due
acknowledgement has been made in the text.

Signature: Signature:

Name: Shubham Sahu Name: Shubham Anand

Roll no: 1713240092 Roll no: 1713240090

Signature: Signature:

Name: Sandeep Thakur Name: Shubham Tyagi

Roll no: 1713240080 Roll no: 1613240148

Signature:

Name: Siddhant Kashyap

Roll no: 1713240093

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives us great pleasure to submit the report of a B.Tech project completed during the last
year of study. We are grateful to Mr. Navin Kumar (Assistant Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Greater Noida Institute of Technology, Greater Noida) for his
priceless motivating direction and continual encouragement throughout the project. We have
been constantly inspired by his sincerity, diligence, and perseverance. Our endeavours have
only seen the light of day because of his conscientious efforts. We'd also like to thank Professor
Rajeev Kumar (Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Greater Noida Institute of
Technology, Greater Noida) for his unwavering support and assistance throughout the
project's development. We'd also want to thank all of the department's faculty members for
their invaluable assistance in the development of our project. Last but not least, we would like
to thank our friends for their assistance in completing this project.

Signature: Signature:

Name: Shubham Sahu Name: Shubham Anand

Roll no: 1713240092 Roll no: 1713240090

Signature: Signature:

Name: Sandeep Thakur Name: Shubham Tyagi

Roll no: 1713240080 Roll no: 1613240148

Signature:

Name: Siddhant Kashyap

Roll no: 1713240093

Page | i
 ABSTRACT

Reverse osmosis (R.O.) is a water purification process that removes ions, organics, bacteria,
and bigger particles from drinking water using a semi-permeable membrane. An applied
pressure is utilised to overcome osmotic pressure in reverse osmosis. It's a colligative property
that's influenced by the solvent's chemical potential variations. It basically deionizes or
demineralizes water by forcing it through a semipermeable reverse osmosis membrane under
pressure. We have a reverse osmosis water purifier with UV and UF. This study addresses the
creation of a RO water purifier with a built-in TDS metre that may be utilised for additional
water treatment in portable and industrial applications. Other water purifying processes that
are used on a daily basis have been listed.

Page | ii
 CONTENTS

CHAPTERS PAGE NO

Acknowledgement ⅰ

Abstract ⅱ

Contents ⅲ

List Of Figures ⅳ-ⅴ

1.) Project Overview 1-2

2.) Literature Review 3-20

3.) Introduction 21-22

4.) Design Basics Of R.O. System 23-24

5.) Technical Specifications Of R.O. System 25

6.) Types Of R.O. System 26-29

7.) Components Of R.O. System 30-41

8.) Concept Of Membranes Used In R.O. System 42-47

9.) Advantages & Disadvantages Of R.O. System 48

10.) Applications Of R.O. System 49

11.) Other Techniques 50-65

CONCLUSION 66

REFERENCES 67-70

Page | iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIG NO. TITLE PG NO.

2.1 REVERSE OSMOSIS PRODUCTION TRAIN,

NORTH CAPE CORAL REVERSE OSMOSIS PLANT 19

3.1 WATER FLOWS FOR FO & RO 21

6.1 COUNTERTOP RO WATER SYSTEM 26

6.2 UNDER THE SINK RO WATER SYSTEM 27

6.3 RO WATER SYSTEM WITH TANKS 28

6.4 RO WATER SYSTEM WITHOUT TANKS 29

7.1 SCHEMATIC OF RO SYSTEM 30

7.2 PARTS OF RO SYSTEM 31

7.3 PARTS OF RO SYSTEM 32

7.4 PARTS OF RO SYSTEM 33

7.5 SEDIMENT FILTER 34

7.6 GAC FILTER 35

7.7 CARBON FILTER 36

7.8 RO MEMBRANE 37

7.9 4 IN 1 FILTER 38

7.10 POST CARBON FILTER 39

7.11 FILTERING PROCESS 40

8.1 DIAGRAM OF RO MEMBRANE 42

8.2 STRUCTURE OF RO MEMBRANE 43

Page | iv
FIG NO. TITLE PG NO.

8.3 CUTAWAY VIEW OF SPIRAL MEMBRANE 44

8.4 PORE SIZE COMPARISON WITH DIFFERENT IMPURITIES 45

8.5 DIFFERENT ELEMENTS OF RO MEMBRANE 46

11.1 CHLORINE DISINFECTION OF WATER 50

11.2 FILTRATION 51

11.3 UV LIGHT WATER PURIFICATION 53

11.4 IODINE TREATMENT 55

11.5 SOLAR PURIFICATION 57

11.6 BOILING 58

11.7 DISTILLATION 60

11.8 ELECTRO DIALYSIS REVERSAL 61

11.9 FLOCCULATION 64

11.10 BIOREMEDIATION 65

Page | v
 CHAPTER 1

PROJECT OVERVIEW

This thesis report provides a summary of the research and assembly of a reverse
osmosis water purifier. In this section, we look at numerous words related to reverse osmosis
water plants and how they work. This project also intends to supply safe drinking water by
purifying it as efficiently as possible.

The operating mechanism of various filters used in home and commercial water
purifiers is also described in this project report.

We will also provide some information on the various components utilised in the
purification process, as well as their pricing, later in this project.

This research also analysed different types of membranes and their filtration capacity
when compared to water contaminants. The goal of this study is to improve filtering capacity
and quality by implementing some remedial actions.

1.1) Project Objective

a.) To comprehend the R.O. water purifier's functioning process.

b.) Its operation and applicability in several fields.

c.) Its application in both domestic and commercial settings.

d.) To acquire superior water quality while spending less money.

1.2) Abstract

Reverse osmosis (R.O.) is a water purification process that removes ions,

organics, bacteria, and bigger particles from drinking water using a semi-permeable
membrane.
An applied pressure is utilised to overcome osmotic pressure in reverse osmosis.
It's a colligative property that's influenced by the solvent's chemical potential variations.

Page | 1
 It basically deionizes or demineralizes water by forcing it through a
semipermeable reverse osmosis membrane under pressure. We have a reverse osmosis
water purifier with UV and UF. This paper highlights the creation of a RO water purifier
with a built-in TDS metre that can be used to purify water for potable and industrial
uses.

1.3) Project Scope

a.) The main goal of this project is to improve the quality of raw water by purifying it
with various types of filters.

b.) This type of initiative also aids individuals in consuming nutritious water, allowing
them to be free of numerous diseases.

c.) We can easily install both small and large scale water purifiers with the help of this
project.

Page | 2
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1) Study of polarized activated carbon filters as simultaneous adsorbent and 3D-
type electrode materials for electro-Fenton reactors.

Irma Robles, Gabriel Moreno-Rubio, Josu´e D. García-EspinozaA. Rodríguez,

Yunny Meas-Vong, Francisco J. Rodríguez-Valadez, Luis A. Godínez(Centro de
Investigacion ´ y Desarrollo Tecnol´ ogico en Electroquímica, Parque Tecnol´ ogico
Quer´etaro Sanfandila, 76703, Pedro Escobedo, Quer´etaro, Mexico), Carolina Martínez-
Sanchez(CONACYT – Centro de Investigacion ´ y Desarrollo Tecnol´ ogico en
Electroquímica, Quer´etaro, Mexico).

The goal of this work is to investigate the use of polarised activated carbon filters as a
simultaneous adsorbent to develop competitive degradation technology for persistent
contaminants in aqueous effluents. The effect of the AC source (lignitic or vegetal), AC acid
pre-treatment, particle size distribution, and the amount of Fe loaded resin in the reactor were
investigated using a factorial experimental design. The AC source was shown to be the most
influential parameter in the reactor's EF performance based on the results. The AC acid pre-
treatment, which reduces Fe ion adsorption on the AC substrate, had only minor impacts. The
utilisation of a wide particle dispersion of AC particles improved inter-particle electrical
interaction, favouring the electrochemical reactions that occur inside the reactor. An
examination of the effect of the amount of Fe in the reactor, as well as its distribution dynamics,
found that an excess of Fe ions in the reactor reduces the system's EF performance because Fe
ions effectively adsorb on the AC substrate, especially in non-acid treated samples.

2.2) Molecular Simulations of Water Transport Resistance in Polyamide RO

Membranes: Interfacial and Interior Contributions.

Yang Song, Mingjie Wei, Fang Xu, Yong Wang(State Key Laboratory of Materials-
Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University,
Nanjing 211816, China).

Page | 3
 At the molecular level, this research tries to explain the transport resistance of water
molecules in polyamide (PA) reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. In this paper, we use molecular
simulation to compute overall transport resistance by separating it into two components:
internal and interfacial. The inner resistance is proportional to the PA layer thickness, whereas
the interfacial resistance is not. Interfacial resistance accounts for more than 62 percent of
overall resistance, according to simulations based on the 5 nm PA layer. The simulation shows
that reducing the quantity of residual carboxyl groups in the PA layer reduces interior
resistance, allowing for increased water permeability without sacrificing ion rejection, which
is in great accord with the experimental results.

