Chapter 5

Casting Process
Casting is manufacturing process basically melting a solid material, heating to a special
temperature, and is poured or injected into a mold (or cavity) and allowed to freeze so as to
take form of the mold which is in proper shape. The term casting is used to denote both the
product and the process. Casting has been known by human being since the 4 th century B.C.
Today it is nearly impossible to design anything that cannot be cast by means of one or more of the
available casting processes. However, as with other manufacturing processes, best results and economy
can be achieved if the designer understands the various casting processes and adapts his designs. Figure
1 shows some examples of casting products. Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium

Fig. 5.1. Examples of casting products

5.1 Casting Processes
In all casting processes six basic factors are involved. These are as follows:
1. A mold cavity, having the desired shape and size and with due allowance for shrinkage
of the solidifying metal, must be produced. Either a new mold must be prepared for
each casting, or made from a material for repeated castings.
2. A suitable means for melting the metal that is to be cast, providing not only adequate
temperature, but also satisfactory quality and quantity at low cost.
3. The molten metal introduced into the mold in such a manner that all air or gases in the
mold, prior to pouring or generated by the action of the hot metal upon the mold, will
escape, and the mold will be completely filled.
4. Provision must be made so that the mold will not cause too much restraint to the
shrinkage that accompanies cooling after the metal has solidified. In addition, the
design of the casting must be such that solidification and solidification shrinkage can
occur without producing cracks and internal porosity or voids.
5. It must be possible to remove the casting from the mold so a permanent mold must be
made in two or more sections.
6. After removal from the mold, finishing operations may need to be performed to remove
extraneous material that is attached to the casting as the result of the method of
introducing the metal into the cavity, or is picked up from the mold through contact

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 with the metal.
Two Categories of Metal Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove part
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can be used to make many castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
– Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
Much of the development that has taken place in the foundry industry has been directed
toward meeting these six objectives with greater economy. Six major casting processes
currently are used. These are:
1. Sand casting
2. Plaster-mold casting
3. Investment casting
4. Centrifugal casting
5. Permanent-mold casting
6. Die casting
5.2 Sand Casting
Sand casting is a flexible, inexpensive process. Sand is used as the mold material. The
sand grains, mixed with small amounts of other materials to improve the moldability and
cohesive strength, are packed around a pattern that has the shape of the desired casting.
Products covering a wide range of sizes and detail can be made by this method. A new
mold must be made for each casting, and gravity usually is employed to cause the metal to
flow into the mold. The process is not so accurate as die casting or investment casting.

Fig. 5.2. Steps in the production sequence in sand casting

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Terminology
To allow better understanding of the sand casting process, the following are some
definitions of the common foundry terms according to figure 5.3
Pattern- is a wood, metal or plastic of full-size model of the work-piece which when
surrounded by foundry sand and then removed, leaves a space, called a mould
cavity, into which molten metal is poured.
Flask - The “box” containing the sand that comprises the mold.
Cope - The top half of the flask; the cope contains the top part of the mold and the sprue-
runner system.
Drag - The bottom half of the flask; the drag contains the bottom part of the mold.

Fig. 5.3: Left: sectional view of casting mold; Right: Stages in the production of the mold
Sprue - The hole in the mold into which the molten aluminum will pour.
Core- is a special baked sand and binder structure, which located properly with respect to the
mould, confines the path of the fluid metal to a space between the core and the mold,
there by establishing a wall thickness, a hole, or special shape of the casting.
In gate- is the opening through which molten metal is poured to permit the molten metal to
flow into the space between the mold and the core.
Riser- is the exit hole provided for the overflow of the molten metal after the casting has
been poured and also, as a small reservoir of molten metal to replace voids resulting
from trapped gases and supply molten metal to compensate the liquid metal shrinkage
during the solidification process of the casting.
Pattern
Pattern may be defined as a replica or facsimile model of the desired casting which,
when packed or embedded in a suitable molding material, produces a cavity called mould.
This cavity, when filled with molten metal, produces the desired casting after solidification of
the poured metal. Since it is a direct duplication, the pattern very closely conforms to the shape
and size of the desired casting, except for a few variations due to the necessary allowances.

