energies

Article
Thermodynamic and Aerodynamic Analysis of an
Air-Driven Fan System in Low-Cost
High-Bypass-Ratio Turbofan Engine
Weiyu Lu * , Guoping Huang, Xin Xiang, Jinchun Wang and Yuxuan Yang
College of Energy and Power Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016,
China; [email protected] (G.H.); [email protected] (X.X.); [email protected] (J.W.);
[email protected] (Y.Y.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 27 March 2019; Accepted: 16 May 2019; Published: 20 May 2019


Abstract: In some cases, the improvement of the bypass ratio (BPR) of turbofans is pursued for
military or civilian purposes owing to economic, environmental, and performance reasons, among
others. However, high-BPR turbofans suffer from incompatibility of spool speed, complex structure
for manufacture, development difficulty, and substantially increasing costs, especially for those with
small batch production. To deal with the issues, a novel low-cost concept of high-BPR turbofan with
air-driven fan (ADTF) is presented in this research. First, the problems faced by high-BPR turbofans
are discussed, and the difficulties of geared turbofan (GTF), which is developed as a solution to the
problems, are analyzed. A novel turbofan with potential advantages is proposed, and its basic theory
is interpreted. Second, high-BPR ADTF is analyzed at the top level, and the design principle and
important primary parameters are discussed. Some important concepts and criteria are proposed,
enabling the comparison between ADTF and GTF. Finally, an air-driven fan system, the core part of
ADTF, is exploratorily designed, and numerical simulation is performed to demonstrate its feasibility.

Keywords: turbofan engine; high bypass ratio; low cost; air-driven fan

1. Introduction
Airbreathing propulsion systems, such as turbofan engines, are widely used for civilian and
military purposes. Since the 1990s, aviation companies have been suffering from a serious operating
cost problem due to high fuel prices. Also, the future of this industry is affected by the growing
environmental concerns. Restricting noise, limiting engine exhaust gas emissions, and reducing toxic
wastes challenge the industry with the increasingly stringent environmental regulations [1]. To protect
the environment, the Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe has set specific goals
in the aviation industry to be achieved by year 2020 [2]. The engine requirements toward these
goals include 80% NOx emission reduction, 20% fuel consumption (and CO2 emissions) reduction
per passenger-kilometer, and 10 dB noise reduction per certification point, with the data in the year
2000 as the basis of comparison [3]. Therefore, decreasing fuel consumption is of great interest [2].
Aspects of fuel economy, emissions, and noise continue to compel the aircraft industry to search
for fuel-efficient, low noise, and pollutant-free aircraft engines [1]. Although further improving the
efficiency of the parts of turbofan engines is difficult, increasing propulsive efficiency by increasing
bypass ratio (BPR) (equivalent to reducing exhaust velocity) decreases specific fuel consumption [2],
which also contributes to the reduction of emissions. In addition, the reduction of exhaust velocity
lowers noise level. Apart from turbofans, open rotors, propfans, and unducted fan engines can also
be used in improving fuel consumption as their propulsive efficiency is better than that of turbofan

Energies 2019, 12, 1917; doi:10.3390/en12101917 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 1917 2 of 17

engines owing to their low exhaust velocities [4]. However, flight speed is the main limitation of these
concepts. For a conventional propeller with straight blades, compressibility effects play a significant
role and decreases propeller efficiency when the flight Mach number is above 0.6 [2]. Thus, this research
focuses on turbofans to guarantee high-efficiency aircrafts at high subsonic flight speed. To summarize,
the improvement of the BPR of turbofans may solve the main issues of fuel economy, emissions, and
noise in the civil aviation industry.
With respect to military uses, different missions have different demands on airbreathing propulsion
systems. In recent years, small/mid-size low-cost unmanned air vehicles (UAVs), cruising missiles, and
small aircrafts have been proven to be of great importance [5,6]. In this study, airbreathing propulsion
systems used for UAVs and missiles have something in common with civil engines. Other types of
engines, such as low-BPR turbofan used in fighter engines, are not included here. Although UAVs
have military or civilian purposes, such as combat, data gathering, surveillance missions [6], hurricane
science, and communication relay [7], this study focuses only on their military uses. High performance,
which means long endurance, long range, and high speed, is important for small UAVs, especially
for military uses, entailing more requirements on their propulsion systems. High-BPR turbofan is
a good option for propulsion systems because of its advantage of low fuel consumption and high
speed. The improved performance of small turbofans must be within the constraints of manufacturing
costs and engine operational durability [8]. Therefore, the increase in fuel economy is realized through
improvement of aerothermodynamic components or thermodynamic parameters, such as BPR, and
the increase of BPR really matters for the application of UAVs in military use (some kinds of missiles
are similar) to further increase mission range and endurance.
Nevertheless, the improvement of the BPR of turbofans faces difficulties for civilian and military
purposes. For civil turbofans, potential benefits, such as actual fuel saving, due to improvement of BPR
are limited. Fan core speed incompatibility and low-cost contradiction rise as two major problems,
which will be discussed in detail in the following passage. Due to the incompatibility of spool speed,
the conventional turbofan design becomes unfavorable for BPR well above 10 [9]. To solve this problem,
geared turbofan (GTF) configuration has been accepted as a promising candidate for the future engines
with BPR above 10 [10]. Introducing a reduction gear between the fan and LPC/LPT system enables
each low-pressure (LP) component to rotate at its optimum speed in terms of efficiency, stage loading,
and noise [3]. However, the introduction of the gearbox also brings complicated structures and
so-called low-cost contradiction. Thus, the optimal design of civil turbofans with high BPR is a tradeoff
among specific fuel consumption, complexity, and cost. Similar problems also exist in turbofans for
military purposes, such as for small UAVs. In designing turbofans for this purpose, several main
aspects, such as performance (including range, endurance, and speed), reliability, and cost (including
manufacturing cost, development costs, maintenance cost, and fuel consumption), are considered and
balanced [11]. So, fan core speed incompatibility and low-cost contradiction must also be settled in
some cases for military purposes.
Thus, the main issues of fan core speed incompatibility and low-cost contradiction concerning the
improvement of BPR of turbofans are discussed in detail below.

1.1. Fan Core Speed Incompatibility Problem

Given a significant increase in BPR, the turbofan must reduce its spool speed to maintain its fan tip
speed as the radius increases for the same engine core. This, in turn, increases the number of stages for
the LPC and LPT to maintain appropriate efficiencies and pressure ratios for these parts. In addition,
reduced LP spool speed requires high torque of the LP shaft, and this will lead to big shaft diameters
and increased core size. Furthermore, in order to run a bigger diameter fan, LP turbine diameter and
its number of stages must increase [1,2,8,9]. In conclusion, the fan of high-BPR turbofans prefers low
spool speed, but the LP turbine driving the fan prefers high spool speed. This contradiction is hard to
solve, and we need a compromise to harmonize these two factors.
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 3 of 17
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Three-rotor scheme and GTF aim to solve the incompatibility problem. In this section, GTF is
Three-rotor scheme and GTF aim to solve the incompatibility problem. In this section, GTF is
taken as an example to show collateral shortcomings and difficulties when solving the
taken as an example to show collateral shortcomings and difficulties when solving the incompatibility
incompatibility problem to some extent. To solve the fan core speed incompatibility problem, a
problem to some extent. To solve the fan core speed incompatibility problem, a reduction gear system
reduction gear system is introduced in GTF, to decouple the fan from the rest of the LP system (as
is introduced in GTF, to decouple the fan from the rest of the LP system (as illustrated in Figure 1a). As
illustrated in Figure 1a). As a result, the fan and LP system can operate at their preferred optimum
a result, the fan and LP system can operate at their preferred optimum speeds. With regards to the
speeds. With regards to the relief of the incompatibility problem, the advantages of GTF, such as
relief of the incompatibility problem, the advantages of GTF, such as high component efficiencies of
high component efficiencies of LPT, intermediate pressure compressor and LPC, low fan tip speed
LPT, intermediate pressure compressor and LPC, low fan tip speed that also results in low fan noises,
that also results in low fan noises, and low diameter with less stages of LPT, are apparent when
and low diameter with less stages of LPT, are apparent when BPR is high [1]. All disadvantages of
BPR is high [1]. All disadvantages of GTF are involved with the introduction of gearbox and
GTF are involved with the introduction of gearbox and gearbox efficiency, including a more complex
gearbox efficiency, including a more complex structure with an attachment system, such as fuel
structure with an attachment system, such as fuel cooling capacity, development and manufacture
cooling capacity, development and manufacture difficulty, reliability, and durability problem, as
difficulty, reliability, and durability problem, as BPR further increases [1].
BPR further increases [1].

