Hydrogen for

power generation
Experience, requirements, and
implications for use in gas turbines
www.ge.com/gas-power/future-of-energy
Introduction
In order to combat man-made climate change, there is
a global need for decarbonization,* and all sectors that
produce carbon dioxide (CO2) must play a role.

In 2019, global CO2 emissions from fossil Based on our extensive analysis
fuels amounted to 33 gigatons, with 41 Energy Trilemma and experience across the breadth
percent of that coming from the power
ELECTRICITY GENERATION, of the global power industry, GE
generation sector, and the remainder from
the transportation and industrial sectors. DELIVERY & CONSUMPTION believes that the accelerated
There is a lot of work to be done and time and strategic deployment of
is against us. According to the IPCC’s 2018 renewables and gas power
special report “Global Warming of 1.5 °C,”
we had 580 gigatons of CO2 in our remaining can change the near-term
carbon budget if the globe were to have a trajectory for climate change,
50–50 chance of keeping global warming to enabling substantive reductions
1.5 °C compared to pre-industrial levels. Bring AFFORDABLE
in emissions quickly, while in
that forward from 2018 to 2020, and if we
continue on our current path of emissions, we parallel continuing to advance the
have only 15 years left before the budget runs technologies for near zero-carbon
out. The good news is that there are solutions power generation.
available today to enable the power sector’s RELIABLE SUSTAINABLE
rapid reduction in carbon intensity and allow *Decarbonization in this paper is intended to mean the reduction
of carbon emissions on a kilogram per megawatt hour basis.
the world to buy more time.
F I G U R E 1 : The energy trilemma
The power sector’s journey to is the challenge of providing affordable,
lower carbon, often referred reliable and sustainable energy.

to as the Energy Transition, is

GE believes that the
characterized by rapid deployment
of renewable energy resources accelerated and strategic
and a rapid reduction in coal, the deployment of renewables
most carbon-intensive power
and gas power can
generation source.
change the trajectory
As governments, countries, and companies
establish their charters for achieving carbon for climate change
reduction goals, they will all grapple with
the Energy Trilemma: the need to balance
affordable energy, maintain reliable power
supply, and improve sustainability. See
Figure 1. Each country is at a different
point in its decarbonization journey and
will prioritize the elements of the trilemma
differently, but the most effective way
is a mix of generation resources that
complement one another.

Hydrogen for Power Generation 2

Introduction
As of 2020 there were ~1.6 TW of gas
turbines installed globally, and despite the
PRE- POST-
COMBUSTION COMBUSTION
effects of COVID-19 on power demand gas
generation accounted for ~22 percent of
generation globally. There are two ways
to systematically approach the task of USE A ZERO OR CARBON REMOVE CARBON FROM
turning high efficiency gas generation into NEUTRAL FUEL THE PLANT EXHAUST
a zero or near zero-carbon resource: pre • Hydrogen (blue, green, pink) • Carbon capture (liquid solvents)
and post-combustion. See Figure 2. Pre- • Synthetic (renewable) methane
combustion refers to the systems and • Ammonia (NH3)
processes upstream of the gas turbine. The
• Biofuels
most common approach today to tackle
pre-combustion decarbonization is simple: F I G U R E 2 : Means of decarbonizing a gas turbine
change the fuel. The vast majority of gas
turbines burn natural gas, or methane
(CH4), to release energy which ultimately
produces the electricity we use at home and Pathway to Low or Near-Zero Carbon with Gas Turbines
Carbon Emissions Intensity (g/kWh)

for industry. An advantage of gas turbines is

that they are able to operate on many other
CAPABLE TODAY
fuels besides natural gas. Some of these REDUCES
fuels, such as hydrogen (H2), do not contain EMISSIONS BY... RETROFITTABLE IN THE FUTURE
45%
carbon in the first place, and will therefore
not emit CO2 when combusted. Furthermore, ~1,000
60%
69%
H2 can be introduced to new gas turbines and
existing gas turbines alike, reinforcing the
concept that solutions are available today to
decarbonize assets already in the field and 97%
those waiting to be installed. The possibility COAL GAS 100%

of burning hydrogen in a gas turbine avoids HA HA HA Combined HA with

Global Global
the potential “lock-in” of CO2 emissions for Average Average Combined Combined Cycle with 100% H2 *
the entire life of the power plant. Cycle Cycle with 95% Carbon
50% H2 Capture

On the other side of the gas turbine, or

F I G U R E 3 : Gas turbine decarbonization opportunity
post-combustion, there is a tool chest of *The atmosphere contains approximately 0.06% (by mass) CO2. Therefore, a gas turbine
different technologies that can remove on 100% H2 will still emit a small amount of CO2 due to the ambient air composition.