2.3) Simulating and predicting the flux change of reverse osmosis membranes
over time during wastewater reclamation caused by organic fouling.

Xin Tong, Yin-Hu Wua, Yun-Hong Wang, Yuan Bai, Xue-Hao Zhao, Li-Wei Luo,
Yu Mao( Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State
Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk
Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China),
Nozomu Ikuno(Kurita Water Industries Ltd., Nakano-ku, Tokyo 164-0001, Japan), Hong-
Ying Hu(Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State
Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk
Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China;
Shenzhen Environmental Science and New Energy Technology Engineering Laboratory,
Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen 518055, PR China).

Simulating and predicting the flow change of reverse osmosis membranes over time
during wastewater reclamation due to organic fouling is the goal of this work. The flux change
of RO membranes across a wide range of conditions was described using a modified
intermediate blocking model with two parameters presented in this study. The practicality of
this model was validated using raw data from over 20 research groups from 11 different
nations. It was found to be useful in describing the flow change of RO membranes contaminated
by pure organic matter or a mixture of pure organic matter and tertiary processed effluent. RO
membrane fouling behaviours of typical foulants (sodium alginate (SA), bovine serum albumin
(BSA), and mixed) were examined further to reveal the relationship between model parameters
and foulant concentrations. The change in model parameters with SA concentrations was found

Page | 4
to be consistent with the Langmuir adsorption isotherm model. As a result, SA concentrations
may be used to calculate model parameters under specified optional conditions, and the flow
change could then be anticipated using this model.

2.4) On-line dosing of Ammonium Biflouride for reduction of silica

scaling on RO membranes.

Ehab A. Rashed, Minerva E. Matta(Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University,

Egypt), Maha M. Elshafei, Khaled M. Naguib(Housing & Building National Research
Center, Egypt), M.A. Hiekl(International Office for Water and Environmental Studies, Egypt).

The purpose of this study is to see if employing Ammonium Biflouride (ABF) as an anti-
scaling agent can help improve the performance of RO membranes. For the mitigation of
scaling produced by silica (SiO2) on RO membranes, ABF was employed as an on-line dosing
system with various doses. Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray
Spectroscopy (SEM–EDS) were used to investigate the anti-scaling agent's efficiency in all
phases before and after employing the anti-scaling agent on the employed RO membrane
surface. Silica and TDS were the key metrics that were measured. After filtration, the cross-
flow RO membrane showed flux loss. At constant pH =6, ABF dosages of 2, 4, and 6 mg/l were
employed, with the best dose being 4 mg/l.

2.5) Functionalization of reverse osmosis membrane with graphene oxide

and polyacrylic acid to control biofouling and mineral scaling.

Mohammad Y. Ashfaq, Mohammad A. Al-Ghouti, Nabil Zouari(Department of

Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, State
of Qatar, Doha, P.O. Box: 2713, Qatar).

The goal of this study is to use graphene oxide and polyacrylic acid to improve the
reverse osmosis membrane to reduce biofouling and mineral scaling. The water contact angle
decreased from 41.7 4.5° for unmodified RO membranes to 24.41.3° for modified RO
membranes after functionalization, indicating that membrane hydrophilicity was greatly
improved, in addition to improved surface smoothness. Antiscaling and anti-biofouling
properties of the modified membranes were investigated. The permeate flux was reduced by

Page | 5
only 3% when the mineral scaling test was done with CaSO4 solution as feedwater, compared
to a 22 percent decline in flux for the unmodified RO membrane by the end of the experiment.
Scanning electron microscopy – energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Fourier transform
infrared, and X-ray diffraction methods were used to describe the membrane surface after the
scaling test. The modified membranes' surface smoothness and hydrophilicity were improved.
When compared to an unmodified RO membrane, the permeate flux was only reduced by 3%.
Nearly 97 percent of the bacterial cells were inhibited by the changed membranes. Both
gypsum scaling and biofouling were reduced by the modified membranes.

2.6) A case study of organic micropollutants in a major Swedish water

source – Removal efficiency in seven drinking water treatment plants
and influence of operational age of granulated active carbon filters.

Rikard Tröger, Stephan J. Köhler, Vera Franke, Karin Wiberg(Department of

Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences SLU, Box 7050,
SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden), Stephan J. Köhler(Norrvatten, Box 2093, SE-169 02 Solna,
Sweden), Olof Bergstedt(City of Gothenburg, Box 123, Angered SE-424 23, Sweden).

The purpose of this paper is to investigate organic micropollutants in a significant

Swedish water source. In water samples from the Göta lv river (Sweden's second largest source
water), a wide range of organic micropollutants (n = 163) representing several compound
categories (pharmaceuticals, pesticides, per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances, flame
retardants, phthalates, food additives, drugs, and benzos) were analysed. Raw water and
finished drinking water from seven drinking water treatment facilities were also sampled, as
well as a more extensive sampling at one of the treatment plants following the installation of
six granulated active carbon filters of varied operational ages. There were 27 organic
micropollutants found in total, with concentrations ranging from 0.1 ng L-1 to 54 ng L-1.
Increased concentrations downstream the river represented the impact of human activities
throughout the flow channel, with total values ranging from 65 ngL-1 at the start of the river
to 120 ngL-1 at the last sampling station.Treatment plants that used granular active carbon
filters (n = 4; average 60 percent ) or artificial infiltration (n=1; 65 percent ) had considerably
higher removal effectiveness (p = 0.014; one-sided t-test) than those that used a more
traditional treatment method (n = 2; 38 percent ). The carbon filters' operational age had a
significant impact on the removal. A filter with a 12-month operational age and a recent

Page | 6
addition of 10% new material had an average removal effectiveness of 92 percent, whereas a
25-month old filter had an average of 76 percent, and a 71-month old filter had an even lower
34 percent. Fresh granulated active carbon improved the removal of hydrophobic organic
compounds, such as dissolved organic carbon and per- and polyfluorinated alkyl chemicals.

2.7) PDMS coating of used TFC-RO membranes for O2/N2 and CO2/N2 gas
separation applications.

Mohammad Reza Moradi, Mahdi Pourafshari Chenar, Seyed Hossein

Noie(Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ferdowsi University of
Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran), Mohammad Reza Moradi, Mahdi Pourafshari
Chenar(Research Center of Membrane Processes and Membrane, Faculty of Engineering,
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran), Mehrdad Hesampour(Kemira Oyj, R&D
Center, Espoo, Finland), Mika Manttari(Membrane Technology Research Group, LUT
School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta University of Technology, Lappeenranta 53851,
Finland).

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the PDMS coating of commonly used TFC-
RO membranes for gas separation applications such as O2/N2 and CO2/N2. In this case, three
pretreatment techniques were performed to remove foulants from the surface of the utilised
membrane, after which it was covered with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The results showed
that RO membranes coated with PDMS were capable of separating O2/N2 and CO2/N2.
Coated membranes had maximum O2/N2 and CO2/N2 selectivities of 5.9 and 32.5,
respectively. The O2/N2 and CO2/N2 selectivities of PDMS membranes have been reported to
be in the ranges of 2.1e2.2 and 11e12. Finally, a cost comparison was made between
homemade PDMS coated RO membranes and commercial PPO membranes. Coated
membranes were found to be less expensive than PPO membranes for CO2/N2 gas separation.
The study produced a straightforward method for converting used RO membranes into low-
cost gas separation membranes.

2.8) Synthesis and Surface Characterization of Magnetite-Titania

Nanoparticles/Polyamide Nanocomposite Smart RO Membrane.

Page | 7
 A. Tayefeh, R. Poursalehi(Nanomaterials Group, Materials Engineering Department,
Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, P.O.Box:14115-111, Iran), S. A. Mousavi(Polymer
Group, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology,
Tehran, Iran), M. Wiesner(Center of Environmental Implications of Nanotechnology
(CEINT), Duke University, Durham, USA).

The goal of this research is to create a Magnetite-Titania Nanoparticles/Polyamide

Nanocomposite Smart RO Membrane and characterise its surface. The effects of loading
magnetite (Fe3O4) and titania (TiO2) nanoparticles in trimesoyl chloride (TMC) organic
solution and metaphenylene diamine (MPD) aqueous solution on the surface characteristics of
polyamide layer were examined in this study. The shape, EDS line, and map analysis of Fe3O4
coated PSf layer, as well as in-situ decreased Fe3O4 by impregnation of precursors inside PSf
layer following creation of PA top coat, were also taken into account. Scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-
FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and contact angle measurement were used to examine the
morphology, dispersion, and surface bonds of magnetite and titania nanoparticles with
polyamide, as well as the hydrophilicity of magnetic nanocomposite RO membranes. Energy
dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) was used to examine the trace of nanoparticles inside the
membrane cross section. Surface energy, contact angle, roughness, and polyamide layer free
bonds were all affected by the different magnetite nanoparticle weight % utilised in the
samples. Furthermore, the optimal concentration of magnetite nanoparticles for improving the
surface properties of a high-efficiency reverse osmosis membrane was discovered. The findings
could lead to a more adaptable method for making high-efficiency magnetic responsive
nanocomposite smart RO membranes.