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The ways in which a pattern differs from an actual component are:
1. It carries an additional allowance to compensate for metal shrinkage.
2. It carries additional allowances over those portions, which are to be machined or finished
otherwise.
3. It carries the necessary draft to enable its easy removal from the sand mass.
4. It carries additional projections, called core prints, to produce seats for cores.
Material of Pattern
The common materials of which the patterns are made are the following:
I- Wood.
It is the most common material used for pattern making because of the following
Advantages:
1. It is cheap and available in abundance.
2. It can be easily shaped into different forms and intricate designs.
3. Its manipulation is easy because of lightness in weight.
4. Good surface finish can be easily obtained by only planning and sanding.
5. It can be preserved for a fairly long time by applying proper preservatives like shellac
varnish.
Disadvantages:
1. It wears out quickly due to its low resistance to sand abrasion. As such, a wooden pattern
cannot stand a long constant use.
2. It is very susceptible to moisture, which may lead to its warping or splitting. This needs its
careful storing in a dry place and the application of preservatives.
3. Its life, owing to the above reasons, is short as compared to other pattern materials. This
confines its use to such cases only when a small number of castings are required.
II. Metals
Metals are used with advantage, as pattern material, only when the number of castings to
be made is very high and a closer dimensional accuracy is desired. They have a much longer
life than wooden pattern and eliminate the inherent disadvantages of wood to a great extent.
But they also carry the following disadvantages:
i. They are costlier than wood and, therefore, cannot be used with advantage, where a smaller
number of castings are to be made.
ii. For giving different shapes and fine surface finish they need machining. This again adds to
their cost.
iii. Most of them are very heavy and in case of large castings the weight of the pattern always
poses a problem in its manipulation.
iv. A large number of them have a tendency to get rusted.
The common metals which you can use as pattern materials are the following
a. Cast iron. It is cheap and can be casted into any shape. It has a good machinability. High
resistance to sand abrasion, good strength and can be given a good surface finish. But, its
excessive weight is a great drawback with it.

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b. Brass. It is a commonly used metal for small patterns particularly in bench and machine
molding. It has a high strength, high resistance to corrosion, rusting and sand abrasion, high
machinability, takes a good surface finish and can be cast into any shape. The main
disadvantages with it are the high cost and excessive weight, even more than cast iron.
c. Aluminum and its alloys: Larger patterns in metal are usually made from aluminum or its
alloys because of their lightweight and low cost. They can be easily cast to any shape and
machined to give a good surface finish. They have a high resistance to corrosion. However,
aluminum patterns should be handled carefully since, due to low strength, they cannot stand
rough handling.
d. White metal. It is an alloy of antinomy, lead and copper, has a low melting point and can be
easily cast into intricate shapes. It is almost immune to the chilling effect and has no
appreciable shrinkage. Because of these characteristics, it is most commonly used in die
casting work and is, therefore, frequently known as die casting alloy.
III. Plaster
Plaster of Paris or gypsum cement is advantageously used as a pattern material since it
can be easily cast into intricate shapes and can be easily worked also. Its expansion can be
easily controlled and it carries very high compression strength. Its specific use is in making
small patterns and core boxes involving intricate shapes and closer dimensional control. A
marked feature of this cement is that contrary to the action of metals, it expands on being
solidified. Thus, if you select a cement of proper coefficient of expansion, the effect of
shrinkage of casting can be automatically neutralized.
IV. Plastics
Plastics are gradually gaining favor as pattern materials due to their following specific
characteristics:
1. Lightness in weight.
2. High strength.
3. High resistance to wear.
4. Fine surface finish.
5. High resistance to corrosion due to moisture.
6. Low solid shrinkage.
7. Very reasonable cost.
The plastics used as pattern materials are thermo-setting resins. Phenolic resin plastic
and foam plastic suit best for this purpose. For making the pattern, first the moulds are made,
usually from plaster of Paris. The resin is then poured into these moulds and the two heated. At
a specific temperature the resin solidifies to give the plastic pattern.
V. Wax.
Wax patterns are exclusively used in investment casting. For this a die or metal mould is
made into halves into which the heated wax is poured. The die is kept cool by circulating water
around it. As the wax sets on cooling, the die parts ‘are separated and the wax pattern taken
out.