CO2 from the flue gases in a process that is

commonly referred to as carbon capture.
The general concept of carbon capture
involves introducing into the plant exhaust
stack a specialized chemical which has an
Sequestration (CCUS). Similar to introducing pre and post-combustion
hydrogen to a plant, CCUS can be applied decarbonization options for gas
engineered affinity to carbon. Once the CO2
to both new and existing gas power plants,
and the agent bond, the CO2 and specialized
again avoiding lock-in of CO2 emissions for
turbines are viable tools available
chemical are processed, the CO2 is separated, today. Both hydrogen and CCUS have their
the life of the power plant.
and taken to a compression tank as pure own merits and ideal areas of application.
CO2. This CO2 is then transported to either GE believes that in order for This paper will discuss the merits and
a geologic formation deep underground the power sector to rapidly limitations specific to hydrogen as a fuel.
for permanent sequestration, or re-used See Figure 3.
in industrial process, thus completing the
decarbonize while maintaining
process of Carbon Capture and Utilization or high levels of reliability, both

Hydrogen for Power Generation 3

HYDROGEN TRANSPORTATION & STORAGE gas. If used to fully fuel a 7HA.03 (~430 MW)
INFRASTRUCTURE – gas turbine, it would provide ~8 hours of fuel;
PRODUCTION, TRANSPORT, Once produced, hydrogen will most likely if used to fuel a TM2500 (~35 MW) it would
AND STORAGE have to be transported and/or stored. This provide about 80 hours of operation.
can be done as a gas or a liquid. When
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in
stored as a gas, tanks are typically kept An alternative being considered is geological
the universe, However, despite the plentiful
at pressures in excess of 5000 psi (34.5 storage, including the use of salt caverns,
nature of hydrogen, it does not exist on earth
MPa). Compressing hydrogen from 20 bar aquifers, depleted gas wells, and hard rock
as a standalone molecule. In other words,
(~290 psi) to 350 bar (~5000 psi, ~35 MPa) caverns.4,5 Storing gas in underground caves
hydrogen likes to bond with other molecules.
requires at least 1.05 kWh/kg; compression is not new; the US has been storing natural
Therefore in order to yield pure hydrogen on
energies of 1.7–6.4 kWh/kg (~2630–9900 gas in underground systems for decades.6
earth, it must be intentionally separated from
BTU/lb) may be more representative of Figure 4 shows the volume of natural gas
its paired molecules, which mostly commonly
requirements for real systems with losses underground storage in the US since 1975.7
take the form of water (H2O), or hydrocarbons
and other inefficiencies.3 For comparison, The base gas data shows the total amount
(e.g., CH4). The various production processes
according to the US Energy Information of natural gas stored underground, where
and feedstocks supply the current world
Administration, the average US residential the working gas volume data shows the
demand for hydrogen (H2) of ~70 million
home uses ~29 kWh of electricity per day. maximum amount of natural gas that was
tonnes per year.1 Approximately 90% of
stored. Due to the nature of underground
this is produced using natural gas or coal
Hydrogen gas can be condensed to the liquid storage, not all of the gas stored can be
as a feedstock, typically in a reforming
phase, but this requires a temperature of removed; some gas must be retained in the
process. Steam methane reforming (SMR)
-423.6 °F (-252.9 °C) which is ~36 °F (~20 °C) cave to keep the system pressurized. This is
is a common method, using natural gas and
above absolute zero. The process of called the “cushion,” and the percentage of
steam in a reaction to form hydrogen, but
liquefying hydrogen is highly energy intensive, the base gas that must remain as cushion
there are alternatives such as auto thermal
requiring ~10–13.3 kWh of energy per kg depends on the type of underground geology
reforming (ATR). Both of these processes
of liquid hydrogen,3 which is ~30% of the being utilized.
generate CO2; for each kg H2 produced using
lower heating value per kg of hydrogen.
an SMR, ~9.5 kilograms of CO2 are generated.
Once liquefied, storage tanks are typically To help accelerate the development of a
Today, most if not all of this CO2 is vented to
are double-walled and heavily insulated to hydrogen supply-chain, the government of
the atmosphere. There are other methods of
maintain cryogenic conditions. The world’s Japan commissioned the world’s first liquid
generating hydrogen including electrolysis of
largest liquid hydrogen tank is located at hydrogen (LH2) carrier ship.8 This ship will be
water. Additional details on blue and green
Kennedy Space Center. It can hold 858,000 able to transport 1,250 m3 in a single tank,
hydrogen production methods can be found
gallons of liquid hydrogen; this is equivalent which is a relatively small amount compared
in GE’s 2019 Hydrogen for Power white paper,
to ~97 million cubic feet when expanded to a to the 125,000–175,000 m3 transported by
GEA33861.2

A color-based convention is being used

internationally to describe and differentiate
hydrogen production methods: 5
• Grey (or black): Gasification of coal or
4.5
reforming of natural gas without carbon
Gas volume (millions of cubic feet)

capture 4 Base gas

• Blue: Reforming of methane (SMR or ATR)
3.5
with carbon capture and storage
Max working
• Green: Electrolysis of water using 3
gas volume
renewable power 2.5
• Pink (Red): Electrolysis of water using
nuclear power 2
• Turquoise: Pyrolysis of methane which 1.5
produces hydrogen and solid carbon as a
by-product 1
• White: Gasification or other process using .5
100% biomass as a feedstock
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
From a power generation perspective, the
production method is not critical as the gas
turbine only sees hydrogen. F I G U R E 4 : Volume of US natural gas storage 1973–20207