Figure 1.
Figure Layout of
1. Layout of geared
geared turbofan
turbofan (GTF)
(GTF) and
and air-driven
air-driven turbofan
turbofan (ADTF).
(ADTF). (a) GTF; (b)
(a) GTF; (b) ADTF.
ADTF.

1.2. Low-Cost Contradiction

1.2. Low-Cost Contradiction
A bottleneck exists, whereby the so-called incompatibility of spool speed limits the increase of
A bottleneck exists, whereby the so-called incompatibility of spool speed limits the increase of
BPR. Solutions to this problem, such as the three-rotor scheme and GTF, result in increased structural
BPR. Solutions to this problem, such as the three-rotor scheme and GTF, result in increased
complexity and development and manufacture cost, especially for some cost-sensitive or small-batch
structural complexity and development and manufacture cost, especially for some cost-sensitive or
production situations, such as military and scientific uses. For example, shafting structures, bearing,
small-batch production situations, such as military and scientific uses. For example, shafting
and lubrication systems are complex in the three-rotor scheme. Furthermore, development is extremely
structures, bearing, and lubrication systems are complex in the three-rotor scheme. Furthermore,
difficult because only Rolls Royce can manufacture RB211, and the three-rotor scheme suffers from
development is extremely difficult because only Rolls Royce can manufacture RB211, and the
high maintenance cost. Moreover, the great difficulty of GTF lies in the design and manufacture of
three-rotor scheme suffers from high maintenance cost. Moreover, the great difficulty of GTF lies in
high-power gear box. Pratt and Whitney took nearly a decade to develop the first GTF, PW8000G [12],
the design and manufacture of high-power gear box. Pratt and Whitney took nearly a decade to
which is based on a prototype PW8000. Thus, under comprehensive consideration, the performance
develop the first GTF, PW8000G [12], which is based on a prototype PW8000. Thus, under
and cost of high-BPR turbofans contradict each other, and fine balance routinely contributes to the
comprehensive consideration, the performance and cost of high-BPR turbofans contradict each
optimum choice of BPR.
other, and fine balance routinely contributes to the optimum choice of BPR.
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 4 of 17

1.3. Thinking of A Solution

While thinking about other ways to solve the fan core speed incompatibility and low-cost
contradiction, we first noticed that whatever the specific structure is, turbofans share the same principle;
that is, the higher the bypass mass flow rate to which the core transfers energy, the less specific
fuel consumption (SFC) and high performance the turbofans have. GTF solves the fan core speed
incompatibility problem. The gearbox has two functions, reducing the spool speed and transferring
energy from LP turbine to fan. Thus, solutions that satisfy the two functions are also promising.
However, the turbofan theory does not restrict the means of transferring energy. Any method that
can transfer energy from core to bypass, if consistent with the physical theories and reduce the fan
speed, may be used for high-BPR turbofan. This concept should use mature techniques and should not
introduce many complex structures to limit the cost and relieve the low-cost contradiction. For example,
tip turbine is used to solve this problem in some cases [13,14].
Thus, to solve the two main issues, a novel concept of high-BPR turbofan with air-driven fan
(ADTF) is proposed to increase BPR. In this concept, energy is transferred in an aerodynamic way
rather than mechanical way (such as in GTF). Compared with the three-rotor scheme and GTF, this
concept has simpler structures and may be promising to overcome the difficulties and uncertainty,
balancing the contradiction between performance and cost.

2. Concept of High-BPR ADTF

In this section, a novel concept of high-BPR ADTF is introduced. For a traditional two-spool
turbofan, the fan is directly driven by LPT. In addition to the traditional two-spool turbofan, GTF adds
a reduction gear box to transfer energy from the core while reducing the LP spool speed, as illustrated
in Figure 1a. The new turbofan concept we propose is also derived from a traditional two-spool
turbofan, but the gear box is replaced by an air turbine, which is surrounded by red dashed lines as
illustrated in Figure 1b. The new concept is named air-driven turbofan or ADTF.
ADTF has five important components, namely, additional fan rotor (1), additional fan stator (2),
air turbine rotor (3), air turbine stator (4), and rotational casing (5), as shown in Figure 1b. Other parts
in Figure 1b share the same parts of the traditional two-spool turbofan or GTF shown in Figure 1a.
Therefore, ADTF can be easily developed from a prototype traditional two-spool turbofan and save
much design cost. Such design has already been authorized as a Chinese invention patent [15].
To further interpret the basic theory of air-driven fan system, the velocity triangles of the fan and
air turbine are shown in Figure 2. The outer flow path includes additional fan rotor and its stator. At
Section 1, the air from the atmosphere only has axial velocity C1 . Meanwhile, its relative velocity is W1
in the relative coordinate system of additional fan. After flowing through the additional fan rotor, the
air is pressurized with its circumferential velocity increases from 0 to Cu12 . The stator before Section 2
changes the absolute velocity of the air from C12 to C2 and the static pressure increases. Moreover, the
inner flow passes by air turbine rotor and its stator. Air turbine is the main part that extracts energy
from moderate pressure air. A natural and traditional idea is to introduce a prototype fan stator to
transfer circumferential velocity into static pressure and an air turbine stator to accelerate the flow
and produce circumferential velocity for the air turbine rotor. Inspired by a patent [16], this idea is
replaced by a currently better scheme in which the air turbine stator is installed downstream from the
air turbine rotor. As a result, the part of the prototype fan stator can be saved, and complexity and
weight can be reduced. At Section 3, the air has circumferential velocity components. The air turbine
rotor decelerates the circumferential velocity while extracting energy. The air turbine stator is aimed
to eliminate possible circumferential velocity. Meanwhile, in some cases, its circumferential velocity
component is so small that the air turbine stator can be cancelled or just replaced as a support plate.
 Energies
Energies 11, x 12,
2018, 2019, FOR 1917
PEER REVIEW 5 of 517of 17

Figure 2. Velocity triangles of the rotors and stators in the ADTF.

Figure 2. Velocity triangles of the rotors and stators in the ADTF.
A new concept of high-BPR ADTF and its theory are outlined in this section. To design a high-BPR
A newwith
ADTF concept of high-BPR
better performance andADTF and the
understand its advantages
theory areandoutlined in thisofsection.
disadvantages To design a
ADTF, conceptual
and thermodynamic analysis of high-BPR ADTF is presented in the next section.
high-BPR ADTF with better performance and understand the advantages and disadvantages of
ADTF, conceptual and thermodynamic analysis of high-BPR ADTF is presented in the next section.
3. Thermodynamic Analysis of High-BPR ADTF
After the proposal
3. Thermodynamic of high-BPR
Analysis ADTF, ADTF
of High-BPR we must know the design criteria that direct us to design a
well-performing ADTF and inform us how design parameters affect one another. For convenience
After the proposal
of analysis of high-BPR
and comparison, ADTF,
some special we mustsuch
parameters, know the design
as efficiency criteria that
of equivalent direct us to
aerodynamic
design a well-performing
reduction gear box (EARGB) ADTF and inform
and effective us defined
BPR, are how design parameters
and discussed affect
using the one another.
equivalent method. For
convenience of analysis and comparison, some special parameters, such as efficiency of equivalent
At the end of this part, armed with the design criteria and theoretical analysis, thermodynamic analysis
aerodynamic reduction
is performed gearthebox
to evaluate (EARGB)
effects and effective
that different BPR, are
main parameters defined
have on theand discussed
performance using the
of ADTF
based on a prototype turbofan. A rough comparison between ADTF and GTF is then
equivalent method. At the end of this part, armed with the design criteria and theoretical analysis, made, further
showing the analysis
thermodynamic characteristics and application
is performed scope the
to evaluate of ADTF.
effects that different main parameters have on
the performance of ADTF based
3.1. Criteria for Design Parameterson a prototype turbofan. A rough comparison between ADTF and
GTF is then made, further showing the characteristics and application scope of ADTF.
For a prototype turbofan that will be adapted to an ADTF, three main design parameters are
known, namely, mass flow rate in the bypass of prototype fan m f 0 , total pressure ratio of prototype fan
3.1 Criteria for Design Parameters
π f 0 , and total temperature at the outlet of prototype fan T∗f 0 . The air-driven fan system (including the
For a prototype
additional fan andturbofan that
air turbine) haswill
fourbe adapted
main overall to an ADTF,
design threeMass
parameters: mainflow design parameters
rate of additional are
known,
fan m namely, mass flow
f , total pressure rate
ratio of in the fan
additional π f , mass
bypass of flow
prototype m f 0 , mtotal
fanturbine
rate of air a , andpressure ratio of
total pressure
drop ratio of air turbine πa . Figure 1b shows that ma = m f 0 . Thus, only three design parameters must
prototype fan π f 0 , and total temperature at the outlet of prototype fan T f 0 . The air-driven fan
*
be determined. Now, we discuss the constraints for these design parameters.
system (including the additional fan and air turbine) has four main overall design parameters: Mass
(1) Power balance relation
flow rate of additional fan m f , total pressure ratio of additional fan π f , mass flow rate of air
Power balance means that the power that air turbine produce equals to that needed by the
turbine ma , and total pressure drop ratio of air turbine π a . Figure 1b shows that ma = m f 0 . Thus,
additional fan. Therefore,
only three design parameters must be

determined.