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Factors effecting the selection of pattern material.
The selection of a particular material for making the pattern is influenced by the
following factors:
1. Number of castings to be made.
2. Method of molding to be used i.e. hand or machine.
3. Type of casting method to be used.
4. Degree of accuracy in dimensions and the quality of surface finish required on the castings.
5. Design of casting.
Pattern Allowances
  The pattern is slightly larger than the part of which it is a replica because of the
following allowances:
1. Shrinkage allowance.
Most of the metals used in casting work contract during cooling from pouring
temperature to room temperature. This contraction takes place in three forms, viz., liquid
contraction, Solidifying contraction and solid contraction. The first two are compensated by
gates and risers and the last one by providing adequate allowances in the pattern. The amount
of contraction varies with different metals and, therefore, their corresponding allowances also
differ.
The prominent factors, which influence the metal contraction, are the following:
1. Pouring temperature of molten metal.
2. Design and dimensions of the casting.
3. Type of mould material.
4. Molding method.
5. Mould resistance to shrinkage of metal.
6. The metal of which the casting is to be made.
Thus, the correct amount of shrinkage allowance for a particular casting can be
obtained only after duly taking into consideration all the above factors.
2. Machining allowance.
All listing may require machining all over or on certain specified portions, depending
upon the assembly conditions and the operation it has to perform. Such portions or surfaces are
marked duly in the working drawings. The corresponding portions or surfaces on the pattern
are given adequate allowance, in addition to the shrinkage allowance, by increasing the metal
thickness there to compensate for the loss of metal due to machining on these surfaces. The
amount of this allowance depends upon the metal of casting, method of machining to be
employed, method of casting used, size and shape of casting and the degree of finish requited
on the machined portion. Ferrous metals need more allowance than the non-ferrous metals.
Similarly, large and slender castings need more allowance than the shorter ones. This
allowance varies from 1.5 mm to 16 mm but 3 mm allowance is quite common for small and
medium size castings.

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 3. Draft allowance:
All patterns are given a slight taper on all vertical surfaces i.e., the surfaces parallel to
the direction of their withdrawal from the mould. This taper is known draft or draft allowance.
You can express either in degrees or in terms of linear measures. It is provided on both internal
and external surfaces. The amount of draft on internal surfaces is more than or external
surfaces. The purpose of providing this taper or draft is to facilitate easy withdrawal of pattern
from the mould without damaging the surfaces and edges of the latter. The amount of draft
varies from 10 mm to 25 mm per meter on external surfaces and from 40 mm to 70 mm per
meter on internal surfaces. The factors influencing this amount are the design of pattern, its
vertical height and the method of molding.
Types of Patterns
The most important types of patterns may conform to one of the following categories:

Solid pattern split pattern match plate pattern Cope and drag pattern
Fig. 5.4 types of pattern used in sand casting
1. Single Piece or Solid Patterns:
Single-piece or solid pattern: A pattern that is made without joints, partings, or any loose
pieces in its construction is called a single-piece or solid pattern. A single piece pattern is not
attached to a frame or plate and is, therefore, sometimes known as a loose pattern. These
patterns are cheaper. When using such patterns, the molder has to cut the runners, feeding gates
and risers. This operation takes more time, and they are not recommended except for limited
production. Single-piece patterns are usually used for large castings of simple shapes.
2. Split pattern:
Many patterns cannot be made in a single piece use of the difficulties encountered in
molding them. To eliminate this difficulty, and for castings of intricate design or unusual
shape, split patterns are employed to form the mould. These patterns are usually made in two
parts, so that one part will produce the lower half of the mould, and the other, the upper half.
The two parts, which may or may not be of the same size and shape, are held in their proper
relative positions by means of dowel-pins fastened in one piece and fitting holes bored in the
other. The surface formed at the line of separation of the two parts, usually at the centerline of
the pattern, is called the parting surface or Parting line. It will also be the parting surface of the
mould. It is sometimes necessary to construct a pattern for a complicating casting that requires
three or more parts instead of two to make the completed pattern. This type of pattern is known