Hydrogen for Power Generation 4

typical LNG carrier ships. From a transported There are also cases where H2 blending with
energy standpoint, the LH2 tanker is capable natural gas is being considered to reduce
of shipping only ~1% percent of the energy CO2 emissions as a near-term alternative
in a typical LNG tanker. Although this ship to operating on 100% natural gas. In these Operation of a gas
will transport hydrogen, its engines run on cases, the amount of CO2 reduction will be a
diesel fuel. function of the percentage of H2 in the fuel.
turbine on 100%
The amount or percent H2 in the fuel can be hydrogen results in
Another transportation alternative is to measured on a volume, mass, or heat input
transform the hydrogen into more stable basis. There is a significant difference in the zero fuel-based CO2
compounds, such as ammonia (NH3). An H2 flows based on these methods due to
advantage for ammonia is that it can be the difference between hydrogen’s energy
emissions
stored as liquid at -28 °F (-33.3 °C) which density on a mass and volume basis as
is hundreds of degrees warmer than the shown in Table 1.
conditions required to liquefy hydrogen.
Ammonia could be transported in multi-cargo
gas carrier ships which are capable of carrying
LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)9; this is aided
by the fact that the boiling point of propane is
-43.6 °F (-42 °C) is approximately 15.6 °F
(8.7 °C) cooler than ammonia’s boiling point.

Another option being considered is the use

of organic liquids, such as methylcyclohexane
(MCH), which would function as a liquid
organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC).10,11 In this
concept hydrogen is combined with toluene
(C7H8) to form MCH (C7H14) which has a
boiling point of ~214 °F (~101 °C), meaning
that it can be transported as a liquid at room
temperature without need for any special
cryogenic or pressurized tanks.

CARBON EMISSION
REDUCTION
WITH HYDROGEN

Since hydrogen (H2) does not contain any

carbon, it does not produce any carbon when
burned in a gas turbine. In a complete and
balanced combustion reaction, hydrogen only
produces water: H2 + ½ O2 → H2O

Using 100% hydrogen as fuel for a gas

turbine will lead to elimination of essentially T A B L E 1 : Comparisons of lower heating values (LHV)
all CO2 emissions relative to operation on
natural gas or other hydrocarbon fuels. CO2 PROPERTY UNITS METHANE GAS POWER
emissions attributed to the fuel will be zero,
Formula CH4 H2
although the plant will still emit a very small
amount of CO2 as there is approximately LHV MJ/Nm 3
35.8 10.8
0.04% (by volume) CO2 in the air that will be (per volume) BTU/scf 911.6 274.7
emitted with the products of combustion. For MJ/kg 50 120
LHV
example, a gas turbine operating on 100%
(per mass) BTU/lb 21,515 51,593
(by volume) H2 fuel will see a CO2 reduction of
more than 99% relative to the CO2 emission
on 100% methane.

Hydrogen for Power Generation 5

Typically, flows into a gas turbine are quoted
on a volumetric basis, as this is easier to
measure than heat content but the key
Hydrogen (volume %)
factor in determining emissions for a fuel 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
blend is the relative heat input from the 100
fuel constituents, especially as methane

CO2 Reduction (%)

80
and hydrogen have very different energy
densities. This is an important distinction as 60
adding small amounts of hydrogen to the fuel
(on a volumetric basis) will have a smaller 40
impact on carbon dioxide emission reduction.
20
Using this information, the relationship
between the amount of H2 in the fuel (by 0
volume) and CO2 emission reduction can 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
be defined (See Figure 5). Due to the non-
Methane (volume %)
linear nature of this curve, attaining a 50%
reduction in CO2 emissions requires a blend F I G U R E 5 : Relationship between CO2 emissions and hydrogen/methane
that is ~75% (by volume) hydrogen. fuel blends (volume %)

If instead, the hydrogen content in the fuel Hydrogen (% by heat content)

is defined as a percentage of the turbine
heat input, the relationship between H2 and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
100
CO2 reduction is linear as shown in Figure 6.
% in Reduction in CO2

To attain a 50% reduction in CO2 emissions 80

requires a blend that is 50% hydrogen and
50% methane (by heat content). 60

40

20

0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Methane (% by heat content)

F I G U R E 6 : Relationship between CO2 emissions and hydrogen/methane

fuel blends (% heat input)

Hydrogen for Power Generation 6

In addition to a simple percent reduction, world’s carbon taxes and emissions trading
the carbon intensity of a system can be used systems (ETS). Another pathway being used
as a gage to assess carbon emissions. In the to reduce new carbon emissions is by setting
case of a power plant, this ratio is the mass of a carbon emission intensity as a criterion for
CO2 emitted divided by the electrical power power plant project financing. For example,
output. This is typically listed as gram per the European Investment Bank (EIB) has set
kilowatt-hour (g/kWh) which normalizes the an Emissions Performance Standard of 250 g
CO2 emissions to the energy produced by of CO2 per kWh (g/kWh) for any new project
the power plant. A modern combined cycle it will finance.12 This replaces the older EIB
power plant operating on 100% natural gas standard of 550 g/kWh. Using Figure 7 as an
will have a carbon emission intensity of ~305 example, a gas turbine operating on 100%
–380 g/kWh, depending on the efficiency natural gas would have satisfied the older
of the gas turbine. Gas turbines with higher 550 g/kWh requirement. However, a 9HA.02
efficiencies will consume less fuel to generate combined cycle power plant, which is the
the same amount of electricity and therefore most efficient CCGT in operation today, would
have lower carbon intensities. A gas turbine not meet the standard. This combined cycle
operating on 100% hydrogen will have a plant would have to be operated on a fuel
carbon emission intensity of ~0 g/kWh.* Gas with at least ~49% (by volume) hydrogen to
turbines operating on a blend of hydrogen meet the 250 g/kWh requirement.
and natural gas will have a carbon intensity
profile that is a function of the hydrogen New carbon policies are being evaluated
content in the fuel. Figure 7 shows the carbon globally, which could drive more interest in
intensity for a 9H.02 gas turbine gas turbine hydrogen and other zero carbon fuels, as well
in a combined cycle configuration. as renewable and low-carbon fuels.