Now, we discuss the constraints for these design
parameters. ∗  1  ∗ k−1
ηa = m f Cp T1 (π f
 
ma Cp T f 0 1 −
 k
k−1
− 1)/η f (1)
(1) Power balance relation πa k

Power 1
∗
where Tbalance
is the ambient
means total
that temperature,
the power that η f is air
the turbine
isentropic efficiency
produce of additional
equals to that fan, ηa is the
needed by the
isentropic efficiency of air turbine, Cp is isobaric specific heat capacity of air, and k is ratio of specific
additional fan. Therefore,
heats of air.
k −1
1
ma C pT f*（
0 1− k −1
）η a = m f C pT1* (π f k
− 1) / η f (1)
πa k

where T1* is the ambient total temperature, η f is the isentropic efficiency of additional fan, η a is
the isentropic efficiency of air turbine, C is isobaric specific heat capacity of air, and k is ratio of
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 6 of 17

(2) Thrust condition

The thrust produced by the air-driven fan system is determined by its application scenario.
Figure 1b shows that the thrust of air-driven fan system consists of two parts, one produced by the
additional fan and the other produced by the air turbine. According to the formula of nozzle thrust:
q r
. k−1 . k−1
F = ma 2Cp Ta (1 − (πa /π f 0 ) ) + m f 2Cp T∗f (1 − (1/π f ) k )
∗ k (2)

where F is the required thrust of the air-driven fan system, Ta∗ is total temperature at the outlet of air
turbine, and T∗f is total temperature at the outlet of additional fan. According to the formula for power
of turbomachinery, we deduce that
 k−1
 T ∗ = T ∗ [1 − (1 − 1/π k )η ]

 a f0 a a
. (3)

 k−1
 T∗ = T∗ [1 + (π k − 1)/η f ]


f 1 f

We combine Equations (2) and (3) to obtain the following thrust condition:
r r
. k−1 k−1 . k−1 k−1
F = ma 2Cp T∗f 0 [1 − (1 − 1/πa k )ηa ](1 − (πa /π f 0 ) k ) + mf 2Cp T1∗ [1 + (π f k − 1)/η f ](1 − (1/π f ) k ). (4)

(3) Total pressure relation

To design a high-performance high-BPR turbofan, potential losses must be minimized. For the
newly proposed concept of high-BPR ADTF, some apparent aerodynamic losses can be easily reduced
due to fine primary parameter design, but not until the stage of detailed aerodynamic design. When
the flow exits the air turbine, it will mix with the bypass flow, thereby resulting in the loss of mixture.
To avoid this flow loss as much as possible, the total pressure at the outlet of air turbine must be the
same (or nearly the same) as that at the outlet of the additional fan, which is the total pressure relation
shown as
π f = π f 0 /πa . (5)

In summary, three main independent design parameters m f , π f , and πa satisfy the relations
described by Equations (1), (4), and (5). These design parameters are then determined because the
number of unknown parameters is equal to that of the equations.

3.2. Theoretical Analysis

ADTF is an entirely new concept, which changes the thermodynamic cycle of the prototype
turbofan and lacks mature primary parameters analysis method and model in commercial gas turbine
performance simulation software. To quickly determine the parameter sensitivity of ADTF, the
equivalent method is used, treating ADTF as a variant of GTF. Two new and unique parameters are
then proposed to realize this equivalence. The efficiency of EARGB in ADTF is equivalent to the
efficiency of a reduction gear box in GTF, whereas effective BPR in ADTF is equivalent to BPR in GTF.
The two parameters are proposed and deduced in the following passage, and primary parameters are
then analyzed using commercial gas turbine performance simulation software GasTurb [17].
(1) Analysis of power transfer efficiency
In order to improve propulsion efficiency, turbofans do their best to transfer the available energy
from core to bypass. When core engines of turbofans are the same, SFC is only dependent on BPR and
power transfer efficiency, which is an important index that reflects how well the energy is transferred
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 7 of 17

from core to bypass. For a normal turbofan or GTF, power transfer efficiency can be expressed simply
as multipliers:
ηt = ηm η ge
η f 0 ηo (6)

where ηt is the power transfer efficiency (from core to bypass), ηm is the mechanical efficiency, η g is
η f 0 is the power transfer efficiency of the prototype fan, and ηo is the power
the gear box efficiency, e
transfer efficiency of bypass duct. Usually, e η f 0 , η f 0 . The function of pressure ratio is defined as

k−1
A=π k − 1. (7)

η f 0 and η f 0 is
Then, the relation between e

. k−1
m f 0 Cp T∗f 0 (1 − 1/π f 0k ) Af0 + ηf0
ηf0 =
e k−1
= . (8)
. Af0 + 1
m f 0 Cp T1∗ (π f 0 − 1)/η f 0
k

Thus, eη f 0 = η f 0 only when η f 0 = 1 or A f 0 = 0. Moreover, the relation between ηo and commonly

used σo (total pressure recovery coefficient of bypass duct) is:

. k−1 k−1
m f 0 Cp T∗f 0 (1 − 1/(σo π f 0 ) k ) A f 0 − 1/σo k + 1
ηo = k−1
= . (9)
. Af0
m f 0 Cp T∗f 0 (1 − 1/π f 0k )

For ADTF, the air-driven fan system uses a part of the available energy from the core turbofan, so
the thermodynamic cycle parameters of the equivalent turbofan are changed. Imitating Equation (6),
the power transfer efficiency of the equivalent turbofan can be expressed as

ηt = ηm ηege
η f 0 ηo (10)

where ηeg refers to the efficiency due to the added parts, such as air turbine and additional fan of ADTF,
which only depend on the design level of turbomachine; and ηeg corresponds to η g in form, so it is
named the efficiency of EARGB.
(2) Efficiency of EARGB and effective BPR
For ADTF, through energy transfer analysis, we know that

. k−1
Cp (m f T∗f + ma Ta∗ )(1 − 1/π f k )
ηege
ηf = k−1
(11)
ma Cp T1∗ (π f 0k − 1)/η f 0

where eη f is the power transfer efficiency of the additional fan. According to Equations (1), (3), (5), and
(7), we can deduce that
Af0 − Af Af Af0 + ηf0
ηeg = ( η f ηa + ) . (12)
A f 0 (A f 0 + 1) Af0 Af + ηf
According to this equation, when η f 0 = η f = ηa = 1 and ηeg = 1, no loss occurs in the power
transfer process; when η f = ηa = 1 and ηeg = (A f 0 + η f 0 )/(A f 0 + 1), the loss in the power transfer
process only comes from the fan of main engine. Moreover, the range of ηeg is determined as

Af0 + ηf0 Af0 + ηf0

η f 0 ηa =
e ηa < ηeg < η f 0.
=e (13)
Af0 + 1 Af0 + 1
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 8 of 17