2.9) Treatment of young and stabilized landfill leachate by integrated

sequencing batch reactor (SBR) and reverse osmosis (RO) process.

Izabela Anna Tałałaj, Izabela Bartkowska, Paweł Biedka(Faculty of Civil

Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Bialystok University of Technology, Wiejska 45E
Street, 15-351 Bialystok, Poland).

The goal of this research is to use an integrated sequencing batch reactor (SBR) and
reverse osmosis (RO) technology to treat juvenile and stabilised landfill leachate. A municipal

Page | 8
landfill in north-eastern Poland provided samples of young and stabilised leachate. In raw
leachate and after each phase of leachate treatment, general pollutant parameters, organic
and inorganic indicators were determined. Permeate flux, electroconductivity removal rate,
concentration factor, and removal rate were used to determine the performance characteristics
of the reverse osmosis system. The use of biological pre-treatment has a high efficacy in
removing ammonia nitrogen (>98 percent for both leachate). When compared to stabilised
leachate, the effectiveness of SBR treatment for BOD (64 percent), Fe (29 percent), Cl- (0.2
percent), and Total Organic Carbon (-5.3 percent) was lower for juvenile leachate. When
compared to young leachate, pretreated leachate was sent to a RO system that had better
operating parameters during filtration of stabilised leachate: the average permeate flux was
greater by 3.3 L/m2s10-6 and the filtration time was shorter by 110 min. The main cause of
membrane clogging during juvenile leachate filtering was a higher amount of organic matter,
which was neutralised by Ca2+ and N-NH4 + in the leachate, resulting in clogging of the
negatively charged RO membrane. Another factor could be the complicated synthesis of iron
and natural organic materials on the membrane surface or within the pores. The integrated
SBR-RO approach was shown to have a high removal efficiency (above 80%) for all of the
parameters studied in this study.

2.10) Novel stand-alone PVA mixed matrix membranes

conjugated with graphene oxide for highly improved
reverse osmosis performance.

Wail Falath(Center of Research Excellence in Desalination and Water Treatment,

King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals(KFUPM),Dhahran31261; SaudiArabia
Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia).

By conjugating innovative stand-alone PVA mixed matrix membranes with graphene

oxide, this work intends to greatly increase reverse osmosis performance. An novel Poly (vinyl
alcohol) (PVA) reverse osmosis (RO) membrane with outstanding properties was developed in
this study. To make thin film mixed matrix membranes, Graphene Oxide (GO) nanosheets and
Pluronic F-127 were infused into crosslinked PVA. Using a dead-end RO filtration unit, the
newly synthesised membranes were assessed for surface roughness, hydrophilicity, salt
rejection, water permeability, chlorine tolerance, and anti-biofouling capability. The

Page | 9
properties of the membranes were assessed using standard characterisation techniques. SEM,
AFM, contact angle measurements, and mechanical strength studies are among them. Pluronic
F-127 and GO conjugation improved the membranes' overall performance. In comparison to
the original membranes, the changed membranes displayed decreased roughness and higher
hydrophilicity. Membranes containing 0.08 wt percent and 0.1 wt percent GO had better
selectivity, mechanical strength, chlorine tolerance, and anti-biofouling properties, according
to this study. The most notable result of this experiment is that improvements were made while
PVA was utilised as a stand-alone RO layer without the usage of any substrate. This study
found that crosslinking PVA and altering it with the right fillers was able to overcome the main
drawbacks of PVA, namely swelling and rupture under extremely high pressure.

2.11) A spatiotemporal model for dynamic RO simulations.

Mingheng Li(Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, California State

Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA).

The goal of this research is to provide a spatiotemporal model for dynamic RO

desalination simulations. The model explicitly accounts for pressure drop, concentration
polarisation, and axial dispersion along the pressure vessels. To solve the coupled partial
differential equations (PDEs) in the model, a thorough numerical technique based on
orthogonal collocation on finite elements in the spatial domain is described. The suggested
approach is demonstrated using two examples: RO with periodic feed flow reversal and
membrane flushing with/without permeation flux in batch operations. During feed flow
reversal, the salt concentration overshoots, according to the simulation. If permeate flux is
switched off during the flushing time for batch operations, flushing efficacy is greatly improved.

2.12) Macroscopic and microscopic characterizations of a

cellulosic ultrafiltration (UF) membrane fouled by a
humic acid cake deposit: First step for intensification
of reverse osmosis (RO) pre-treatments.

Anju Thekkedath, Wahib M. Naceur, Karima Kecili, Mohammed Sbai, Audrey

Elana, Maxime Pontie(University of Angers, Group Analysis and Processes (GAP), 2,

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boulevard Lavoisier, 49045 Angers cedex 01, France), Wahib M. Naceur(Department of
Chemical Engineering, University of Saad Dahlab, BP 270, Soumaa road, Blida, Algeria),
Karima Kecili, Herve´ Suty, Claire Machinal(Anjou-Recherche, Veolia Water, chemin de la
Digue, 78603 Maisons-Laffitte, France), Laurent Auret(Ne´oSens S.A. Prologue, La
Pyre´ne´enne, BP 27201, 31672 Labege cedex, France).

The goal of this work is to gain a better knowledge of the fouling phenomena that occur
on a regenerated cellulose UF membrane that has been fouled with a humic acid cake deposit.
This work is unique in that it takes a dual approach to surface analysis at both the macroscopic
and microscopic sizes. Cake formation, which plays a large role in flux decline via the well-
known model of resistances in series, is currently thought to be the principal cause of humic
acid fouling. The adsorbed resistance is 2% of the overall resistance, while the cake resistance
is 52% of the entire resistance, which is higher than the virgin membrane resistance. For the
first time, field emission gun scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) revealed that the humic
acid cake is well ordered, especially in fractal patterns. The cake's fractal dimension (FD) is
2.52, which is close to the theoretical fractal dimension of particleecluster aggregation that
underpins diffusion-limited aggregation (FD 14 2.51). With the presence of cake, this new
microscopic fouling index decreases, which can be linked to a decrease in hydraulic
permeability. The traditional silt density index (SDI) and the new modified fouling index
(denoted MFI-UF) were calculated, confirming the cake's presence. To round out this strategy,
we used a new homemade apparatus constructed in our lab and described for the first time in
this publication to measure transmembrane streaming potential (denoted SP). This allowed us
to see minuscule molecular fractions of humic acid penetrate the membrane. Indeed, the
displacement of the membrane's isoelectric point (iep) from 2.3 to 1.5 for virgin and fouling
membranes, respectively, allowed for this penetration to be demonstrated. This newly
developed SP apparatus is a semi-automatic equipment that works with proFluid 1.2 software.

2.13) Assessing the sensory and physicochemical impact of reverse osmosis

membrane technology to dealcoholize two different beer styles.

Imogen Ramsey, Qian Yang, Rebecca Ford(Sensory Science Centre, Division of

Food, Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton
Bonington Campus,Loughborough LE12 5RD,United Kingdom), Imogen Ramsey, Ian Fisk,
Charfedinne Ayed(Food Flavour Laboratory, Division of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics,

Page | 11
School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough
LE12 5RD, United Kingdom).

By evaluating the taste and physicochemical impact of reverse osmosis membrane

technology, this paper intends to de-alcoholize two different beer varieties. Physicochemical
properties (volatiles, pH, ABV, polyphenols, bitterness) and sensory profiles of two beer
matrices (stout, lager, 5% ABV) and their dealcoholized counterparts (0.5 percent ABV) were
directly compared using a trained descriptive panel (n = 12) and a pilot scale dealcoholisation
unit fitted with reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. For each beer, repeat dealcoholisation trials
(n=3) were used to assess the efficiency and consistency of RO membranes. When comparing
major volatile chemicals with linear structures (ethyl octanoate, octan-1-ol) to those with
increasing levels of branching, statistical analysis found substantial decreases (p0.05) (3-
methylbutyl acetate, 2-methylpropan-1-ol). There were also significant reductions (p 0.0001)
in the sensory qualities of "fruity/estery," "alcoholic/solvent," "malty," "sweetness," and
"body." Finally, differences in volatile reduction revealed membrane fouling, whereas higher
processing times for the stout throughout repeated experiments suggested membrane blockage.
This groundbreaking study claims that compound structure, not compound size, influences RO
membrane permeability and, as a result, sensory quality.

2.14) Defect free hollow fiber reverse osmosis membranes by combining

layer-by-layer and interfacial polymerization.

Türkan Ormanci-Acar, Mehrdad Mohammadifakhr, Nieck E. Benes, Wiebe M.

de Vos(Membrane Science and Technology, MESAþ Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, the Netherlands), Türkan Ormanci-
Acar(Istanbul University-Cerrahpas¸a, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental
Engineering, 34320, Avcılar, Istanbul, Turkey).