*The atmosphere contains approximately 0.04% carbon dioxide.

In some parts of the world, environmental Therefore, a gas turbine that is operating on a fuel without any
regulations have been put into place to carbon will still emit a small amount of carbon dioxide due to the
ambient air composition.
reduce carbon emissions using carbon **https://carbonpricingdashboard.worldbank.org
taxes. The World Bank’s Carbon Pricing
Dashboard** provides details on many of the

500 100%
Carbon emission intensity (g/kWh)

450 90%
Carbon Reduction in
400 80%
intensity CO2 emissions
% Reduction in CO2

350 70%
300 60%
250 50%
EIB CO2 emission intensity standard
200 40%
150 30%
100 20%
50 10%
0 0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Hydrogen (volume %)

F I G U R E 7 : Carbon intensity versus hydrogen fuel content

Hydrogen for Power Generation 7

GAS TURBINE COMBUSTION
TECHNOLOGY
DIFFUSION FLAME

Flame temperature & NOX

The ability of gas turbine to operate on a Flame characteristics
high hydrogen fuel requires a combustion • Highly stable
system that can deal with the specific • High peak flame temperature
nature of this fuel. Combustion systems • NOX: ~200 to ~600 ppm
are typically categorized into one of two
categories: diffusion or lean premixed. LEAN PREMIXED FLAME
Flame characteristics
Diffusion combustion systems operate at • Low NOX without diluent
or near stoichiometric conditions. (This Lean Rich • Susceptible to flashback
occurs when the fuel and air are in balanced 0.5 1.0 1.5 and combustion dynamics
proportion and there isn’t excess fuel or Equivalence ratio • NOX: single digit ppm
air. In terms of combustion chemistry, a
balanced combustion reaction happens at
an equivalence ratio of one.) This leads to
F I G U R E 8 : Diffusion versus lean premixed combustion
very high flame temperatures as well as
high NOx emissions, as illustrated in Figure
8. These combustion systems typically use
a diluent such as water, steam, or nitrogen
injected into the combustor to reduce NOx
emissions. GE has diffusion combustion
systems in-service for both Aeroderivative
and Heavy-Duty gas turbines that are
capable of burning hydrogen. These include
the single annular combustor (SAC) for
Aeroderivative gas turbines and the single
nozzle or multi-nozzle quiet combustor
(MNQC) for Heavy-Duty gas turbines as
shown in Figure 9 on the following page.

GE has proven combustion

technology that can operate
on blends of hydrogen and
natural gas

Hydrogen for Power Generation 8

Lean premixed combustion systems operate Single Nozzle and Multi Nozzle combustors DLE AND DLN COMBUSTORS
with aerodynamically stabilized flames in the GE’s Heavy-Duty gas turbines have two
lean region of the chart shown in Figure 6. In combustor configurations capable of DLE and DLN combustion systems are
this regime, flame temperature is reduced, operating on fuels with high H2 content. The capable of operating with varying amounts
which lowers NOx emissions. GE’s dry low Single Nozzle (SN) or standard combustor is of hydrogen in the fuel. The DLE combustor,
emissions (DLE) and dry low NOx (DLN) available on B and E-class turbines. The Multi- which is found on GE’s Aeroderivative gas
combustion systems operate in this regime. Nozzle Quiet Combustor (MNQC) is available turbines is limited to 35% (by volume)
Most DLE and DLN combustion systems are for multiple E and F-class gas turbines. hydrogen. The DLN1 combustion system,
limited in the amount of hydrogen they can Combined, these combustion systems have which is available on GE’s 6B, 7E, and 9E gas
utilize due to risks of flashback and flame been installed on more than 1,700 gas turbines is capable of operating with up to
holding as discussed in the Plant Impact turbines, and have accumulated more than ~33% (by volume) hydrogen when blended
section below. Some newer combustion 3.5 million fired hours on a variety of low with natural gas. GE’s DLN 2.6+ combustors
systems, like GE’s DLN 2.6e combustor calorific value fuels, including syngas, steel are capable of operating on hydrogen levels
(See Figure 9), have newer fuel injection mill gases, refinery gases, etc. as high as ~18% (by volume).* The standard
configurations and can handle increased fuel systems for these combustors are
levels of hydrogen. During the 1990’s GE evaluated the use of typically only configured for a maximum
the MNQC combustor to operate on high of 5% (by volume) hydrogen and would
These combustion systems are hydrogen fuels.13 The hydrogen concentration require upgrading to safely operate at higher
detailed in the next sections. of the fuels examined ranged from ~44% hydrogen concentrations.
(by volume) up to ~90% (by volume); the
SINGLE ANNULAR COMBUSTOR (SAC) remaining constituents in the fuel were The GT26 configured with the Environmental
inert gases, i.e., nitrogen and water vapor. Burner (EV) and Sequential Environmental
GE’s Aeroderivative gas turbines can be The program evaluated the impact on Burner (SEV) combustion system is
configured with a single annular combustor NOx emissions, combustion dynamics and also capable of operating on blends
(SAC), which can operate on a variety of fuels, combustion metal temperatures. The test of hydrogen and natural gas. Based
including process fuels and fuel blends with results demonstrated the feasibility of on previous combustion studies and
hydrogen. There are over 2,600 gas turbines burning hydrogen as the only combustible testing, the capability of the current
configured with this combustion system; (up to 90% by volume of the total fuel) in combustion system is estimated to be
these units have accumulated more than GE’s MNQC combustion system. ~40* percent (by vol) hydrogen.34
100 million fired hours on a variety of fuels.
*Hydrogen limits for a given project will be a function of gas turbine
Depending on the specific Aeroderivative gas Today, GE is able to quote hydrogen model, ambient conditions, composition of natural gas if blending,
turbine model, SAC combustors can handle levels up to ~90–100% (by volume) for emissions requirements, and other site-specific requirements.