This air-driven fan system can change the BPR of the prototype turbofan. If the BPR of the
prototype turbofan isfanB system
This air-driven , then its canmass flow the
change at the
BPR inner duct
of the is ma / Bturbofan.
prototype . AccordingIf to
theEquation (1),
BPR of the
prototype turbofan
the effective BPR of is B, then
ADTF its mass
is shown asflow at the inner duct is ma /B. According to Equation (1), the
effective BPR of ADTF is shown as
m f + m a Af 0 − Af Af 0 + η f 0 η f η a
Be =. . = (1 + )B > B . (14)
mf +m am/ aB A fA Aff00 ++1η fη
0 f− A f A 0 fη0 f ηa
Be = . = (1 + )B > B. (14)
ma /B Af Af0 + 1 ηf0
The effective BPR of ADTF is larger than the prototype BPR, and the air-driven fan system
serves
Theas effective
a kind of BPR
BPR of“amplifier.”
ADTF is larger With both
thanparameters
the prototype of efficiency
BPR, and of the
EARGB and effective
air-driven BPR,
fan system
primary
serves as aperformance parameters With
kind of BPR “amplifier.” can both
be parameters
easily analyzed via the
of efficiency existingand
of EARGB mature overall
effective BPR,
performance analysis method.
primary performance parameters can be easily analyzed via the existing mature overall performance
analysis method.
3.3. Thermodynamic Analysis of High-BPR ADTF
3.3. Thermodynamic Analysis of High-BPR ADTF
To thermodynamically analyze the main parameters of ADTF, a prototype turbofan model is
usedTo(see Reference [18] andanalyze
thermodynamically Table 1the
fore the parameters
main main parameters).
of ADTF, a prototype turbofan model is used
(see Reference [18] and Table 1 fore the main parameters).
Table 1. Main parameters of prototype turbofan.
Table 1. Main parameters of prototype turbofan.
Parameters of Prototype Turbofan Values
Total
Parameters Mass FlowTurbofan
of Prototype (kg/s) 95.3
Values
BPR 5.3
Total Mass Flow (kg/s) 95.3
Fan Pressure Ratio 1.7
BPR 5.3
Fan Efficiency
Fan Pressure Ratio 0.901.7
HPCEfficiency
Fan Pressure Ratio 13.5
0.90
HPC Efficiency
HPC Pressure Ratio 0.85
13.5
HPCHPT Efficiency
Efficiency 0.88
0.85
HPTLPT Efficiency
Efficiency 0.88
0.88
BurnerLPT
ExitEfficiency
Total Temperature (K) 0.88
1400
Burner Exit Total Temperature (K) 1400
The influence of efficiency of EARGB on fan pressure and SFC is shown in Figure 3. When
otherThe
main parameters
influence remain of
of efficiency the same, on
EARGB as efficiency of and
fan pressure EARGB SFC drops,
is showntheinenergy
Figuredelivered from
3. When other
LPT to fan goes down, decreasing fan pressure ratio. The decrease of fan
main parameters remain the same, as efficiency of EARGB drops, the energy delivered from LPT pressure ratio also
to
increases
fan SFC. For
goes down, example,
decreasing fanwhen efficiency
pressure ratio. Theof EARGB
decreaseisofapproximately
fan pressure ratio0.9,also
SFCincreases
increasesSFC.
by
approximately
For 5%, which
example, when means
efficiency that the is
of EARGB economy of ADTF
approximately is SFC
0.9, acceptable. Equation
increases (13) shows that
by approximately 5%,
the efficiency
which of the
means that EARGB
economyhas ofaADTF
low is limit. When η
acceptable. f 0 = η a = (13)
Equation 0.9 ,shows
the minimum of ηeg of
that the efficiency is
approximately
EARGB 0.82,
has a low andWhen
limit. η f 0 = ηby
SFC drops a =approximately
0.9, the minimum ηeg isfinding
10%.ofThis means that
approximately 0.82,under the
and SFC
condition
drops of high efficiency
by approximately 10%.ofThis
the aerodynamic
finding meansparts, the economy
that under of ADTF
the condition is acceptable
of high efficiencyeven in
of the
the extreme case.
aerodynamic parts, the economy of ADTF is acceptable even in the extreme case.

Figure 3. Fan pressure ratio and delta specific fuel consumption (SFC) versus efficiency of equivalent
Figure 3. Fan
aerodynamic pressure
reduction ratio
gear box and delta specific fuel consumption (SFC) versus efficiency of
(EARGB).
equivalent aerodynamic reduction gear box (EARGB).
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

Energies 2019, 12, 1917 9 of 17

Given that ηa , η f 0 , and η f remain constant and are equal to 0.9 (around the current design level in
reality), the efficiency of EARGB and effective BPR only depend on the prototype fan pressure ratio and
additional fan pressure ratio based on Equations (12) and (14). If ADTF is based on an existing, mature
turbofan, as shown in Table 1, then the prototype fan pressure ratio is fixed, and only the additional
fan pressure ratio is a variable. As additional fan pressure decreases from 1.6 to 1.1, the efficiency of
EARGB drops from 0.98 to 0.86 and effective BPR increases from 6 to 27 because the pressure-drop
ratio of the air turbine and the mass flow rate of air the additional fan drives increase (See Figure 4).
In addition, Figure 5 shows that as additional fan pressure decreases from 1.6 to 1.1, SFC drops from
3% to 40%,
Energies 2018, whereas net thrust
11, x FOR PEER REVIEW increases from 3% to 67%, mainly due to the influence of efficiency
9 of of
17
EARGB and effective BPR.

Figure 4. Efficiency of EARGB and effective bypass ratio (BPR) versus additional fan pressure ratio.

Given that η a , η f 0 , and η f remain constant and are equal to 0.9 (around the current design
level in reality), the efficiency of EARGB and effective BPR only depend on the prototype fan
pressure ratio and additional fan pressure ratio based on Equations (12) and (14). If ADTF is based
on an existing, mature turbofan, as shown in Table 1, then the prototype fan pressure ratio is fixed,
and only the additional fan pressure ratio is a variable. As additional fan pressure decreases from
1.6 to 1.1, the efficiency of EARGB drops from 0.98 to 0.86 and effective BPR increases from 6 to 27
because the pressure-drop ratio of the air turbine and the mass flow rate of air the additional fan
drives increase (See Figure 4). In addition, Figure 5 shows that as additional fan pressure decreases
from 1.6 to 1.1, SFC drops from 3% to 40%, whereas net thrust increases from 3% to 67%, mainly
due to the influence of efficiency of EARGB and effective BPR.
Figure 4. Efficiency of EARGB and effective bypass ratio (BPR) versus additional fan pressure ratio.
Figure 4. Efficiency of EARGB and effective bypass ratio (BPR) versus additional fan pressure ratio.

Given that η a , η f 0 , and η f remain constant and are equal to 0.9 (around the current design
level in reality), the efficiency of EARGB and effective BPR only depend on the prototype fan
pressure ratio and additional fan pressure ratio based on Equations (12) and (14). If ADTF is based
on an existing, mature turbofan, as shown in Table 1, then the prototype fan pressure ratio is fixed,
and only the additional fan pressure ratio is a variable. As additional fan pressure decreases from
1.6 to 1.1, the efficiency of EARGB drops from 0.98 to 0.86 and effective BPR increases from 6 to 27
because the pressure-drop ratio of the air turbine and the mass flow rate of air the additional fan
drives increase (See Figure 4). In addition, Figure 5 shows that as additional fan pressure decreases
from 1.6 to 1.1, SFC drops from 3% to 40%, whereas net thrust increases from 3% to 67%, mainly
due to the influence of efficiency of EARGB and effective BPR.