By combining layer-by-layer and interfacial polymerization, this research attempts to

manufacture defect-free hollow fibre reverse osmosis membranes. To provide a regulated and
smooth surface that can still operate as an IP monomer reservoir, a polyelectrolyte multilayer
(PEM) is employed to fill the pores of a support membrane. IP layers were successfully applied
to both poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC)/poly(4-styrene sulfonate)
(PSS) and poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI)/PSS PEMs on a model surface. IP coating was found to

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have a success rate of just 40% on basic hollow fibre support membranes. The success
percentage for PDADMAC/PSS and PEI/PSS increases to 72 percent and 90 percent,
respectively, when a PEM interlayer is used. With just a small decrease in permeability (from
0.9 L/m2hbar to 0.7 L/m2hbar), the separation performance of the successfully prepared IP
membranes was significantly improved when a PEM interlayer was applied, with higher NaCl
retentions (from 94 percent to 97 percent) and better removal of organic micro-pollutants
(from 96 percent to 98 percent). By combining layer-by-layer and IP techniques, defect-free
RO membranes with higher separation performance can be created.

2.15) A comparison between chemical cleaning efficiency in lab-scale and

full-scale reverse osmosis membranes: Role of extracellular polymeric
substances (EPS).

M. Jafari, J. Zlopasa, J.S. Vrouwenvelder, M.C.M. van Loosdrecht, C.

Picioreanu(Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of
Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ, Delft, the Netherlands), M. Jafari, A. D’haese,
E.R. Cornelissen, A. Verliefde(Particle and Interfacial Technologies Group, Faculty of
Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium), E.R.
Cornelissen(KWR Water Cycle Research Institute, Groningenhaven 7, 3433 PE, Nieuwegein,
the Netherlands; Singapore Membrane Technology Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water
Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637141, Singapore), J.S.
Vrouwenvelder(King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Water
Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC), Division of Biological and Environmental Science
and Engineering (BESE), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia), K. Verbeken(Department of
Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, Technologiepark Zwijnaarde
46, B-9052, Zwijnaarde, Belgium).

Chemical cleaning efficiency in lab-scale and full-scale reverse osmosis membranes is

compared in this paper. They looked at whether lab-scale CIP results might be used in full-
scale applications. Under typical lab-scale and full-scale settings, CIP efficiency in terms of
water flux recovery and biofouling qualities (biomass content, Extracellular Polymeric
Substances (EPS) composition, and EPS adhesion) were compared using a lab-scale flow cell
(i.e., MFSs) and two full-scale RO modules. We discovered a considerable difference in CIP
efficiency between lab-scale (50%) and full-scale (9–20%) RO membranes. Traditional

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biomass analyses, such as total organic carbon (TOC) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
assays, revealed no link between the reported trend in CIP efficiency in lab-scale and full-scale
RO membranes. Biofilms formed in the lab, on the other hand, contain a different EPS than
biofilms formed in full-scale RO modules. In contrast to biofilms formed in fullscale modules,
which contain protein-rich EPS (Protein/Polysaccharide ratio 14 2.2), biofilms developed in
lab-scale MFS have polysaccharide-rich EPS (Protein/Polysaccharide ratio 14 0.5).
Furthermore, EPS extracted from full-scale biofilms has a stronger affinity and rigidity to the
membrane surface than EPS recovered from lab-scale biofilms, according to EPS analyses. As
a result, we advise that CIP methods be optimised over time utilising actual feed water in long-
term trials.

2.16) Microbial biofilm communities on Reverse Osmosis membranes in whey

water processing before and after cleaning.

Eirini Vitzilaiou, Iuliana Madalina Stoica, Susanne Knøchel(Department of Food

Science, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 26, DK-1958,
Frederiksberg C, Denmark).

The goal of this study is to identify and describe microbial biofilm populations on
Reverse Osmosis membranes in the whey water processing industry before and after cleaning.
Before and after Cleaning-In-Place (CIP) treatments, industrial RO membranes from whey
water recovery lines in a dairy business were evaluated. The biofilms were seen using phase
contrast and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM). The yeast population and the
Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) were counted, and the dominating isolates were identified
using 16S, 26S, and ITS RNA sequencing. Together with budding yeasts and Gram-negative
bacteria, a dense biofilm of the filamentous yeast species Saprochaete clavata and
Magnusiomyces spicifer was found. Long hyphae dominated the biofilm on the retentate and
permeate surfaces, and the filamentous yeasts were not inactivated by the conventional CIP
treatment. Because neither plate counts nor DNA-based approaches accurately capture the
filamentous yeasts' extensive membrane coverage, their significance in biofouling is readily
overlooked. When exploring the influence of alternative CIP treatments or new RO membrane
qualities in the dairy industry, we recommend using filamentous yeasts in future studies on
fouling of water treatment membranes.

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2.17) Design, modelling and optimisation of a batch reverse osmosis (RO)
desalination system using a free piston for brackish water treatment.

Kiho Park, Liam Burlace, Philip A. Davies(School of Engineering, University of

Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom), Nirajan
Dhakal(Department of Water Supply Sanitation and Environmental Engineering, IHE Delft,
West Vest 7, 2611 AX Delft, the Netherlands), Anurag Mudgal(Department of Mechanical
Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat 382007, India), Neil A. Stewart(Modus Research and Innovation Limited, Software
Centre, Dundee Technology Park, Dundee DD2 1TY, United Kingdom).

The goal of this work is to build, simulate, and optimise a batch reverse osmosis (RO)
desalination system for brackish water treatment employing a free piston. Batch RO is a
desalination concept that uses the least amount of energy necessary while still attaining
excellent recovery rates. They demonstrated a batch RO system that operates in two alternate
phases cyclically. To transfer pressure from the feed fluid to the recirculating fluid, the system
employs a free piston housed in a pressure vessel. There is currently no complete design
procedure for this setup. They provided a systematic model based on justified assumptions to
fill this gap. The feed pump, recirculating pump, and auxiliary loads all contribute to the total
specific energy consumption (SEC). Concentration polarisation, longitudinal concentration
gradient, and salt retention are three nonideal correction factors used in the feed pump SEC
calculation. The model is implemented in a simple three-step approach that only involves the
solution of explicit algebraic equations and does not require the use of specialised numerical
techniques. The model is used to solve a problem with brackish water desalination using an 8-
inch spiral-wound RO module. In a sensitivity analysis, the design parameters are studied and
optimised. The results reveal that the optimised batch RO can create fresh water with minimal
energy usage at 80 percent recovery, with a 2nd law efficiency of 33.2 percent compared to
10–15 percent for standard brackish water RO.

2.18) Selective laser assisted impairment of reverse

osmosis membranes.

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 Bogdan C. Donose, Ashwin Vijayan Premavally(School of Chemical Engineering,
The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4067, Australia), Ashwin Vijayan Premavally,
Marie-Laure Pype, Katrin Doederer(Advanced Water Management Centre, The University
of Queensland, St Lucia 4067, Australia).

The goal of this study is to use a laser to selectively degrade reverse osmosis
membranes. Using nanosecond pulsed laser ablation, we demonstrate a simple method for
producing arrays of micro-holes in a commercially available RO membrane. The novel method
is used to create four samples, each with a different number of holes of increasing diameter
and depth. These samples were then put through a series of tests to see if there was any affect
on filtration performance. The flux was found to be related to the laser pulse
density/penetration. In RO membranes, uniform radius flaws were generated. Deeper flaws
are caused by higher pulse density. It is possible to ablate all three layers.

2.19) Enhanced biofilm solubilization by urea in reverse osmosis membrane

systems.

H. Sanawar, N.M. Farhat, Sz.S. Bucs, G.J. Witkamp, J.S. Vrouwenvelder(King

Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Water Desalination and Reuse
Center (WDRC), Division of Biological and Environmental
Science and Engineering (BESE), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia), I. Pinel, J. Zlopasa,
G.J. Witkamp, M.C.M. van Loosdrecht, J.S. Vrouwenvelder(Department of
Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg
9, 2629, HZ Delft, the Netherlands), J.C. Kruithof(Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for
Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911, MA, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands).

The goal of this study is to use urea to improve biofilm solubilization in reverse osmosis
membrane systems. The effectiveness of urea cleaning for RO membrane systems was
compared to that of conventional acid/alkali treatment in this paper. Preliminary testing
revealed that urea did not harm the RO polyamide membranes and that membrane cleaning
effectiveness increased as urea content and temperature increased. Membrane fouling
simulators were used to accelerate biofilm growth, which were then cleaned using I 0.01M
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and 0.1M hydrochloric acid (HCl) (usually used in industry), (ii)
urea (CO(NH2)2) and hydrochloric acid, or (iii) urea just (1340g/Lwater).