hydrogen concentrations from 30% (by applications with the MNQC combustor
volume) up to 85% (by volume). or single nozzle combustor.*

AERO GAS TURBINES HEAVY-DUTY GAS TURBINES

F I G U R E 9 : High hydrogen combustion systems

Hydrogen for Power Generation 9

 A B C

F I G U R E 1 0 : A: multi-tube mixer concept hardware, B: combustor test of multi-tube

mixers on a H2/N2 fuel blend, and C: commercial configuration of the DLN 2.6e combustor

NEXT GENERATION HIGH H2 During this program, multiple pre-mixing DLN 2.6e combustion system was evaluated.
COMBUSTION SYSTEM configurations were tested at GE’s Global Results of preliminary testing indicated that
Research Center in a single nozzle test facility this combustion system has entitlement to
As part of the US Department of Energy’s as well as at GE’s Gas Turbine Technology Lab operate on fuels containing up to 50% (by
Advanced IGCC/Hydrogen Gas Turbine in Greenville, South Carolina. (Information volume) hydrogen.
program which ran from 2005–2015, GE on the Greenville combustion facility is
developed a low NOx hydrogen combustion available in Reference15). Figure 10B shows a This combustion technology is now available
system.* This new combustion system was combustor chamber with multi-tube mixers on GE’s 9HA.01, 9HA.02, and 7HA.03 gas
based on the operating principle of small- operating on a H2/N2 fuel blend. turbines. The first turbine configured with
scale jet-in-crossflow mixing of the fuel this combustion system is a 9HA.02 that
and air streams. 14 The miniaturized tubes Due to the advanced premixing capability entered commercial operation in early 2021.
(see Figure 10A) function as “fast” mixers of this technology, it became an element of
*This effort was sponsored by the US Department of Energy under
enabling premixed combustion for gaseous GE’s DLN 2.6e combustion system.16 Based Cooperative Agreement DE-FC26-05NT42564.
fuels with higher reactivity (ethane, propane, on interest in low-carbon power for future
hydrogen, etc.) power plants, the hydrogen capability of the

Hydrogen for Power Generation 10

 GE has more than
100 gas turbines that
GAS TURBINE EXPERIENCE than 8 million operating hours and over 530
WITH HYDROGEN have operated with Terawatt-hours of power generation. This
hydrogen blends fleet also includes a set of more than 30 gas
Once hydrogen has been generated it can turbines that have operated on fuels with at
be utilized as a power generation fuel. Gas as a fuel. These least 50% (by volume) hydrogen; these units
turbines have the capability to operate on have accumulated more than 2.5 million
hydrogen, supporting a variety of industrial gas turbines have operating hours. Figure 10 highlights some of
applications, including steel mills, refineries, accumulated more the projects that have used fuels with varying
and petrochemical plants. GE is a world concentrations of hydrogen over the last 50
leader in gas turbine fuel flexibility, including than 8 million years. The following sections provide more
more than 100 gas turbines that have (or details on some of these projects.17, 18, 19
continue to) operate on fuels that contain operating hours.
hydrogen. This fleet has accumulated more

Timeline of GE Experience with H² and Associated Fuels

1x7F 1x7F 1x6B IGCC 2x6F 2x6F Syngas 1xGE10 High H2 2x7F Syngas Coal 2x9E Refinery 1x7HA
IGCC (USA) IGCC (USA) (Europe) Refinery (USA) Refinery (Asia) (Europe) IGCC (USA) (India) H2 blend (US)*

1990 2000 2010 2020

1x7E 1x6B Refinery 1x6B Refinery 1xGT13E2 3x9E Refinery 2xGT11N2 Steel 2xLM2500 Steel 1x7F Syngas 2x9HA
IGCC (USA) (Europe) (S. Korea) Refinery (Europe) Mill (Brazil) Mill (China) IGCC (Korea) H2 blend
(Europe) (China)**

F I G U R E 1 1 : Timeline of selected projects with hydrogen fuels

*Expected H2 operation in 2022. **Expected H2 operation in 2023.