Figure 5. Delta SFC and delta net thrust versus additional fan pressure ratio.
Figure 5. Delta SFC and delta net thrust versus additional fan pressure ratio.
Figures 3–5 show an apparent dilemma. When designing an ADTF, choosing low additional fan
pressure means
Figures 3–5low SFCan
show and high netdilemma.
apparent thrust, and it alsodesigning
When means low anefficiency of EARGB,
ADTF, choosing which
low creates
additional
highpressure
fan SFC increase.
meansHowever, choosing
low SFC and highthrust,
high net additional
and itfan pressure
also meansmeans that the effective
low efficiency of EARGB, BPR, SFC,
which
and net thrust cannot be notably changed. Therefore, proper additional fan pressure must
creates high SFC increase. However, choosing high additional fan pressure means that the effective be chosen
to remarkably
BPR, SFC, and reduce SFC cannot
net thrust and limit
be the counteraction
notably changed. of SFC due to
Therefore, low efficiency
proper additionaloffan
EARGB. An
pressure
additional
must fan pressure
be chosen of 1.2 isreduce
to remarkably properSFC
in this
andcase,
limitwhereas the effectiveofBPR
the counteraction SFCisdue
approximately 14.
to low efficiency

Figure 5. Delta SFC and delta net thrust versus additional fan pressure ratio.
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 10 of 17

3.4. Brief Comparison between ADTF and GTF

The concept of EARGB has already been discussed, and its efficiency can be calculated according
to Equation (12). For example, based on the prototype turbofan described in Table 1, a proper set of
parameters, π f = 1.2, π f 0 = 1.7, and ηa = η f 0 = η f = 0.9, makes ηeg = 0.89. Compared with η g ≈ 0.99 in
GTF, the energy transfer efficiency of ADTF is slightly low because ηeg ≈ 0.9, and SFC increases by
approximately 5%, as shown in Figure 3. However, ADTF can greatly increase BPR, even making it
larger than 12, and this is still difficult for GTF. To conclude, ADTF applies to very-high-BPR (more
than 12) turbofan well, dodging the proper BPR range of GTF.
Apart from the slightly low energy transfer efficiency, ADTF has more advantages in structure
complexity, development difficulty, and manufacture difficulty, dealing better with the fan core speed
incompatibility problem and low-cost contradiction. The SFC of ADTF is slightly higher than GTF at
the same BPR. However, less development and manufacture difficulty makes ADTF more suitable
for cost-sensitive and small-batch situations, such as regional jets and small UAVs. The comparison
between ADTF and GTF is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparison between ADTF and GTF.

Characteristics GTF ADTF

Component Efficiency High High
SFC (same BPR) Low A little higher than GTF
Structure Complexity Very complex May be less complex
Power Transfer Efficiency High (≈99%) Medium (≈90%)
Development Difficulty High May be Medium
Manufacture Difficulty High May be Medium
Reliability and Durability Medium May be High
Appropriate BPR High (≈10) High (≥12)

4. Exploratory Design and Aerodynamic Analysis of an Air-Driven Fan System

4.1. Exploratory Design of An Air-Driven Fan System on the Basis of a Prototype Turbofan
To demonstrate the feasibility of the ADTF concept, the case of air-driven fan system, which is the
most innovative and doubtful section, is exploratorily designed on the basis of a prototype turbofan
shown in Table 1. Design targets are determined from the thermodynamic analysis. The appropriate
total pressure ratio of the additional fan is selected as 1.2, and the mass flow rate of air turbine is equal
to that of the fan in the prototype turbofan (see Section 3.3), as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Design targets and simulation results of the air-driven fan system.

Components Parameters Design Targets Simulation Results

Total Pressure Ratio 1.20 1.20
Additional Fan Mass Flow Rate (kg/s) 127.5 126.7
Isentropic Efficiency ≈90% 85.6%
Total Pressure Drop Ratio 1.42 1.40
Air Turbine Mass Flow Rate (kg/s) 80.2 80.2
Isentropic Efficiency ≈90% 89.6%

The design process of the air-driven fan system (shown in Figure 6a) is the same as that of
other turbomachineries. The process follows a preliminary design, throughflow design (design on
S2 surface), 2D blading design (design on S1 surface), and 3D blading design [19,20]. During the
throughflow design process, the rotational speed of the air-driven fan system is set as 5000 rpm at
its design point. On the basis of the throughflow design, the 2D blade profiles of the fan and the air
turbine at 0%, 50%, and 100% spans are designed. The blade profiles of the additional fan and the
air turbine at the 50% span are shown in Figure 7. Furthermore, the 3D blades are obtained by linear
used,
thegiven the radius
additional fan, oftheleading
relative and trailing
Mach numberedges, at the
its maximum
rotor tip isthickness,
in a highand its position.
subsonic state, For
so the
the position
additional fan, the relative Mach number at its rotor tip is in
of maximum curvature and thickness must be shifted backward appropriately to avoid aa high subsonic state, so the
position
strong ofshock
maximum wave.curvature and thickness must be shifted backward appropriately to avoid a
strong shock
Due wave.
to low pressure ratio in these parts, blade number and chord length greatly affect the
Due to
performance oflow pressure ratio so
these parts, in the
these parts, blade
parameters number and
are optimized in thechord length
design greatly
process. Theaffect the of
selection
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 11 of 17
performance
the blade number should ensure that the solidity of blades is within a reasonable range. Inofthis
of these parts, so the parameters are optimized in the design process. The selection
the paper,
blade number should ensure
for the additional fan, thethat the solidity
number of rotor of blades
bladesisis10withinand the a reasonable
stator is 21;range.
while Inforthis
the air
paper, for the
turbine, the
interpolation additional
of number
these three fan, the
of turbine number
sections.blades of rotor
is 23 and
This process blades is
the stator is
is completed 10 and
by17. the
theCentroidstator
aerodynamic is 21;
stackingwhile for
is used
design the
mostly
program air
of for
turbine,
ourthe
group.the The
blades.number
However,
camberof turbine
lines ofblades
the fan 2Dis
rotor
the 23 and
sweeps
blade the stator
forward
profiles is 17.
in the
are made Centroid
middle andstacking is used
sweeps backward
of multi-segment arcs. mostly
Also, thefor
attaking tip to
the blades.
the weaken
angles oftheHowever,
shock
attack andthe
wave fan rotor sweeps
in the into
derivation passage. forward in
In the end,the
consideration, the middle
3Dblade
geometryand sweeps
anglesofare the backward
additionalby
determined at the tip
faniterations to
and the air
weaken
turbine
of numericaltheisshock
obtainedwave
simulation. byin the passage.
iteration
Cubic designInbased
polynomial the end, 3D geometry
on numerical
distribution of blade of thethickness
simulation.
profile additional fan and
is used, the the
given air
turbine
radius of isAfter
obtained
leading by iteration
the four
and design designan
trailingphases,
edges, based
the onair-driven
entire
maximum numerical simulation.
fan
thickness, system,
and itsincluding
position.theForadditional fan rotor,
the additional
After
fan,additional the
the relativefanfour
Machdesign
stator,
number phases,
air turbine an entire
rotor,
at its rotor air-driven
tipand
is inair fan
turbine
a high system, including
stator,state,
subsonic the
is established additional
and of
so the position fan
3Dmaximum rotor, as
modeled,
additional
illustrated
curvature fan
and in stator, air
Figure 6b.
thickness must be shifted backward appropriately to avoid a strong shock wave. as
turbine rotor, and air turbine stator, is established and 3D modeled,
illustrated in Figure 6b.

Figure 6. Air-driven fan: (a) 2D cut-open view, (b) 3D model, and (c) mesh for numerical simulation.
Figure 6.
Figure Air-driven fan:
6. Air-driven fan: (a)
(a) 2D
2D cut-open
cut-open view,
view, (b)
(b) 3D
3D model,
model, and
and (c)
(c) mesh
mesh for
for numerical
numerical simulation.
simulation.

Figure 7. Blade profiles of the additional fan and the air turbine at the 50% span.
Figure 7. Blade profiles of the additional fan and the air turbine at the 50% span.
Figure 7. Blade profiles of the additional fan and the air turbine at the 50% span.
Due to low pressure ratio in these parts, blade number and chord length greatly affect the
performance of these parts, so the parameters are optimized in the design process. The selection of the
blade number should ensure that the solidity of blades is within a reasonable range. In this paper, for
the additional fan, the number of rotor blades is 10 and the stator is 21; while for the air turbine, the
number of turbine blades is 23 and the stator is 17. Centroid stacking is used mostly for the blades.
However, the fan rotor sweeps forward in the middle and sweeps backward at the tip to weaken
the shock wave in the passage. In the end, 3D geometry of the additional fan and the air turbine is
obtained by iteration design based on numerical simulation.
After the four design phases, an entire air-driven fan system, including the additional fan rotor,
additional fan stator, air turbine rotor, and air turbine stator, is established and 3D modeled, as
illustrated in Figure 6b.
Energies 2019,
Energies 12,11,
2018, 1917x FOR PEER REVIEW 1212of of
17 17