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The effectiveness of the chemical cleanings was determined by measuring the pressure
decrease across the flow channel. After washing the membrane and spacer surfaces, the
chemical oxygen demand (COD), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), protein, and carbohydrate
content were measured to assess biomass removal. Fluorescence excitationemission matrix
(FEEM) spectroscopy was used to distinguish the difference in organic matter of the remaining
biomass to assess biofilm solubilization efficacy of the different cleaning agents, in addition to
protein and carbohydrate quantification of the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). In
terms of restoring feed channel pressure drop, two-stage CO(NH2)2/HCl cleaning was as
effective as cleaning with NaOH/HCl (>70 percent pressure drop decrease). The value of the
second-stage low pH acid cleaning in weakening the biofilm matrix was demonstrated by the
fact that one-stage cleaning with urea alone was not as efficient. The amounts of the two most
common EPS components, protein and glucose, were reduced by more than half in all three
chemical cleaning processes (>50 percent reduction in concentrations). Cleaning techniques
based on urea, on the other hand, were more effective in removing protein-like debris and
tyrosine-containing proteins. Furthermore, ATP tests revealed that following treatment with
urea-based chemical cleanings, biomass inactivation was up to two-fold higher than after
treatment with standard acid/alkali. The effectiveness of urea as an alternative, cost-efficient,
environmentally acceptable, and effective chemical cleaning agent for biological fouling
control was successfully established.

2.20) Effectiveness of antiscalants in preventing calcium phosphate scaling in

reverse osmosis applications.

M. Nasir Mangal, Sergio G. Salinas-Rodriguez, Jan C. Schippers, Maria

D.Kennedy(IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Water Supply, Sanitation and
Environmental Engineering Department, Westvest 7, 2611, AX, Delft, Netherlands), M. Nasir
Mangal, Antoine J.B. Kemperman, Walter G.J. van der Meer(University of Twente,
Faculty of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 217, 7500, AE, Enschede, Netherlands), Jos
Dusseldorp, Walter G.J. van der Meer(Oasen Drinkwater, Nieuwe Gouwe O.Z. 3, 2801, SB,
Gouda,Netherlands), Maria D. Kennedy(Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Stevinweg 1, 2628, CN, Delft, Netherlands)

The goal of this study is to see if antiscalants may prevent calcium phosphate scaling
in RO systems without adding acid. In batch (in glass reactors) experiments, eight calcium
phosphate antiscalants from different manufacturers were tested to inhibit the formation of
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calcium phosphate in synthetic concentrate corresponding to 85 percent recovery (Ca2+ =
765 mg/L, PO4 3- = 13–15 mg/L, and pH = 7.6) of a groundwater RO in the Netherlands. In
addition, once-through lab-scale RO tests were carried out, in which a RO element was fed
synthetic concentrate and the performance of antiscalants was assessed based on the rate of
flux-decline in the RO element. The deposition of amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) on the
RO membrane caused a significant flow reduction in the absence of antiscalant addition. The
investigated antiscalants were unable to suppress the synthesis of ACP or prevent the
deposition of the produced ACP particles, as the flow of the RO element reduced by at least
15% over a 3-hour period with each antiscalant. In summary, the available antiscalants
examined in this study did not provide enough calcium phosphate scaling inhibition in RO
applications.

2.1) An Overview Of RO Water Purifier

This thesis report provides a summary of the research and assembly of a reverse
osmosis water purifier. In this section, we look at numerous words related to reverse
osmosis water plants and how they work. This project also intends to supply safe
drinking water by purifying it as efficiently as possible.
The functioning mechanisms of several filters used in home and commercial
water purifiers are also described in this research report. We will also provide some
information on the various components utilised in the purification process, as well as
their pricing, later in this project.
This research also analysed different types of membranes and their filtration
capacity when compared to water contaminants. The goal of this study is to improve
filtering capacity and quality by implementing some remedial actions.

2.2) History

Jean-Antoine Nollet observed osmosis through semipermeable membranes for

the first time in 1748. For the next 200 years, osmosis was solely known as a laboratory

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 occurrence. The University of California at Los Angeles was the first to research
seawater desalination using semipermeable membranes in 1950.
In the mid-1950s, researchers from the University of California at Los Angeles
and the University of Florida successfully produced fresh water from seawater, but the
flux was too low to be commercially viable until Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa Sourirajan
of the National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, discovered techniques for
making asymmetries at the University of California at Los Angeles. FilmTec
Corporation's John Cadotte revealed that interfacial polymerization of m-phenylene
diamine and trimesoylchloride may produce membranes with a high flux and low salt
passage.
Cadotte's patent on this procedure was challenged in court and eventually
expired. This technology is now used to make almost all commercial reverse osmosis
membrane. Around 15,200 desalination plants were in operation or in the development
stages around the world by the end of 2001.

FIG 2.1 REVERSE OSMOSIS PRODUCTION TRAIN, NORTH CAPE CORAL

REVERSE OSMOSIS PLANT

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 With its initial operating capacity of 3 million gallons (11350 m3) per day, Cape Coral,
Florida became the first municipality in the United States to implement the RO process on a
major scale in 1977. Cape Coral had the world's largest low-pressure reverse osmosis facility
by 1985, capable of generating 15 million gallons per day (MGD) (56800 m3/d) due to the
city's fast population increase.

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 CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that removes ions, molecules, and
bigger particles from drinking water using a semipermeable membrane. An applied pressure
is utilised in reverse osmosis to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative phenomenon
generated by chemical potential differences in the solvent, a thermodynamic parameter.Many
forms of dissolved and suspended species, including bacteria, can be removed from water using
reverse osmosis, which is utilised in both industrial processes and the manufacture of drinkable
water.As a result, the solute is trapped on the pressured side of the membrane while the pure
solvent is permitted to pass through. This membrane must not allow large molecules or ions to
pass through the pores (holes) in order to be "selective," but it must enable smaller components
of the solution (such as solvent molecules) to flow freely.

FIG 3.1 WATER FLOWS FOR FO & RO

The solvent travels naturally through a membrane from an area of low solute
concentration (high water potential) to an area of high solute concentration in the typical
osmosis process (low water potential). The reduction in the free energy of the system when the
difference in solvent concentration on either side of a membrane is reduced, generating osmotic
pressure due to the solvent migrating into the more concentrated solution, is the driving force

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for the movement of the solvent. Reverse osmosis is the process of using external pressure to
reverse the natural flow of a pure solution. The procedure is similar to that used in other
membrane-based applications. However, there are significant variations between reverse
osmosis and filtration.

Because straining, or size exclusion, is the most common removal mechanism in

membrane filtration, the process can potentially attain complete efficiency regardless of
parameters like solution pressure and concentration. Diffusion is also involved in reverse
osmosis, making the process reliant on pressure, flow rate, and other factors. The most typical
application of reverse osmosis is the purification of drinking water from seawater by
eliminating salt and other effluent elements from the water molecules.

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 CHAPTER 4

DESIGN BASICS OF RO SYSTEM

Following is the raw water quality which shall be considered for

the design of R.O. plant :

S.NO. PARAMETERS RESULTS

1 Appearance Clear

2 Colour (Pt-Co or Hazen Units) 15

3 pH@250C 8.50

4 Conductivity (in µmhos/cm) 2100

5 Turbidity (in NTU) 7.0

6 Total dissolved solids (in ppm) 1500

7 Total hardness of CaCO3 (in ppm) 700

1.) Appearance

Basically, we consider that raw water has a clear appearance in this design.
Without any difficulty, the raw water may be seen with the naked eye.

2.) Colour

The filtration process is carried out with colourless raw water. The most
common measurements for measuring the colour of water are platinum-cobalt and
HAZEN units.

3.) pH Scale

These scales are used to determine the acidic and basic character of input raw
water. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with a value of 0-7 indicating increasing acidic
character and 8-14 indicating basic character.

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4.) Conductivity

The ability of water to conduct electricity is measured by its conductivity. This

ability is proportional to the ion concentrations in the water.

5.) Turbidity

Turbidity, like smoke in the air, is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid generated
by a vast number of small particles that are normally invisible to the naked eye.
Turbidity is an important indicator of water quality. In a nutshell, it's measured in NTUs
(Nephelometric Turbidity Unit).

6.) Total Dissolved Solid

Any minerals, salts, metals, cations, or anions dissolved in water are referred to
as dissolved solids. Inorganic salts and a little quantity of organic materials are
dissolved in water to form Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).

7.) Total Hardness

To avoid scaling at high temperatures, water should have a total hardness of less
than 75 to 85 mg/l as CaCO3 and a magnesium hardness of less than 40 mg/l as CaCO3.
Total hardness was previously measured in PPM (Parts per million). It's the most
popular unit for measuring water hardness.

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 CHAPTER 5

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF RO SYSTEM

RO PLANT CAPACITY 25 lph

RAW WATER PUMP (K-48) 1 No.

PUMP FLOW RATE 25 lph

FILTER MEDIAS Membranes, sediment filters & activated

carbon

ACTIVATED CARBON FILTER Acf1054

VESSEL

MULTI PORT VALVE 25 NB fully automatic

ELECTRICAL CABLES 1 Lot.