Hydrogen for Power Generation 11

HYDROGEN FUEL BLENDING LOW CALORIFIC VALUE FUELS:
SYNTHESIS GASES (SYNGAS)
There are circumstances when hydrogen
is available as a by-product of an industrial The gasification of coal or refinery residuals
or petrochemical process. But in some creates a fuel known as synthesis gas
situations, there may not be enough (syngas) that contains a variety of gases,
hydrogen to fully load a gas turbine, so a including hydrogen. The H2 content
blend of hydrogen and natural gas is used; in these fuels can range from 20% to
in these cases, traditional DLE and DLN ~50% (by volume) depending on the
combustion systems can be utilized. One feedstock (i.e., coal, refinery bottoms)
example of this fuel blending application was and the gasification process. Multiple
at the Dow Plaquemine plant in the USA.20 IGCC (integrated gasification combined F I G U R E 1 2 : Hydrogen/natural
At this site, hydrogen was injected into cycle) plants utilizing E-class and F-class gas blending system
natural gas to create a 5%/95% (by volume) gas turbines are in commercial operation
blend of hydrogen and natural gas. Figure 12 globally. Plants with GE gas turbines burning
shows the blending system; after blending, syngas have accumulated more than 1.9 A
the fuel gas was fed to four GE 7FA gas million operating hours. This includes the
turbines configured with DLN 2.6 combustion Tampa Electric Polk Power Station, Duke
systems; operation on the blended fuel Edwardsport IGCC plant, and the Korea
started in 2010. Western Power (KOWEPO) TaeAn IGCC plant.

A second example of hydrogen fuel blending HIGH HYDROGEN

is at the Gibraltar-San Roque refinery
owned by Compañia Española de Petróleos Typically, when H2 is available in large
(CEPSA), one of Spain’s leading petrochemical volumes it is used in hydrotreating crude
companies. At this site a 6B.03 gas turbine oil or in the production of other commercial
is operating on a refinery fuel gas (RFG) that products, such as fertilizers. However, there
B
contains a varying amount of hydrogen. If the are instances where a large volume of high
hydrogen level exceeds ~32% (by volume) the concentration hydrogen is available from a
RFG is blended with natural gas. As of 2015, process where there are no other available
this gas turbine had operated more than off-takers.
9,000 hours on this fuel.21
GE’s fleet of gas turbines installed for
LOW CALORIFIC VALUE FUELS: operation on high hydrogen fuels includes
STEEL MILL GASES more than a dozen Frame 5 gas turbines and
more than twenty 6B.03 gas turbines. Many
Steel mills produce a variety of low calorific of these turbines operated on fuels with
value by-product gases, i.e., blast furnace gas hydrogen concentrations ranging from 50% F I G U R E 1 3 : A: Frame 9E.03
(BFG) and coke oven gas (COG), that have (by volume) to 80% (by volume). One example operating on steel mill gases at a
varying amounts of hydrogen. GE has multiple of a gas turbine operating on a high hydrogen plant in China; B: LM2500+ operating
heavy-duty gas turbines operating on these fuel is a 6B.03 operating at a refinery in South on high H2 coke oven gas
fuels. Examples include multiple steel mills in Korea. This unit (Figure 14) has operated on a
Asia using COG/BFG fuel blends in GE 9E.03 fuel that contains more than 70% (by volume)
gas turbines; 22, 23 Figure 13A is an example of hydrogen for over 20 years with max H2 levels
a steel mill configured with a GE gas turbine. greater than 90%.25, 26 To date the unit has
GE’s Aeroderivatives can also operate on accumulated more than 180,000 hours on
coke oven gas.24 An example of the latter the high hydrogen fuel. A second example of a
case is a set of LM2500+ turbines operating high hydrogen turbine is at Enel’s Fusina, Italy
on a coke oven gas (COG) with approximately facility. This plant, which was inaugurated in
60% (by volume) hydrogen; see Figure 13B. 2010, used a GE-10 gas turbine to produce
These units were commissioned in 2011 and ~11.4 MW of net electrical power operating
have accumulated over 100,000 hours on on a fuel that was ~97.5% (by volume)
COG. Combined, GE’s aero and heavy-duty hydrogen.27, 28, 29
F I G U R E 1 4 : High hydrogen
gas turbines have accumulated more than
fueled 6B.03 gas turbine
1.5 million fired hours with steel mill gases.

Hydrogen for Power Generation 12

PLANT IMPACT will highlight the potential impacts to power operation of the power plant. Regardless of
plant systems when using hydrogen. how the hydrogen is transported to the plant,
One of the many advantages of gas there will be changes required to the fuel
turbines is that they can be re-configured FUEL ACCESSORY SYSTEMS blending system.
for operation on new fuels, including fuels
with increased levels of hydrogen. Due to There are two fundamental operational As hydrogen’s volumetric heating value is 1/3
differences in the physical and chemical scenarios with hydrogen: operating on a that of methane (as shown in Table 2), it takes
properties of hydrogen (see Table 2), adding blend of hydrogen and natural gas, and 3X more volume flow of hydrogen to provide
hydrogen to a gas turbine may require operation on 100% hydrogen. If hydrogen the same heat (energy) input as methane.
changes to the gas turbine, gas turbine is to be blended into an existing natural gas Therefore, if a fuel blend is to be used, the
accessories and/or the balance of plant as power plant, and the hydrogen is transported existing piping system might be acceptable,
illustrated in Figure 15. The magnitude of to the plant separately from natural gas, a if using a small concentration of hydrogen.
the required changes is a function of the fuel blending system will be required. This If planning to operate on high levels of
amount of hydrogen in the fuel. This section will ensure proper mixing of the hydrogen hydrogen, a fuel accessory system configured
into the existing fuel system. This also allows for the required flow rates is required.
proper control of the mix to ensure safe