4.2. CFD-Based Aerodynamic Analysis of the Air-Driven Fan System

4.2. CFD-Based Aerodynamic Analysis of the Air-Driven Fan System
To evaluate the aerodynamic design of the air-driven fan system, a CFD simulation is
To
employed evaluatehere. theNUMECA
aerodynamic design are
packages of the air-driven
used for the fan system, a For
simulation. CFDbothsimulation
rotors is andemployed
stators, a
here. NUMECA packages are used for the simulation. For
single blade passage is taken as the calculation domain and Autogrid is used to generate both rotors and stators, a single bladethe
passage
structuredis taken
grid. asAntheO-type
calculation meshdomain
is usedand Autogrid
around is used
the blade to generate
while the structured
a butterfly-type mesh (an grid.H-type
An
O-type mesh is used around the blade while a butterfly-type mesh
mesh surrounded by an O-type mesh) in the rotor clearance region. The total number of grid nodes (an H-type mesh surrounded by
anisO-type mesh) in the rotor clearance region. The total number of grid nodes is 2.2 × 10 6 , in which
2.2 × 106, in which 1.0 × 106 for the fan domain and 1.2 × 106 for the air turbine. The entire mesh of
× 10
1.0the 6 for the fan domain and 1.2 × 106 for the air turbine. The entire mesh of the air-driven fan
air-driven fan system is illustrated in Figure 6c.
systemMoreover,
is illustrated in Figure is
Fine/Turbo 6c.used to simulate the flow field of the whole air-driven fan system. The
Moreover, Fine/Turbo
boundary conditions are set is used as tofollows:
simulateTotalthe flow field of
pressure of the
the whole
fan inletair-driven
is 101,325 fan system.
Pa, total
Thetemperature of the fan inlet is 288 K, and static pressure of the outlet is given; total pressuretotal
boundary conditions are set as follows: Total pressure of the fan inlet is 101,325 Pa, of the
temperature
air turbineof theisfan
inlet inlet Pa,
17,250 is 288 K, temperature
total and static pressure
of the airof the outletinlet
turbine is given;
is 341total
K, andpressure of the air of
static pressure
turbine
outletinlet is 17,250
is given; Pa, totaland
adiabatic temperature of the air turbine
non-slip boundaries are set inlet
forissolid
341 K,walls;
and static
rotatingpressure
boundariesof outletare
is adopted
given; adiabatic and non-slip boundaries are set for solid walls; rotating
for rotors and their hubs while stationary boundaries for stators, their hubs, and casings; boundaries are adopted
forperiodical
rotors andboundaries
their hubs while are used stationary
on both boundaries for stators,
circumferential their
sides ofhubs, and casings;
the blade passages; periodical
and the
boundaries are used on both circumferential sides of the blade passages;
conservative coupling by pitchwise row is used for the rotor–stator interfaces. Also, the turbulence and the conservative coupling
bymodel
pitchwise usedrow is used
in this paperfor is
theSpalart-Allmaras
rotor–stator interfaces. Also, the
(S-A) model. Theturbulence model used
solver Euranus is usedin this paperthe
to solve
is Spalart-Allmaras (S-A) model. The solver Euranus is used
steady N-S equation, and the convergence is accelerated by the multigrid technique. to solve the steady N-S equation, and the
convergence is accelerated of
The characteristics bythethe air-driven
multigrid technique.
fan system at the design speed are studied by CFD. The
The characteristics of the
common working point is obtained according air-driven fan systemtoatthe the power
design balance
speed arerelation.
studied Asby CFD. The common
illustrated in Figure
working
8, as the point is obtained
outlet according
static pressure (backto the power balance
pressure) increases, relation.
the powerAs illustrated
producedinby Figure
the air 8, as the
turbine
outlet static pressure (back pressure) increases, the power produced
drops, while that needed by the additional fan increases. When the outlet static pressure is about by the air turbine drops, while
that
101needed by the additional
kPa (around the standard fan increases.
atmospheric When the outlet
pressure), powerstaticbalance
pressureisisachieved
about 101and kPathe (around
design
thepoint
standard atmospheric pressure), power balance is achieved and
at the design speed is obtained. The CFD results at the design point are shown in Table 3. At the design point at the design
speed is obtained.
the design point,The the CFDtotal results
pressure at the design
ratio, masspoint
flow arerate,shown in Table 3.efficiency
and isentropic At the designof thepoint, the
additional
total
fanpressure ratio,kg/s,
are 1.2, 126.7 massand flow rate, respectively,
85.6%, and isentropic andefficiency
the totalofpressure
the additional fan are
drop ratio, mass1.2,flow
126.7 kg/s,
rate, and
and 85.6%, respectively, and the total pressure drop ratio, mass flow
isentropic efficiency of the air turbine are 1.40, 80.2 kg/s, and 89.6%, respectively. Compared with rate, and isentropic efficiency
of the
the design
air turbine are 1.40,
targets, 80.2 kg/s, and
the differences 89.6%,
between respectively.
the design targets Compared
and the with the design
simulation resultstargets, the
are within
differences
permission between
because theitdesign targets and design
is an exploratory the simulation results are within permission because it is an
at this stage.
exploratory design at this stage.

Figure 8. Power balance between the additional fan and the air turbine at their design speed.
Figure 8. Power balance between the additional fan and the air turbine at their design speed.
The characteristic lines of the additional fan and the air turbine at their design speed are shown
in FigureThe9.characteristic
According tolines of the
Figure additional
9a, the fan and
additional fan atthe
theairdesign
turbine at their
point design
works nearspeed are shown
its maximum
in Figure
efficiency 9. According
point. Due to theto fact
Figure
that9a,
thethe additional
mass flow ratefanof at
thethe
airdesign
turbinepoint
underworks near its maximum
the conditions we are
efficiencywith
concerned point. Due to
remains the fact
at 80.2 kg/s,that
the the mass
power flow rate
instead of the
of mass flowairrate
turbine under
is used as the the conditions
abscissa in thewe
are concerned
characteristic mapwith remains
of the at 80.2
air turbine, askg/s, the power
illustrated instead
in Figure 9b. of mass
From flow
this rateitiscan
figure, used
be as thethat
seen abscissa
the
in the characteristic map of the air turbine, as illustrated in Figure 9b. From this figure, it can be
Energies 2018,
Energies 11,11,
2018, x FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 1313of of1717
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 13 of 17
seen that
seen the
that efficiency
the efficiencyofof
the airair
the turbine has
turbine little
has change
little change(keeps
(keepsaround
around0.9) within
0.9) withinthe scope
the ofof
scope our
our
concern; this highly efficient air turbine guarantees the energy transfer with less losses according
concern; this highly efficient air turbine guarantees the energy transfer with less losses according to to
efficiency of the air turbine has little change (keeps around 0.9) within the scope of our concern; this
Equation
Equation (12).
(12).
highly efficient air turbine guarantees the energy transfer with less losses according to Equation (12).

(a)(a) (b)(b)

Figure
Figure 9.9.
Figure The
9. The
The characteristic
characteristic
characteristic lines
lines ofof
lines ofthe
the the additional
additional
additional fans fans
fansandand
the
and the
air
the air turbines
turbines
air turbinesat at at
their their design
design
their speed:
speed:
design (a)(a)
speed:
(a) Additional
Additional
Additionalfan; fan;
(b)(b)
fan; (b)
airairair turbine
turbine
turbine (the (the
mass
(the mass
massflow flow
flowrate rate
is is
rate is maintained
maintained
maintained asas as
80.2 80.2 kg/s).
kg/s).
80.2 kg/s).

Theoverall
The overallflow
flowfeature
featureofofthetheair-driven
air-drivenfan fansystem
systematatthe thedesign
designpoint
pointisisshown
shown inin Figure
Figure 10a.
10a.
The overall flow feature of the air-driven fan system at the design point is shown in Figure 10a.
Also,
Also, Figure
Figure 10b,c
10b,c show
show the
the flow
flow field
field inin the
the additional
additional fan
fan and
and air
air turbine.
turbine. The
The additional
additional fan
fan stator
stator
Also, Figure 10b,c show the flow field in the additional fan and air turbine. The additional fan stator
isis employedtotomake
isemployed
make theflow
employed to makethe
flow directionaxial,
the flowdirection
axial, whereasthe
direction axial,whereas
the air turbinestator
whereas theairairturbine
stator is morelike
turbine statoris ismore
like a support
more likea asupport
support
plate
plate because
because small
small flow
flow turning
turning isis required
required in
in this
this design.
design. Under
Under the
the circumstances
circumstances withhigher
with higher
plate because small flow turning is required in this design. Under the circumstances with higher
effective
effective BPR, additional fan rotor will function like a ducted propeller, so circumferential velocity
effectiveBPR,
BPR,additional
additionalfan fanrotor
rotorwill
willfunction
functionlike likea aducted
ductedpropeller,
propeller,sosocircumferential
circumferentialvelocity
velocity
at the
atatthe outlet can be ignored, which implies the absence of the need to introduce a stator(a(atradeoff
tradeoff
theoutlet
outletcan
canbebeignored,
ignored,which
whichimplies
impliesthe theabsence
absenceofofthe theneed
needtotointroduce
introducea astator
stator (a tradeoff
betweenstructural
between structural complexity and and propulsion efficiency). In these situations, additional fanfan stator and
between structuralcomplexity
complexity andpropulsion
propulsionefficiency).
efficiency).InInthese
thesesituations,
situations,additional
additional fanstator
stator
air air
and turbine stator
turbine cancan
stator be replaced
bebereplacedby abysmall number
a small number of support
ofof
supportplates to reduce
plates toto
reduceweight.
weight.
and air turbine stator can replaced by a small number support plates reduce weight.