RO MEMBRANE 2 Nos.

MEMBRANE HOUSING 2+2+1

SEDIMENT FILTER 2 Nos.

ACTIVATED CARBON CARTRIDGE 1 No.

FLOW RESISTOR 1 No.

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 CHAPTER 6

TYPES OF RO SYSTEM

R.O. water systems are classified according to their filtration stages and range from
commercial to domestic.

6.1) Countertop System

a.) These sorts of R.O Systems are typically small and can be installed in your kitchen.

b.) They're lightweight, efficient, and don't require any special skills to set up.

FIG 6.1 COUNTERTOP RO WATER SYSTEM

c.) They are less expensive and designed for small households.

d.) These systems create a tiny amount of water, which is inconvenient for large
families.

6.2) Under The Sink System

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a.) These are typically larger than their countertop counterparts.

b.) They are put under the sink and are connected to the water supply so that the filtered
water flows directly from it.

c.) Because they produce a higher amount of water, these systems are ideal for large
families or commercial use.

FIG 6.2 UNDER THE SINK RO WATER SYSTEM

d.) The installation and upkeep of this system is typically more challenging than that of
countertop models.

e.) They are more expensive and more difficult to transport.

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6.3) RO System With Tanks

a.) R.O Systems feature tanks that retain water once it has been filtered at first.

FIG 6.3 RO WATER SYSTEM WITH TANKS

b.) These systems ensure that water is available at all times.

c.) One issue with these systems is that water that has been held in the tank for an
extended period of time might alter in taste and become unfit for drinking.

6.4) RO System Without Tanks

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a.) Membranes are used in these systems to filter water from the tap and feed it directly
to the faucet.

b.) Various issues, such as colour appearance and water contamination, have been
resolved.

FIG 6.4 RO WATER SYSTEM WITHOUT TANKS

c.) This technique allows us to obtain water at a faster rate, free of contaminants and
contamination.

d.) It is a new technology that can be utilised for both commercial and domestic
purposes.

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 CHAPTER 7

COMPONENTS OF RO SYSTEM

a.) Sediment Filters b.) Activated Carbon Filter c.) Solenoid Valve

d.) Pump e.) Membranes f.) Post Carbon Filter

g.) Flow Resistor FR-600 h.) Adapter

FIG 7.1 SCHEMATIC OF RO SYSTEM

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FIG 7.2 PARTS OF RO SYSTEM

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FIG 7.3 PARTS OF RO SYSTEM

Page | 32
FIG 7.4 PARTS OF RO SYSTEM

Page | 33
FIG 7.5 SEDIMENT FILTER

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FIG 7.6 GAC FILTER

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FIG 7.7 CARBON FILTER

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FIG 7.8 RO MEMBRANE

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FIG 7.9 4 IN 1 FILTER

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FIG 7.10 POST CARBON FILTER

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 FIG 7.11 FILTERING PROCESS

a.) Sediment Filter

Any sediments that enter the water through the main source are removed by this
type of filter. Dirt, sediments, bad odours, bad taste, chlorine, and other contaminants
will be reduced by these Pre-Filter systems.

b.) Activated Carbon Filter

These filters have been used for hundreds of years and are regarded one of the
most ancient methods of water purification. Chemical absorption is used to remove
pollutants and impurities from a bed of activated carbon.

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c.) Solenoid Valve

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically actuated valve that controls liquid

flow.

d.) Pump

A pump is a device that uses mechanical action to transfer fluids (liquids or

gases) or slurries at a specific pressure.

e.) Membrane

A membrane is a selective barrier that allows some things to flow through while
preventing others from doing so. As Semi-Permeable Membranes, various membranes
such as Cell Membrane, Nuclear Membrane, and Tissue Membrane were employed.

f.) Post Carbon Filter

The use of a post carbon filter removes undesirable odours from water and
improves the flavour. It's also known as a polisher, and it improves the flavour of water.

g.) Flow Resistor

The flow of RO reject water is restricted by a flow restrictor, as the name

implies. By exerting back pressure on the membrane, the flow restrictor maintains high
pressure inside the RO membrane (a prerequisite for RO purification) and controls the
purifier's recovery ratio.

h.) Adapter

An (electrical) adapter or adaptor is a device that changes the characteristics of

one electrical device or system to those of another electrical device or system that is
otherwise incompatible.

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 CHAPTER 8

CONCEPT OF MEMBRANES

FIG 8.1 DIAGRAM OF RO MEMBRANE

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FIG 8.2 STRUCTURE OF RO MEMBRANE

Page | 43
FIG 8.3 CUTAWAY VIEW OF SPIRAL MEMBRANE

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 FIG 8.4 PORE SIZE COMPARISON WITH DIFFERENT
IMPURITIES

Water is purified using a membrane. R.O membrane resembles a fine cloth. It can easily
filter viruses, bacteria, and germs. Cellulose Triacetate (CTA) Membrane, Aromatic Polyamide
Membrane, and Thin Film Composite (TFC or TFM) Membrane are the three types of
membranes utilised in R.O systems.

FIG 8.5 DIFFERENT ELEMENTS OF RO MEMBRANE

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8.1) Different Elements Of RO Membrane

From the above FIG 8.5, we have the following names and description of
various elements of RO membrane:

a.) Part A (Feed Solution)

The water supply or processing fluid is the feed solution. The feed
solution may have been treated with chemicals, passed through pre-filters, or
even a UV system before reverse osmosis. The feed solution changes
depending on the feed solution's source.

b.) Part B (Brine Seal)

Brine seals are plastic or rubber devices that connect one end of the
membrane element to the component housing's wall. This prevents the feed
solution from going through the element and bypassing it.

c.) Part C (Perforated Central Tube)

The perforated tube in the middle allows the membrane element to keep
its shape while allowing water to pass through the various portions of the RO
membrane element.

d.) Part D (Permeate)

The last and intended “product” of reverse osmosis filtration is the

permeate. The permeate water, often known as pure water or simply "product"
water, is normally devoid of dissolved salts to the tune of 95 percent to 99
percent.

e.) Part E (Concentrate)

The concentrate is the waste water that passes through the membrane
element. It carries the concentrated pollutants that did not pass through
the membrane and is sometimes referred to as "reject" water.

f.) Part F (Permeate Collection Material)

The collection material, also known as a "permeate water carrier" or

"mesh spacer," is sandwiched between two layers of the flat sheet membrane. It

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 is made of a knit fabric called "tricot," which keeps the membrane from shutting
under pressure and allows permeate water to be collected.

g.) Part G, J (Reverse Osmosis Membrane)

The majority of RO membranes are thin-film composite (TFC), having

a thin polyamide layer over a porous polyethersulfone layer. The membrane,
when used in conjunction with the permeate collection material, has a high
rejection of unwanted materials (like salts).

h.) Part H, K (Feed Channel Spacer)

Feed channel spacers are netting materials that are inserted between the
flat sheets of a reverse osmosis membrane to increase turbulence in the
feed/concentrate stream. “Vexar” is the name given to this substance.

i.) Part I (Outer Wrap)

Because higher pressures are required while processing brackish water,

your RO components will require a fibreglass wrap. In the case of normal
feedwater, however, a tape outer wrap should suffice. It is entirely dependent
on your requirements!

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 CHAPTER 9
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF RO SYSTEM

9.1) Various Advantages Of Reverse Osmosis

System

a.) Outstanding Water

b.) Low Cost

c.) Better Tasting Food

d.) Utilization of Impure Water

e.) Compact

f.) Expansion is an easy option

g.) Easily maintainable

h.) Prevents metals from corrosion

9.2) Various Disdvantages Of Reverse Osmosis

System

a.) Clogging

b.) Filter Replacement

c.) Slow or Time-Consuming Process

d.) High Maintenance Required

e.) Wastage of water

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 CHAPTER 10
APPLICATIONS OF RO SYSTEM

a.) Desalination Of Brackish Water

This sort of water has a salinity of 2000 mg/L to 10000 mg/L. Pressures of 14
to 21 bar are employed in its treatment to achieve rejection coefficients of more than
90% and water with saline contents of less than 500 mg/L, which the WHO
recommends as a minimum condition for potability.

b.) Desalination Of Seawater

The salinity of this sort of water ranges from 30000 mg/L to 40000 mg/L,
depending on the geographical area. Polyamide hollow fibre membranes are employed
to meet the potability criteria, allowing rejection coefficients of greater than 99.3% to
be attained at operating pressures of 50bars–70bars.

c.) Production Of Ultrapure Water

RO provides for the extraction of water of the grade required by the electronics
sector (dissolved solids concentration of 200 mg/L) from drinking water.

d.) Wastewater Treatment

The use of reverse osmosis in wastewater treatment is limited due to the high
operational costs associated with membrane pollution. In the case of industrial
wastewater, RO is used in industries where it is possible to increase process efficiency
by recovering valuable components that can be recycled in the manufacturing process,
such as galvanoplasty and paint for metal structures, or where reuse of treated water
represents a significant reduction in water consumption, such as the textile industry.