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as multi-piece pattern.
3. Match plate pattern.
When split patterns are mounted with one half on one side of a plate and the other half
directly opposite on the other side of the plate, the pattern is called a match plate pattern.
A single pattern or a number of patterns may be mounted on a match plate. The pattern is
made of metal, and the plate, which makes the parting line, may be either wooden or metal.
Aluminum is commonly used for metal match plate.
4. Cope and drag pattern.
In the production of large castings, the complete moulds are too heavy to be handled by a
single operator. Therefore, cope and drag patterns are used to ease this problem to efficient
operation. The patterns are made in halves, split on a convenient joint line, and separate cope
and drag patterns are built and Match plate mounted on individual plates or boards. This
pattern arrangement permits one operator or group of operators to prepare the cope half of the
mould while another operator or group worked on the drag half. This planned distribution of
labor increases production appreciably.
Pattern Colors
Color making have been recommended for wood patterns for identification of their
different parts. The pattern colors code is used by some foundries and not at all by others. A
widely accepted color code for general use is given below,
According to AFS standard,
1. Black: the body of the casting, which remains in the condition resulting from foundry
cleaning operation.
1. Red: Surface to be machined.
2. Yellow: Core prints.
3. Red stripes on yellow background: Loose pieces in the pattern.
Molding Sand
The sand used for green sand molding is critical and determines the favorable or
unfavorable outcome of the casting. It controls the tolerances, surface finish and the
repeatability while in production.
Molding Sand Properties
The sand must exhibit the following characteristics:
1. Green Strength
After mixing water with sand and binder (sand mixture), must have adequate strength and
toughness for making and handling of the mold.

2. Dry Strength
After pouring the molten metal in the mold cavity, the moisture content (water content)
becomes as steam. The dry sand must have strength to resist erosion, and the metal static
pressure of the molten metal, especially for massive casting.

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 3. Hot Strength
After pouring the molten metal which has high temperature, then after the moisture has
been evaporated, the sand may be require to posses strength at some elevated above 1000 oC.
Due to metal static pressure of the liquid metal, which bearing against the mold walls may
cause mold enlargement or if the metal is still following, erosion, cracks or breakage may
occur unless the sand posses adequate hot strength.
4. Permeability or Porosity
Molten metal always contain a certain amount of dissolved gases, which are evolved
during solidification of the metal, especially for some kinds of steel. After the evaporation of
the moisture content, generates steam or water vapor. Then the molding sand must has
sufficient pores to allow the evolved gases and vapor within the mold to be removed freely
through the mold wall thickness or also the casting will contain gas holes this property is
called permeability.
5. Thermal Stability
After pouring the molten metal, then the sand adjustent to the molten metal, its
temperature suddenly, increase which causes rapid expansion of the sand surface at the
mold/metal interface. The mold surface may then crack, buckle, or flake off, unless the
molding sand is relatively stable dimensionally under rapid heating.
6. Refractoriness
The sand must be capable to withstand the high temperature of the molten metal without
fusing, especially in the cases of pouring metals with high melting point, which reaches to
more than 1600 oC for some cases. Molding sand with poor refractoriness may burn on the
casting surface that will need hard cleaning processes.
7. Flowability
The sand should rack well under jolting, squeezing or slinging types of molding i.e.
should flow under load. Sand with low Flowability give an enlargement of the casting or
roughness of the casting surfaces.
8. Plasticity
Plasticity of molding sand refers to its ability to acquire pre-determined shape under
pressure and to retain this shape when the pressure is removed. High plasticity is required for
the molding sand to obtain good impression of the pattern in the mold sand, in green sand,
Plasticity increases by increasing water and clay content.
9. Collapsibility
Heated sand that becomes hard, rock likeness form a great difficulty to be removed from
the casting, and may cause the contracting metal to tear or crack. This causes some difficulty
during cleaning of casting, if the sand has poor collapsibility.