Figure 10. Static pressure contour and stream lines of the air-driven fan system: (a) Whole system,
Figure
Figure10.10.
Static pressure contour
Static and stream lines ofof
the air-driven fan system: (a)(a)
Whole system,
(b) additional fan,pressure contour
(c) air turbine. and stream lines the air-driven fan system: Whole system,
(b)(b)
additional
additionalfan, (c)(c)
fan, airair
turbine.
turbine.
Figure 11a shows a relative Mach number contour of the additional fan at 50% span. It is indicated
Figure
Figure
by this 11a
figure11ashows
that the aflow
shows arelative
relativeMach
Machnumber
is supersonic number contour
contour
at the inlet. ofofthe
There theadditional
exists a shock fan
additional fanatat
wave 50%
50%
that span.
span.It Itthe
increases is is
indicated
pressure by
indicatedover this figure
by pressure
this figure that
side, thatthe flow
thewith
along is
flowthe supersonic
is expansion at
supersonicwavesthe
at the inlet. There exists
inlet.decrease
which There exists a shock
a shock
that over wave that
wave side.
the suction that
increases
increases the pressure
the pressureover
over pressure
pressure side,
side,along
alongwith the
with theexpansion
expansion waves
waves which
which
These two kinds of waves both make a contribution to the aerodynamic load of the fan. In order to decrease
decreasethat over
that over
the suction
the
reduce theside.
suction loss These
side.
of Thesetwo
shock two
wave,kinds
kindsofof
waves
waves
pre-shock both
wave make
both make
Mach a contribution
a contribution
number toto
the
is restricted aerodynamic
the aerodynamic
below 1.2 duringload
load
the of the
of
design.the
fan. In order to reduce the loss of shock wave, pre-shock wave Mach number is
fan. In order to reduce the loss of shock wave, pre-shock wave Mach number is restricted below 1.2 restricted below 1.2
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 14 of 17

Energies
during the2018, 11, x FOR
design. PEER REVIEW
Moreover, the relative Mach number contour of the air turbine at 50% 14 of span
17 is
Moreover,
illustrated the relative
in Figure 11b.Mach number to
According contour of the air
this figure, turbine
the at 50%
relative spannumber
Mach is illustrated
risesinover
Figure1.111b.
at the
during
Accordingthe to
design.
this andMoreover,
figure, the relative Mach number contour of the air of
turbine at 50%
andspan is
outlet of the stator, a the relative
shock waveMach number
exists nearrises
the over 1.1 atedge.
trailing the outlet
Although the stator, a shock
the existence of the
illustrated
wave innear
exists Figure
the 11b. According
trailing edge. to this figure,
Although the the relative
existence of the Mach
shock number
wave risesmore
brings overflow
1.1 at the
losses,
shock wave
outlet brings
of the stator,more flow
and remains
a shocklosses, the efficiency
wavebecause
exists near of turbine remains high
the because
existence of the low
the efficiency of turbine high of thethe
lowtrailing edge.
pre-shock Although
wave Mach number. of the
pre-shock wave brings
shock wave Mach number.
more flow losses, the efficiency of turbine remains high because of the low
pre-shock wave Mach number.

Figure
Figure11.
11.Mach
Machnumber
numbercontour
contourofofthe
theair-driven
air-drivenfan
fansystem:
system:(a)
(a)Additional
Additionalfan
fanatat50%
50%span,
span,(b)
(b)air
air
Figure 11. Mach number contour of the air-driven fan system: (a) Additional fan at 50% span, (b) air
turbine
turbineatat50%
50%span.
span.
turbine at 50% span.
Another
Anotherimportant
importantissue
issueisisthe
theflow
flowmixing
mixingatatthe
theoutlet
outlet(after
(afterthe
thestators)
stators)of
ofthe
theadditional
additionalfan
fan
Another
and
and the airimportant
the turbine. Figure
turbine. issue12is
Figure the
12shows
showsflow
thethemixing
spanwise
spanwise atdistribution
the outletof(after
distribution the stators) of the additional
of circumferential-averaged
circumferential-averaged flow fan
flow angle
and angle
the velocity
and air
andturbine.
velocity Figure
magnitude
magnitude 12 at
at the shows
outlet ofthe
the outletthe ofspanwise distribution
the air-driven
air-driven fan fan system.
system. of In
In this circumferential-averaged
this figure,
figure, the airthe locatesflow
air turbine
turbine
angle and velocity magnitude at the outlet of the air-driven fan system. In this figure, the air
locates
between between
0% to 0%
50% to 50%
span span
while while
the the
additionaladditional
fan fan
between between
50% to 50%
100% to 100%
span. span.
AccordingAccording
this turbine
this
figure,
figure,
locates theangle
thebetween
flow flow
0% isangle
to 50%is approximately
approximately zero at
span while thezero
most at
of most of
the span,
additional fanthe span,
which
between which
means 50% means
thetoflow
100% the
is flow According
roughly
span. isaxial
roughly
with this
axial
thethe
figure, with
help ofthe
flow help
theangle
stators of the stators
is(kinetic energy
approximately (kinetic isenergy
losszero reduced).
at mostlossAlso,
is reduced).
of thespan,
the Also,
velocity themeans
magnitude
which velocity
is themagnitude
between
flow150 is
m/s
is roughly
between
to 200 150
m/s at m/s
most to 200
of the m/s at
span. most
So, theof the
flow span.
mixing So, the
mainlyflow mixing
happens mainly
after
axial with the help of the stators (kinetic energy loss is reduced). Also, the velocity magnitude is the happens
casing and after
the the casing
mainstream
and theflow
radial mainstream
mixing isradial
not theflow mixing
leading is not
cause of the
loss.leading cause of loss.
between 150 m/s to 200 m/s at most of the span. So, the flow mixing mainly happens after the casing
and the mainstream radial flow mixing is not the leading cause of loss.

Figure 12. Outlet flow angle and velocity magnitude of the additional fan and the air turbine.
Figure 12. Outlet flow angle and velocity magnitude of the additional fan and the air turbine.

Figure 12. Outlet flow angle and velocity magnitude of the additional fan and the air turbine.
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 15 of 17

In conclusion, the numerical results show that the design of the air-driven fan system satisfies the
design targets. Therefore, the feasibility of the core part of ADTF, that is, the air-driven fan system, is
demonstrated by the numerical simulation to a certain degree.

4.3. Comparison of Performance between the Prototype Turbofan and Demo ADTF
Given the CFD results of the air-driven fan system, the comparison of performance between
the prototype turbofan and demo ADTF can then be made to exhibit the performance advantages
of ADTF. According to Equation (12), the isentropic efficiency of the prototype fan rotor is 0.9, and
the efficiency of EARGB (ηeg ) is 0.90. This result means that the increase of SFC due to the air-driven
system, approximately 5%, is acceptable. Table 4 shows that when the air-driven fan system is added
to the prototype turbofan, BPR can be improved by 156.6%, SFC can be reduced by 27.6%, and thrust
can be improved by 38.4%. Therefore, the air-driven fan system, which serves as the so-called BPR
“amplifier,” is able to greatly improve the high-BPR turbofan performance. Also, as shown in Table 4,
the demo GTF (the same BPR with the demo ADTF) with the gearbox efficiency of 99% will reduce the
SFC by 5.7% compared with the demo ADTF, verifying the analysis in Section 3.3 that the air-driven
system will increase the SFC by 5% approximately.

Table 4. Comparison of performance among the prototype turbofan, demo GTF, and demo ADTF.