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 CHAPTER 11
OTHER TECHNIQUES

a.) Chlorine/Bleach Disinfection

*Removes: Bacteria, Viruses, Giardia

*Advantages: Tablets are lightweight and compact, Kills viruses, More

effective when used with filtration, Inexpensive

*Disadvantages: Waiting time, Not effective against Cryptosporidium

or Cyclosporum

FIG 11.1 CHLORINE DISINFECTION OF WATER

While chlorine is most commonly associated with swimming pools, it can make
water drinkable by killing germs and viruses when used in small doses. Chlorine is
commonly employed in municipal water purification, making water safe to drink for a
city's residents. Bleach, a common word for home grade chlorine, is normally sold at a
chlorine concentration of 4 percent to 6 percent and is used to disinfect water for safe
drinking. Sodium Hypochlorite is the active ingredient in any Chlorine product; how
it's utilised is determined by its concentration.

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 Chlorine can also be purchased as pre-dosed tablets that are dropped into a
container of water and let to sit for 30 to 45 minutes while the chemical kills the
bacteria. Water purification tablets are ideal for persons travelling internationally or
hiking in the bush. Because of the ease of not having to calculate the amount of liquid
chlorine and the ability to carry the lightweight tablets in a backpack, these pills have
become extremely popular among campers, backpackers, humanitarians, and anyone
travelling to locations where clean water is a concern.

b.) Filtration
*Removes: Sediment, Bacteria, Large parasites, Some heavy metals

*Advantages: Quick, Taste of water not altered significantly

*Disadvantages: Requires filter replacement, Not effective against viruses

FIG 11.2 FILTRATION

Because of its versatility and ease of use, water filtration is perhaps the most
popular form of purification for human consumption. Water filtration systems exist in

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a variety of shapes and sizes, with some even being portable. By connecting to the
waterline, the most typical water filtration devices are linked with domestic sinks and
refrigerators.

What is filtered depends on the pore size of the filter, which is commonly
measured in microns. While a micron size of 0.2 is small enough to prevent heavy
metals like lead and copper, as well as big parasites like Cryptosporidium, it is not small
enough to inhibit viruses. The National Sanitation Foundation establishes a standard for
effective water filtration products, so search for the NSF stamp when shopping for a
filter.

Activated carbon and charcoal are stacked in a cylindrical or spherical block in

filtration systems. Contaminants from the water are rapidly absorbed by these very
porous materials. Chemicals and pollutants adhere to the carbon as water passes through
it, allowing pure water to flow to the filtering system's basin.

In the removal of 81 compounds from water, active carbon is quite successful.

It can also remove at least 14 types of pesticides and 12 types of herbicides from water,
according to studies. In addition, carbon eliminates odours caused by chlorine-treated
water (Tapp Water, 2018).

The inner filter will have to be updated on a regular basis. Most home filtration
systems recommend replacing the filter every 6 months, depending on the size and
usage. Water filters that are smaller and portable must be updated more regularly.

Because of its portability, affordability, durability, and convenience of use,

filtration remains one of the most popular water purification methods.

Smaller, portable water filters are available, making them ideal for travel and
outdoor activities. Hikers and backpackers frequently come across bodies of fresh water
like lakes and rivers. Despite the fact that lakes and rivers are considered fresh in
compared to ocean, they nevertheless require filtration before consumption due to the
presence of silt and bacteria. When you have a portable water filter on hand, you won't
have to worry about consuming harmful impurities like germs, parasites, or

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 sedimentary rock. For a thorough explanation of how portable water filters operate and
which brands to buy, read our article on the subject.

c.) UV(Ultra Violet) Light Purification

*Removes: Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites

*Advantages: Cleans water rapidly and effectively

*Disadvantages: Expensive, Requires electricity, Does not remove heavy metals,

High maintenance

FIG 11.3 UV LIGHT WATER PURIFICATION

The sun's UV radiation can be exceedingly harmful to microorganisms. Because

UV can cause skin cancer and other ailments, we as humans want to avoid it as much
as possible. But we've figured out how to harness its strength and use it to our benefit,
particularly when it comes to removing hazardous bacteria and pathogens from our
water. For decades, UV light has been used to clean municipal water sources, but it is
only just becoming available for residential usage.

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 Due to the vast spectrum of contaminants that are unaffected by ultraviolet light,
UV water filtration is one of the most successful methods for removing pathogens from
a water supply. Under ultraviolet light, bacteria, waterborne viruses, moulds, and
parasites all die.UV water filtration systems generate more UV light than the sun,
making them more effective than solar purification. In fact, a UV purification system
is more successful than chlorine disinfection in killing viruses like Norovirus and
Hepatitis, because it kills them quickly rather than taking 60 minutes.

The effectiveness of UV light in killing organisms is determined by its intensity,

or frequency. The more intense the treatment, the more successful it is at removing
germs.

The UV lamp is mounted in a chamber, water runs through the chamber, and
any hazardous bacteria or virus that comes into contact with the UV radiation channel
dies instantly. UV water purification systems are so powerful that 99.99 percent of
germs are guaranteed to be killed (Water Purifier).

The UV light has no effect on the water itself, thus there will be no unusual
tastes or scents.

UV light, while its effectiveness in destroying microbes, will not remove heavy
metals or particulates. Another factor to consider is the UV purifying system's high
maintenance requirements. In order to keep a system running smoothly, it needs to be
cleaned frequently and parts replaced as needed.

d.) Iodine Treatment

*Removes: Bacteria, Viruses, Giardia.

*Advantages: Lightweight, Compact, More effective with

filtration, Inexpensive

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*Disadvantages: Slow, Unpleasant taste, Not effective against Cryptosporidium

FIG 11.4 IODINE TREATMENT

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 Iodine is well recognised as a potent disinfectant and salt component that aids
in the prevention of thyroid issues, but it is also utilised in the purification of water.
Iodine is a reddish-orange chemical that destroys germs and viruses at the cellular level.
It comes in a variety of forms, including tablet, crystal, liquid, and tincture.

When left to sit for at least 50 minutes instead of the normal 30 minutes, it can
kill Giardia cysts, however it is useless against Cryptosporidium..

Iodine is a potent substance. It's toxic in excessive quantities, so it should only

be used to filter water when other options aren't available, not as a normal water
purification treatment. It should not be used by pregnant women, children, or anyone
who have thyroid disorders, iodine allergies, or shellfish allergies.

Combine two drops of tincture iodine per quart of pure water to purify it. Use
10 drops per quart if the water is murky. Allow the solution to sit for at least 30 minutes
to allow the iodine to work its magic. Please be aware that this will alter the flavour of
the water.

Follow the manufacturer's directions if you're using crystal or tablet iodine.

Instructables (2008) estimates that a bottle of crystal iodine can treat up to 2000 gallons
of water.

Because iodine is light-sensitive, it should always be kept in a dark bottle.

Iodine, like Chlorine, is available in tablet form, making it convenient and easy to
transport.
e.) Solar Purification
*Removes: Bacteria, Viruses

*Advantages: Inexpensive, Easy to set up

*Disadvantages: Depends heavily on weather, Very slow even on sunny days

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 When typical purification methods are unavailable, for as when hiking, living
off the grid, or in an emergency, solar purification is a viable option. The sun's UV rays
are capable of destroying germs and viruses.
The sun's heat eliminates any potentially hazardous bacteria in stagnant pond
water, according to a common myth. In actuality, stagnant ponds should always be
treated with caution because the water beneath the surface is a great breeding ground
for bacteria and mosquitoes.

The use of plastic bottles and sunshine is one approach to cleanse water using
solar purification. Remove any labels or paper from the bottles and inspect them for
scratches. Fill them three-quarters full with water, shake for a half-minute to activate
the oxygen, then fill to the brim with water, cover, and lie horizontally in direct sunlight
(Water Benefits Health).

FIG 11.5 SOLAR PURIFICATION

Choose a position where direct sunlight will be uninterrupted for at least six
hours for optimal results. If the weather is cloudy, the exposure duration is extended to
two days. A Solar Still is a device that can be built to distil contaminated water into
drinkable water or to extract condensation from moist resources to create enough water

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 for consumption. If you're abandoned in the desert without water or if you are lost at
sea, solar stills can save your life. The sun is used to evaporate contaminated water from
a collection basin and collect the condensation in another basin in this basic
arrangement.

The condensate has been distilled and is safe to drink. It can be done using
saltwater, and it can even be built to draw moisture from the ground if there isn't any.
Solar stills can be made from inexpensive materials or purchased and utilised in an
emergency.

f.) Boiling
*Removes: Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites
*Advantages: Free of all pathogens if done correctly
*Disadvantages: Slow and inconvenient, Flat water taste

FIG 11.6 BOILING

This is likely the oldest method of water purification, and it is still frequently
utilised, not just in rural areas but also in densely populated areas. Boiling water
generates enough heat to kill virtually all pathogens, making it safe to drink. We know

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 that most viruses will not survive in temperatures above 70 degrees centigrade if the
water is boiled long enough, according to the laws of pasteurisation, a technique used
to make milk safe to consume (EPA, 2017).