10. Adhesiveness
The sand particles must be capable of adhering to another body i.e. they should cling to
the side of the flask. It is due to this property that the sand mass can be successfully held in the
molding boxes and does not fall out if the box removed.
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 11. Cohesiveness
This is the ability of molding sand particles to stick together. Insufficient cohesiveness
may lead to collapse of the mold or its partial destruction during turning over or closing. The
mold may also damage during pouring by wising of the walls and core by molten metal.
12. Chemical Resistant
Molding sand should not chemically react with the metal as otherwise, the shape of the
casting will be distorted and its surface spoiled.
13. Sand must be re-usable.
Types of Molding Sand
I. Natural Molding Sand
1. Green Sand Mold
Green sand mold are prepared with natural molding sand or with mixture silica sand,
bonding clay (8-14%) and water (4-8%) green sand will offer less resistance to the solid
shrinkage of castings and therefore is less likely to cause cracks when the castings cool. This
type of molding sand usually used for small and medium size castings after draying it can be
used for large castings
2. Cemented-Bonded Sand Mold
Cemented molds are made by bonding clean silica sand grains with about 10 to 12%
Portland cement and 4 to 5 % water. The sand need not to be rammed as other mold materials
and about 72 hours is required for draying. This kind of molding sand can be used for
producing any kind of castings, especially for large castings, for example cast iron, cast steel,
non-ferrous metals, simple or complicated castings.
II. Synthetic Molding Sand
It is made in the foundry by mixing sand with a selected clay binder such as:
a. Chamotte Molding sand
It is synthetic molding sand, which can be used after draying in special ovens at a
temperature of about 550 to 650 oC. This molding sand mixture contains 80-85 % crushed
firebrick, and 20-25 % fireclay as a binder, which give the sand mixture high molding capacity
and strength before and after drying process, the moisture content 8-10 % to give strength
before and after dry.
This kind of molding sand is one of the most important sands which can be used for
producing massive steel castings due to its high refractoriness and high strength which prevent
some kinds of casting defects as well be discussed later, but the disadvantages of this kind of
molding sand its bad collapsibility and heat capacity coefficient of heat transfer through the
molding wall is very bad.
b. Bentonite Molding Sand
It is a modern synthetic molding sand mixture widely used in the modern foundries that
may be used directly without draying (as green sand). The sand mixture consists of the clean
silica sand, with Bentonite as a binder, which improve the molding sand properties due to its

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high bonding effect between the adjacent grains and lead to high strength. Optimum moisture
content for this kind of sand mixture is about 2.5 %. This sand mixture also has good surface
finishing, good collapsibility, good heat transfer and good flowability. Bentonite sand mixture
is widely used for steel casting, cast iron and non-ferrous metals.
C. Water-glass Molding Sand
In this kind of sand mixture, the binder is water glass (silicate of soda Na 2 SiO3) with
about 5%. The hardening process of this mixture can be achieved by blown CO 2 gas through
small holes inside the mold. The mixing the silica sand with the water glass, and due to the
chemical reaction between the water glass and CO 2, producing good mechanical properties,
and good surface roughness of casting.
This kind of sand mixture can be used for massive castings, increasing the foundry
productivity, due to producing the castings without flasks.
The collapsibility of this sand mixture is very hard, usually make some problems during
the cleaning process.
Core Design
Cores are mold parts used to shape internal holes and cavities. They are also fortification
parts of molds where wearing occurs. These parts are made of sand and organic-inorganic
bonders such as cereal meals, dextrin, sodium silicate, cement etc. Some properties of cores
must have are the followings:
a. High-Temperature Resistivity
b. Metal Erosion Resistivity
c. Easiness of Deformation After Casting
d. Gas Insertion Ability
e. Smooth Surfaces
f. Saving Physical Properties During Storage

Internal Cavity Projecting Parts Mold Fortification

Fig. 5.5 Types of cores

Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand held together by thermosetting
resin binder
• Developed in Germany during early 1940s
Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell Molding