Parameters Prototype Turbofan Demo GTF Alteration (%) Demo ADTF Alteration (%)
BPR 5.3 13.6 156.6 13.6 156.6
SFC (kg/dN/h) 1.05 0.70 −33.3 0.76 −27.6
Net Thrust (kN) 25.5 38.5 51.0% 35.3 38.4

Therefore, after the overall thermodynamic analysis and detailed aerodynamic design, ADTF is
proven as a feasible method to improve the performance of a high-BPR turbofan, better dealing with
the fan core speed incompatibility problem and low-cost contradiction, especially in cost-sensitive
and small batch situations, such as regional jets and small UAVs. Further work remains to be done to
improve the theory and practice of ADTF.

5. Conclusions
This research presents the thermodynamic and aerodynamic analysis of an air-driven fan for
high-BPR turbofan engines. According to the above work, we can make the following conclusions:

(1) A novel concept of ADTF is proposed in this research. ADTF can solve fan core speed
incompatibility problem and relieve low-cost contradiction, serving as a promising candidate for
high-BPR turbofan, especially for cost-sensitive and small batch applications, such as regional
jets and small UAVs.
(2) The design criteria of ADTF, namely, power balance relation, thrust condition, and total pressure
relation, are proposed. To easily thermodynamically analyze ADTF and compare ADTF and GTF,
the theoretical expression of the efficiency of EARGB and effective BPR are proposed using the
equivalent method.
(3) The parameter analysis indicates that ADTF is more suitable for higher BPR compared with GTF.
The efficiency of EARGB of more than 0.9 with fine part design brings approximately 5% SFC
increase over the GTF, which is acceptable given great performance improvement due to BPR
increase. Moreover, ADTF may have the potential to outstand GTF in structural complexity,
reliability, durability, and cost of development, manufacture, and maintenance.
(4) After a thermodynamic analysis and primary parameter optimization, an air-driven fan system,
the most important part of ADTF, is exploratorily designed and aerodynamically analyzed by
numerical simulation. The calculated results and flow fields indicate the feasibility of ADTF.
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 16 of 17

The addition of an air-driven fan system improves the thrust of a prototype turbofan by 38.4%
and reduces its SFC by 27.6%.

Author Contributions: W.L. performed the theoretical analyses and wrote the manuscript; G.H. proposed the
research route and method; X.X. and J.W. contributed to simulation and data analyses; Y.Y contributed to
manuscript preparation.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Basic Research Program of China (No. 2014CB239602) and
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51176072).
Acknowledgments: A preliminary idea of the air-driven turbofan concept is presented in 51st AIAA/SAE/ASEE
Joint Propulsion Conference, AIAA Propulsion and Energy Forum. The authors wish to express their gratitude to
Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Aerospace Power System (affiliated with the College of Energy and Power
Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics) for technical support. The team members
of College of Energy and Power Engineering of Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics are also
gratefully acknowledged for their cooperation.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
ADTF Air-Driven TurboFan
BPR ByPass Ratio
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
EARGB Equivalent Aerodynamic Reduction Gear Box
HP/ HPC/ HPT High Pressure/ High Pressure Compressor/ High Pressure Turbine
GTF Geared TurboFan
LP/ LPC/ LPT Low Pressure/ Low Pressure Compressor/ Low Pressure Turbine
SFC Specific Fuel Consumption
UAV Unmanned Air Vehicle
A Function of Pressure Ratio
B ByPass Ratio
C Absolute Velocity
Cp Isobaric Specific Heat Capacity of Air
F Thrust
k Ratio of Specific Heats of Air
m Mass Flow Rate
T* Total Temperature
W Relative Velocity
Efficiency (for compressors, η = Wis /Ws ; for turbines, η = Ws /Wis . Where, Wis is
η stagnant isentropic work and Ws is shaft work. For others, η = Wo /Wi , which is
the output work over input work.)
ηeg Efficiency of Equivalent Gearbox
ηf0
e Power Transfer Efficiency of Prototype Fan
ηg Gear Box Efficiency
ηm Mechanical Efficiency
ηo Power Transfer Efficiency of Bypass Duct
ηt Power Transfer Efficiency
π Total Pressure Ratio
a Air Turbine
f Additional Fan
f0 Prototype Fan
m Axial Component of Velocity
u Circumferential Component of Velocity
Energies 2019, 12, 1917 17 of 17

References
1. Dipanjay, D.; Rao, G.A.; von Buijtenen, J. Feasibility Study of Some Novel Concepts for High Bypass Ratio
Turbofan Engines. In Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo 2009, Orlando, FL, USA, 8–12 June 2009; ASME
Paper No. GT-2009-59166.
2. Linda, L.; Tomas, G. Conceptual Design and Mission Analysis for a Geared Turbofan and an Open
Rotor Configuration. In Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo, GT2011-46451, Vancouver, BC, Canada,
6–10 June 2011.
3. Alexiou, A.; Aretakis, N.; Roumeliotis, I.; Mathioudakis, K. Short and Long Range Mission Analysis for a
Geared Turbofan with Active Core Technologies. In Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo 2010, Glasgow,
UK, 14–18 June 2010; pp. 643–651.
4. Reynolds, C.; Riffel, R.; Ludemann, S. Propfan Propulsion systems for the 1990’s. In Proceedings of the 23rd
Joint Propulsion Conference, San Diego, CA, USA, 29 June–2 July 1987. AIAA-87-1729.
5. Nicolosi, F.; Vecchia, P.D.; Corcione, S. Design and aerodynamic analysis of a twin-engine commuter aircraft.
Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 2015, 40, 1–16. [CrossRef]
6. Marin, N.; Spataru, P. The role and importance of UAV within the current theaters of operations. INCAS Bull.
2010, 2, 66–74.
7. Nickol, C.L.; Guynn, M.D.; Kohout, L.L.; Ozoroski, T.A. High Altitude Long Endurance UAV Analysis of
Alternatives and Technology Requirements Development. AIAA J. 2007. [CrossRef]
8. Rodgers, C. Affordable Smaller Turbofans. In Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo 2005, GT2005-68042,
Reno, NV, USA, 6–9 June 2005.
9. Kurzke, J. Fundamental Differences between Conventional and Geared Turbofans. In Proceedings of the
ASME Turbo Expo 2009, Orlando, FL, USA, 8–12 June 2009. ASME Paper No. GT-2009-59745.
10. Rued, K.; Schaber, R.; Klingels, H. Next Generation Aero Engines—New Concepts to Meet Future Environmental
and Economic Challenges. In Proceedings of the XIX International Symposium on Air Breathing Engines
(ISABE), Montreal, QC, Canada, 7–11 September 2009. ISABE-2009-1279.
11. Guo, Q.; Li, Z.Q. Design Characteristics of Turbofan/Turbojet engines for UAV/Cruise Missile Application.
Gas Turbine Exp. Res. 2007, 2, 58–62.
12. Huang, C.F.; Yao, Y.L.; Jiang, Y.L. Analysis on Technical Performance and Application Prospect of GTF
Engine. Aeronaut. Manuf. Technol. 2012, 13, 44–48.
13. Asmus, F.J. Design and development of the tip turbine lift fan. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2010, 10, 147–176.
[CrossRef]
14. Huang, G.; Xiang, X.; Xia, C.; Lu, W.; Li, L. Feasible Concept of an Air-Driven Fan with a Tip Turbine for a
High-Bypass Propulsion System. Energies 2018, 11, 3350. [CrossRef]
15. Huang, G.P.; Lu, W.Y.; Fu, X.; Xiang, X.; Ma, W.X. High Bypass Ratio Turbofan Engine Utilizing Self-Driven
Fan with Internal Air Turbine. Chinese Patent 201410753758.2, 8 April 2015.
16. Keogh, R. Turbofan Engine Utilizing an Aerodynamically Coupled Pre-combustion Power Turbine. U.S.
Patent US 7849669B2.12, 14 December 2010.
17. Kurzke, J. GasTurb—The Gas Turbine Performance Simulation Program; GasTurb GmbH: Aachen, Germany,
2012; Available online: www.gasturb.de (accessed on 20 September 2017).
18. Roux, E. Turbofan and Turbojet Engines Database Handbook; Editions Elodie Roux: Toulouse, France, 2007.
19. Gallimore, S.J. Axial Flow Compressor Design. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 1999, 213, 437–449. [CrossRef]
20. Zhang, J.; Zhou, Z.; Wei, W.; Deng, Y. Aerodynamic design of an ultra-low rotating speed geared fan.
Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 2017, 63, 73–81. [CrossRef]

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).