T A B L E 2 : Hydrogen and methane properties

CHARACTERISTIC UNITS METHANE HYDROGEN

Formula CH4 H2
Molecular weight grams/mol 16 2
Molecular size Picometers, 10 meters
-12
380 289
Lower/Upper flammability limits % 4.4/17 4/75
Flame speed cm/sec ~30–40 ~200–300
Adiabatic flame temperature ° F (° C) ~3565 (~1963) ~4000 (~2204)
Lower Heating value MJ/Nm (BTU/scf)
3
35.8 (911.6) 10.8 (274.7)
Lower Heating value MJ/kg (BTU/lb) 50 (21,515) 120 (51,593)

Hydrogen has different

properties than methane.
Gas turbine
combustion system
Operating a gas turbine
SCR on a fuel with hydrogen
Gas turbine enclosure may require changes to
modifications: ventilation,
hazardous gas detection, combustion, fuel, and
HRSG
fire protection
plant safety systems.
Fuel accessory
system: skids, valves,
piping, purge systems
Gas turbine controls

F I G U R E 1 5 : Potential impact of hydrogen fuel conversion on gas turbine systems

Hydrogen for Power Generation 13

There are also likely to be increased NOx
emissions due to the increased flame
40%
temperature of hydrogen. The magnitude of
the increase in NOx emissions will depend 35%
on the percentage of hydrogen in the fuel,
and the specific combustion system and 30%

% Increase NOX (-)

gas turbine operating conditions. Figure
25%
19 shows the percent increase in gas
turbine NOx emissions as a function of the 20%
percent hydrogen in the fuel. The overall
trend shows that at lower percentages of 15%
hydrogen the increase in NOx emissions are
10%
minimal, but at 50% hydrogen (by volume),
NOx emissions could increase by as much 5% NOX emissions increase with
as 35%. Extrapolating this data, gas turbine H2 volume but technologies
0%
NOx emissions could potentially double if exist to mitigate
operating at or near 100% hydrogen. -5%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
For power plants currently in development,
one potential mitigation for increased NOx H2 in fuel (% vol)
emissions is a larger or more efficient SCR
(selective catalytic reduction) system. For F I G U R E 1 9 : Impact of H2 on NOx emissions on a gas turbine
existing power plants, there may be some Note: This is based on preliminary laboratory data assuming hydrogen blended with natural gas. Actual NOx
emissions may vary based on multiple factors including fuel composition, combustion operating parameters, etc.
ability to accept some increases in NOx
emissions based on existing NOx emissions,
existing SCR capabilities (if installed), and the
plant’s air permit limits. Other mitigations This requires flame detection systems
could include derating the power plant to specifically configured for hydrogen 100% NG
maintain operation within the existing air flames. Therefore, the use of hydrogen
permit’s NOx emission limits. may require the installation of sensors and
instrumentation specifically configured for
fuels containing hydrogen.
SAFETY
OTHER IMPACTS
There are additional operational challenges
with hydrogen that relate to overall plant The addition of hydrogen can impact other
safety. Hydrogen is more flammable than plant elements. For example, existing plants
methane. The lower explosion limit for with duct or supplemental burners in the
methane (in air) is ~5%, while for hydrogen HRSG may need to upgrade this component 100% H2
it is ~4%.32 In addition, hydrogen’s upper as the current hardware might not be
explosion limit is 75% compared to methane capable of operating with hydrogen in a
at 15%. Therefore, hydrogen leaks could create safe and/or reliable manner. There may be
increased safety risks requiring changes to a requirement (or desire) to store some
plant procedures, safety/ exclusions zones, amount of hydrogen at site, depending
etc. In addition, there may be other plant level on where the hydrogen is generated and
safety issues that merit review.33 potential interruptions in supply. This in turn
could impact the overall plant configuration
Typical hazardous gas detection systems in due to safety regulations regarding safety
power plants are targeted at hydrocarbon zones around hydrogen storage tanks. There
fuels. Increased levels of hydrogen can could also be changes to exclusion zones as
reduce the sensitivity of these instruments well as classification of electrical systems
requiring new systems capable of detecting based on the presence of hydrogen. F I G U R E 2 0 : Comparison of
the presence of hydrogen. In addition, natural gas and hydrogen flames
hydrogen flames have lower luminosity than Before formalizing any plan to blend
hydrocarbon flames and are therefore hard to hydrogen into natural gas for an existing
detect visually as shown in Figure 20. plant, a full audit of plant systems should be
performed with a goal of developing a plan
for safe operation.
Hydrogen for Power Generation 14
In addition to the increases in flow, hydrogen
can impact materials and systems differently
that other gases. For example, hydrogen
is a smaller molecule than methane and
may diffuse through seals that might be
considered airtight or impermeable to
other gases. Therefore, traditional sealing
systems used with natural gas may need to
be replaced with welded connections or with
upgraded seals.