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• Advantages:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and better surface finish on
casting
– Good dimensional accuracy
– Machining often not required
– Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Difficult to justify for small quantities
Steps of shell-molding see figure 5-6:
(1) A match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing
sand mixed with thermosetting resin.
(2) Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell.
(3) Box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away
(4) Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing
(5) Shell mold is stripped from the pattern
(6) Two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished
(7) The finished casting with sprue removed
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which vaporizes when
molten metal is poured into mold. Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process. Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue,
risers, gating system, and internal cores (if needed). Mold does not have to be opened into
cope and drag sections
Steps of Expanded polystyrene casting see figure5-7:
(1) Pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory compound
(2) Foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is compacted around the pattern
(3) Molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms the pouring cup and sprue.
As the metal enters the mold, the polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid,
thus allowing the resulting mold cavity to be filled.

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 Fig. 5.6 - Steps in shell-molding

Advantages and Disadvantages of Expanded Polystyrene Process

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• Advantages:
– Pattern need not be removed from the mold
– Simplifies and expedites mold-making, since two mold halves (cope and drag) are not
required as in a conventional green-sand mold
• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern is needed for every casting
– Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost of producing patterns
Applications of Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Mass production of castings for automobile engines
• Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used to
– Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
– Feed them to the downstream casting operation

Fig. 5.7 Lost foam casting process (expendable pattern casting)

INVESTMENT CASTING
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make mold, after which
wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal. "Investment" comes from one of the less
familiar definitions of "invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory
material around wax pattern. It is a precision casting process - capable of castings of high
accuracy and intricate detail.
Investment casting processes in which the pattern is used only once are variously
referred to as "lost-wax" or "precision-casting" processes. In any case they involve making a
pattern of the desired form out of wax or plastics (usually polystyrene). A metal flask is placed
around the assembled patterns and refractory mold slurry is poured to support the patterns and
form the cavities. A vibrating table equipped with a vacuum pump is used to eliminate all the
air from the mold. After the mold material has set and dried, the pattern material is melted and
allowed to run out of the mold. When the metal is cooled, the investment material is removed
by means of vibrating hammers or by tumbling. As with other castings, the gates and risers are
cut off and ground down, see figure 5-8.
Advantages of Investment Casting
 Wide range of casting materials possible
 High Accuracy achievable (±125 µm)
 Excellent surface finish (2.5 µm)

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  Allows intricate internal contours that are impossible by other methods (because mold
is destroyed each time)
 less draft required
 Little to no machining
Disadvantages of Investment Casting
 High tooling cost (recurring), and labor cost
 Max. size usually about 5 Kg
 Production rate low (less than 100/hr)

Fig. 5.8 - Steps in investment casting:

Plaster Mold Casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-
2H2O). In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over plastic or metal pattern and
allowed to set. Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with water. Plaster
mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its fine details and good surface finish.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Plaster Mold Casting
Advantages:
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
– Capability to make thin cross-sections in casting

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Disadvantages:
 Moisture in plaster mold causes problems:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture
 Mold strength is lost when is over-baked, yet moisture content can cause defects in
product
 Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so limited to lower melting point alloys.
Ceramic Mold Casting
Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made of refractory ceramic materials
that can withstand higher temperatures than plaster. Ceramic molding can be used to cast
steels, cast irons, and other high-temperature alloys. Applications similar to those of plaster
mold casting except for the metals cast
• Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar.
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new mold is required for every
casting. In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times
The processes include:
– Basic permanent mold casting
– Die casting
– Centrifugal casting
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy, precise opening and
closing. Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are commonly made of steel or cast
iron. Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory material, due to the very high
pouring temperatures, see figure 5-9.
Advantages and Limitations of Permanent Mold Casting
• Advantages:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results in a finer grain structure, so
stronger castings are produced
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simple part geometries compared to sand casting because of the need to open the mold
– High cost of mold
Applications of Permanent Mold Casting
• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and missiles
• Metals commonly cast:
Aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron

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 Fig. 5.9 - Steps in permanent mold casting:
DIE CASTING
Die castings are among the highest volume, mass-produced items manufactured by the
metalworking industry. They can be found in thousands of consumer, commercial and
industrial products. Die cast parts are important components of products ranging from
automotive to toys. Parts can be as simple as a trowel handle or a complex engine block.
A versatile process for producing engineered metal parts, die casting calls for forcing
molten metal under high pressure into reusable steel molds. These molds, called dies, can be
designed to produce complex shapes with a high degree of accuracy and repeatability. Parts
can be sharply defined, with smooth or textured surfaces, and are suitable for a wide variety of
attractive and serviceable finishes.
Die casting differs from ordinary permanent-mold casting in that the molten metal is
forced into the molds by pressure and held under pressure during solidification. Most die
castings are made from nonferrous metals and alloys, but substantial quantities of ferrous die
castings now are being produced. Because of the combination of metal molds or dies, and
pressure, fine sections and excellent detail can be achieved, together with tong mold life.
Special zinc-, copper-, and aluminum-base alloys suitable for die casting have been developed
which have excellent properties, thereby contributing to the very extensive use of the process.
Because die-casting dies usually are made from hardened tool steel, they are expensive to
make. In addition, the die sections must contain knockout pins, which eject the casting.
Advantages of Die Casting
 High Accuracy (±100 mm); little or no machining
 Good surface finish
 Holes as small as 2 mm dia. may be cored
 May cast threads (up to 24 / inch)
 Thin walls possible (0.5 mm)
 Long die life
 Material cost low (through thin sections)
 High production rates (1000/hr typical)

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Disadvantages of Die Casting
 High cost of dies and capital equipment
 Narrow range of non-ferrous alloys
 Restricted by size/weight (15 Kg zinc, 10 Kg aluminium, 5 Kg magnesium, 3 Kg
copper)
Die Casting Machines
Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them closed while
liquid metal is forced into cavity. Die casting can be classified into two main types:
1. Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal under high pressure into the
die. High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon. Applications limited to low
melting-point metals that do not chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components.
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium,
Procedure
(1) With die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
(2) Plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification, see figure 5-10.

Fig. 5-10 hot chamber die casting

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2. Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external melting container, and a
piston injects metal under high pressure into die cavity High production but not usually as fast
as hot-chamber machines because of pouring step. Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys. Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low melting-
point alloys (zinc, tin, lead).
Procedure
(1) With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber
(2) Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification, see figure 5-11
Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel or mold steel.
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking

Fig. 5.11 cold chamber die casting

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Centrifugal casting consists of having sand, metal, or ceramic mold that is rotated at
high speeds. When the molten metal is poured into the mold it is thrown against the mold wall,
where it remains until it cools and solidifies. The process is being increasingly used for such
products as cast-iron pipes, cylinder liners, gun barrels, pressure vessels, brake drums gears,
and flywheels. The metals used include almost all castable alloys.

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Because of the relatively fast cooling time, centrifugal castings have a fine gram size. There is
a tendency for the lighter non-metallic inclusions slag particles, and dross to segregate toward
the inner radius of the casting where it can be easily removed by machining. Due to the high
purity of the outer skin, centrifugally cast pipes have a high resistance to atmospheric
corrosion, see figure 5-12.

Fig. 5.12 Centrifugal Casting

MELTING and pouring
During melting process chemical content of the raw material is determined. Alloying is
achieved at this stage where raw materials are in liquid phase. Most known furnace types to
prepare the liquid metal are:
a. Crucible Type Furnaces
b. Coupol Type Furnaces
c. Electric-Arc Furnaces
d. Converters
e. Siemens-Martins Furnaces
The most difficult and important part of melting & alloying process is the removal of
impurities from the liquid. These operations differ according to the type of furnace.
– Direct fuel-fired furnaces
– Crucible furnaces
– Electric-arc furnaces
– Induction furnaces
Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping spout near base. Used only for cast
irons, and although other furnaces are also used, largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in
cupolas. The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and possible alloying elements, is loaded
through a charging door located less than halfway up height of cupola.
Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces
Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by natural gas fuel burners located on side
of furnace. Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting flame down against charge. At
bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal. Generally used for nonferrous metals
such as copper-base alloys and aluminum