If the water is hazy, remove the larger particles with a clean cloth or coffee filter
first. Bring the water to a boil over high heat. Because thermometers aren't always
readily available, bubbles serve as a visual indicator that the water temperature has hit
100 degrees. Allow it to boil for 1 minute. Boil the water for 3 minutes straight at
heights above 5,000 feet. Allow the water to cool before placing it in a clean container
and covering it to prevent bacteria and organisms from recontaminating it. Water that
has been boiled will always have a bland flavour. The taste of water can be improved
by swishing it about before drinking or shifting it from one container to another.

g.) Distillation

*Removes: Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites, Impurities and Heavy Metals

*Advantages: Free of all pathogens and heavy metals

*Disadvantages: Slow and inconvenient, Free of minerals as well

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 FIG 11.7 DISTILLATION

Distillation is the process of collecting condensation from evaporated steam and

is the most efficient approach to ensure that the water is completely free of impurities.
Since around 200 AD, the Ancient Greeks have employed the practise of distilling
seawater into drinking water (Wikipedia). Distillation has been utilised by many
societies throughout history to ensure safe drinking water. Although the materials
employed in the distillation process have evolved over time, the science has stayed
constant, demonstrating that distillation is a time-tested purifying approach.

A boiling pot, a container to catch the condensation, a tube to allow the vapour
to go through, and a heat source are all required to distil water. Evaporation goes
through the tube and gathers in the new container once the water begins to boil. The
"new" water is free of germs, viruses, parasites, particulates, solvents, and chemicals
because pollutants cannot exist in steam form. Because distillation is such an effective

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 process, it removes both needed minerals and pollutants from the water. These minerals
can be supplemented by simply adding them to your diet or by ensuring that you eat a
mineral-rich diet.

Home distillation units that sit on the countertop can be purchased. Most
distillation machines are built of 304-grade stainless steel and can distil water at a rate
of 4 gallons per day. For a full knowledge of how home distillation machines function
and which brands to use, read our article on the subject.

h.) Electro Dialysis Reversal(EDR)

FIG 11.8 ELECTRO DIALYSIS REVERSAL

In EDR, dissolved particles are moved through a succession of ionic membranes

by an electric current. This movement of particles eventually removes pollutants from
the water. High TDS waters, such as brackish water and RO concentrate waste water,

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 blow down water and sequential batch reactor (SBR) effluent, and oil and gas field
produced water, are treated with electrodialysis reversal systems.

An electrode with a positive charge. This is referred to as an anode. An electrode

that is negatively charged. This is referred to as a cathode. A flow channel for purifying
and dilution of ions in supply water. This is referred to as a D-chamber. A flow channel
for purifying and dilution of ions in supply water. This is referred to as a D-chamber.
Positively charged ions can travel from D to C chambers through a cation exchange
membrane. Negatively charged ions can migrate from the D to the C chambers through
an anion exchange membrane. The cathode attracts positively charged ions, whereas
the anode attracts negatively charged ions. Ions flow into the concentrate stream
through ion exchange membranes. Water is desalted as it passes through D stream and
emerges as EDR product water. The salts in the C stream are concentrated and sent to
drain. Electrode flush or electrolyte is the process of sending a little amount of water
across the electrodes. EDR reveres the polarity and flow path after a configurable
interval of operation to reduce scaling. The anode transforms into the cathode, and the
D-flow transforms into the C-flow. Similarly, the anode transforms into the cathode,
and the C-flow transforms into the D-flow. This reversal process allows scale to be
electrochemically removed from one membrane that has begun to develop.

i.) Nanofiltration

Nanofiltration is a membrane filtration method that filters water on an ionic

level. It is commonly used for freshwater or brackish water sources. Nanofiltration is a
membrane-based filtration process in which nanometer-sized through-pores flow
through the membrane. Nanofiltration membranes have pore diameters ranging from 1
to 10 nanometers, which are smaller than microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes
but slightly larger than reverse osmosis membranes. Polymer thin films are employed
to make the majority of the membranes. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and metals
such as aluminium are common materials. During development, pH, temperature, and
time influence pore size, with pore densities varying from 1 to 106 pores per cm2.
"Track-etch" membranes are made of polyethylene terephthalate and other similar
polymers, and are named after the method the pores on the membranes are created. The
process of "tracking" entails hitting a thin polymer layer with high-energy particles.
This leads in the formation of pores, which are chemically formed into the membrane

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 or "etched" into the membrane. Alumina membranes, for example, are generated by
electrochemically generating a thin layer of aluminium oxide from aluminium metal in
an acidic solution.

j.) Flocculation

Flocculation is the process through which colloids, which are mixes of insoluble
particles, emerge from suspension as flakes. The flakes, or floc, are removed, and the
water is purified as a result. Following coagulation, flocculation, a gentle mixing stage,
transforms submicroscopic microfloc into visible suspended particles.

The microflocs are brought into contact with one another by a gradual mixing
process. When the microfloc particles collide, they join together to form larger, visible
flocs. Additional collisions and interactions with inorganic polymers generated by the
coagulant or organic polymers added continue to increase the floc size. Macroflocs
develop. Coagulant aids, or high molecular weight polymers, can be introduced during
this step to help bridge, bind, and reinforce the floc, add weight, and speed up the
settling process. The water is ready for the separation procedure once the floc has
attained its optimal size and strength (sedimentation, floatation or filtration). Design
flocculation contact times range from 15 to 20 minutes to an hour or more.

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 FIG 11.9 FLOCCULATION

k.) Bioremediation

Bioremediation is the process of carefully altering environmental conditions to

encourage the growth of beneficial microorganisms, which reduces the population of
hazardous pathogens in the water. Bioremediation is a method of treating contaminated
media, such as water, soil, and subterranean material, by adjusting environmental
conditions to encourage microorganism growth and degradation of the target pollutants.
Oil spills, soils contaminated with acidic mining drainage, underground pipe breaches,
and crime scene cleanups are all examples of bioremediation in action. Enzymes found
in microbes detoxify these hazardous chemicals. The majority of bioremediation
processes involve oxidation-reduction reactions, in which an electron acceptor
(typically oxygen) is added to stimulate oxidation of a reduced pollutant (e.g.
hydrocarbons) or an electron donor (typically an organic substrate) is added to reduce

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oxidised pollutants (nitrate, perchlorate, oxidised metals, chlorinated solvents,
explosives, and propellants). Bioremediation is a technique for reducing the impact of
anthropogenic byproducts such as those produced by industrialization and agricultural
processes. Bioremediation is often less expensive and more long-lasting than other
cleanup options.

FIG 11.10 BIOREMEDIATION

Thermal desorption, vitrification, air stripping, bioleaching, rhizofiltration, and

soil washing are some of the other remedial procedures. Bioremediation, or biological
treatment, is a comparable technique to treating wastes such as wastewater, industrial
waste, and solid waste. Bioremediation's ultimate purpose is to remove or minimise
hazardous substances in order to improve soil and water quality.

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 CONCLUSION
The growing number and diversity of water recycling initiatives around the world
suggests that the concept of treating wastewater as a useful resource is gaining traction. Water
demand has increased as a result of population growth and increasing comfort.

This translates to improved source protection and, eventually, zero discharge or near-
zero discharge systems. A noteworthy finding is that none of these experiments resulted in
negative health repercussions, even over long periods of time. This demonstrates that
technology exist to produce clean water from wastewater, but not everyone is convinced (as
proven in San Diego, California, and in Toowoomba, Australia).

Education and information campaigns, rather than technology, are a smart approach to
take in the future to encourage water recycling. The success of Singapore's NE Water project
is a fantastic illustration of how it should be done: by combining the right technologies with
the correct information. Another example of public acceptability for water reuse is the project
in Koksijde, Belgium.

The distinction between developed and developing countries is another point to

consider. If the effluent is to be safe and reliable, water recycling requires (expensive)
technology. Because developing countries lack the infrastructure and financial resources to do
so, water recycling is harmful where it is used due to residual microbiological and chemical
pollution. Pollutants are disseminated over a vast region when utilised for irrigation, which
might harm crops. In regions of Asia and Africa, this is standard procedure. Ethiopia is a good
illustration of this: garbage and wastewater are dumped into rivers without being treated.
Pollutants build up and cause issues downstream, where water is the only source of energy.
Drinking water production obstructs this strategy, with river water and drinking water coming
into direct touch in some circumstances.

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59.) https://www.publichealthnotes.com/importance-of-water-purification-and-different-
methods/
60.) https://earthandhuman.org/water/water-filters/
61.) https://www.britannica.com/topic/water-purification/Other-purification-steps
62.) https://watertogo.eu/water-purification-methods/
63.) https://worldwaterreserve.com/potable-water/purification/how-to-purify-water-for-
drinking/

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