Another challenge when using hydrogen is

its ability to diffuse into some solid materials,
including some steel alloys. This process,
F I G U R E 1 6 : Example of a field F I G U R E 1 7 : Cracked induced by
known as hydrogen embrittlement, may
failure due to hydrogen embrittlement hydrogen embrittlement
lead to degradation of material strength
properties. In this process, hydrogen diffuses
into the grain boundaries in the alloys and
interacts with the carbon forming microscopic
methane bubbles.30 The result is a disruption
T A B L E 3 : Laminar flame speed of common fuels31
in the microscopic structures that provide the
strength of the alloy. Figures 16 and 17 show LAMINAR
examples of embrittlement-based fatigue. FUEL FORMULA
FLAME SPEED
Some stainless steel alloys, including 316L,
Hydrogen H2 170
offer increased embrittlement resistance.
Methane CH4 38.3
COMBUSTION SYSTEM Ethane C2H6 40.6
Propane C3H8 42.3
The ability of a combustion system to operate
safety and reliably on a fuel depends on many Carbon monoxide CO 58.8
factors, some of which are defined by the
fuel’s fundamental properties. For example, a
flame will try to propagate upstream into the
unburned fuel, at a velocity defined as flame
speed. As shown in Table 2, hydrogen has a
flame speed that is an order of magnitude
faster than methane. In fact, hydrogen’s
flame speed is higher than most common
hydrocarbon fuels, as shown in Table 3.

Hydrogen for Power Generation 15

 HOW MUCH HYDROGEN
IS REQUIRED?

GE Gas Power has an online tool that can be used

to determine how much hydrogen is required to
support a specific gas turbine at a given hydrogen
percentage. Using three simple inputs (gas
turbine model, plant configuration, and percent
hydrogen) the tool computes an estimate of
the required hydrogen flow, as well as the CO2
emissions reduction. The tool also determines
the infrastructure needed to produce the required
amount of blue or green hydrogen.

This tool is available online at:

www.gepower.com/hydrogen
A tutorial is available online at:
https://tinyurl.com/yxkl8zd8

Using fuels with higher flame speeds Typically, combustion systems are configured Operating on a fuel with increased levels
increases the risk that the flame could to operate on a set of fuels that have a of hydrogen could also impact combustion
propagate upstream into the premixer. If defined range of flame speeds. Due to the system operability, including combustion
the flame enters the premixer, is not able significant difference in the flame speeds of dynamics (also known as combustion
to stabilize, and then is pushed back into methane and hydrogen, combustion systems acoustics). Therefore, there could be
the main combustion zone, this is known configured for operating on methane (or changes in gas turbine controls, start-up
as flashback. Flame holding occurs when natural gas) may not be suitable for operating and shutdown sequences.
the flame is able to anchor itself and stays on a high hydrogen fuel. Therefore, there
within the premixer. Both situations can lead are defined ranges for hydrogen on DLN and
to combustion hardware distress and even DLE combustion systems to avoid this issue.
fuel nozzle damage. Figure 18 illustrates an Mitigating this risk may require upgrading
example of damage caused by a flame holding to a combustor specifically configured for
event on a dry low NOx (DLN) fuel nozzle. operation on hydrogen and similar more
reactive fuels.

Pairing the correct

combustion
system for the
target hydrogen
percentage is
critical to ensure F I G U R E 1 8 : Gas turbine fuel nozzle damage from a flame holding event

reliable gas turbine

operation

Hydrogen for Power Generation 16

Conclusion It is possible to operate new units and
upgrade existing units for operation on
Addressing climate change is an
urgent global priority and one
Supporting the these fuels with appropriate consideration
to the combustion system, fuel accessories,
that we think we can do a better
global need for deep emissions, and plant systems. For existing
units, these upgrades can be scheduled with job of accelerating progress on—
decarbonization, planned outages to minimize the time the
plant is not generating power, and for new starting now—not decades from
there are multiple units these capabilities can be part of the
initial plant configuration or phased in over now. We believe there are critical
pathways to achieve time as hydrogen becomes available. Given
GE’s experience in the industry, with over
and meaningful roles for both gas

low or near zero eight million operating hours on hydrogen

blends as a fuel, many of the technical
power and renewable sources of

carbon emissions questions on the viability of this fuel for

power generation applications have
energy to play, advancing global
progress faster today with coal-
with gas turbines. been answered.

to-gas switching while continuing

These are typically categorized as pre or post-
Having both pre or post-
combustion methods. One pre-combustion combustion technologies can to develop multiple pathways
option is the use of 100% hydrogen or a prevent future lock-in of CO2 for low-to-zero carbon gas
blend of hydrogen and natural gas. This emissions, and so existing gas
could be blue hydrogen, green hydrogen, or technologies in the future.
hydrogen produced from an alternative low
turbine power plants should be
or zero carbon emission production process. considered a key element of any SCOTT STRAZIK
Regardless of the source of hydrogen, gas future energy ecosystem focused CEO, GE GAS POWER
turbines operating on blends of hydrogen and on reducing carbon emissions.
natural gas, or on 100% hydrogen will see
reductions in CO2 emissions.

Hydrogen for Power Generation 17

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© GE, 2022
GEA34805 (03/22)
Note: This paper was updated to reflect GE H2 statistics as of September 2021 – inclusive of both heavy-duty and aero-derivative gas turbines.