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Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture. Sometimes called
indirect fuel-fired furnaces. Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or high-
temperature steel alloy. Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc
and aluminum. Three types used in foundries see figure 5-13.

lift-out crucible stationary pot tilting-pot furnace

Fig. 5.13 - Three types of crucible furnaces:
Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc. High power consumption, but
electric-arc furnaces can be designed for high melting capacity. Used primarily for melting
steel, see figure 5-14

Fig 5.14 - Electric arc furnace for steelmaking

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Induction Furnaces
Induction furnaces Use
alternating current passing through
a coil to develop magnetic field in
metal. Induced current causes rapid
heating and melting.
Electromagnetic force field also
causes mixing action in liquid
metal. Since metal does not contact
heating elements, the environment
can be closely controlled, which
results in molten metals of high
quality and purity. Melting steel,
cast iron, and aluminum alloys are Fig. 5.15 Induction furnace
common applications in foundry
work, see figure 5-15
Ladles
• Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is sometimes done using crucibles
• More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles, see figure 5-16

Crane Ladle Two-Man Ladle

Fig. 5.16 - Two common types of ladles:
Additional Steps after Solidification
 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment

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Trimming
 Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess
metal from the cast part
 For brittle casting alloys and when cross-sections are relatively small, appendages can be
broken off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing, band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or
various torch cutting methods are used
Removing the Core
 If cores have been used, they must be removed
 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of casting as the binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting, either manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
Surface Cleaning
 Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise enhancing appearance of surface
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire
brushing,
 buffing, and chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting, whereas in many permanent mold
processes, this step can be avoided
 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed to detect their presence
Heat Treatment
 Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties
 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such as machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the application of the part in service
Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a casting operation,
resulting in quality defects in the product
Casting defects
The defects can be classified as follows:
– Defects common to all casting processes
– Defects related to sand casting process
Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity, see figure 5-17
Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due to premature
freezing. Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and become entrapped in
casting see figure 5-17.

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Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts
amount of molten metal available in last region to freeze see figure 5-17
Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases during pouring.
Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of casting
Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand mold or sand core,
causing casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal
Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise relative displacement of cope
and drag

(a) misrun (b) cold shut (c) Shrinkage Cavity

(d) Sand blow (e) Pinholes (f) Penetration (g) Mold shift
Fig. 5.17 Some common defects in castings
Foundry Inspection Methods
Visual inspection used to detect obvious defects such as misruns, cold shuts, and
severe surface flaws. Dimensional measurements must be achieved to insure that tolerances
have been met. Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned with quality of cast
metal
Safety in foundary.
Understand one thing very clearly: You can be seriously burned, maimed, or killed by
metal casting. Melting metal involves extremely high temperatures, potentially explosive
gasses as fuels, hazardous chemicals and fumes, and potentially explosive mixtures of molten
metal and water. If you want to cast metal, you and only you are responsible for fully
understanding the process, hazards, and proper safety procedures and equipment necessary.

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In General:
 Wear safety clothing: At a minimum leather shoes, leather apron and gloves.
 Wear safety equipment: At a minimum, full metal mesh face mask, safety glasses under
the mask. Respirators may be necessary in some cases depending on chemicals used and
ventilation present in the work place.
 Molten metal will cause an explosion if allowed to come into contact with even the
slightest trace of water. Never use damp equipment or pour in a wet environment. Never
put water on a fire caused by molten metal. Use only dry sand to cover burning materials
that may contain molten metal.
 Concrete will explode if molten metal comes into contact with it. There is water bound up
in the chemical structure of cement that will flash to steam. This can propel pieces at
extreme velocities.
 Have a clean, orderly work place. Plan your every move. Have a back up plan in case you
can’t complete the pour as planned.
 Have a place to put down hot items in an emergency or after use. Have a bed of sand
available to place hot items on, or to place a damaged crucible on.
 Have a plan on what to do with unused molten metal. Don’t leave molten metal in a
crucible to solidify.

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