Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Small and Medium Enterprises Development Authority – (SMEDA)

ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN

The Project for Technical Support to Auto

Parts Manufacturing Industry

Guidelines/Manuals for
consulting services to auto-parts suppliers
(English Version)

Team Members
From JICA:

1. Mr. Hiroshi Kaneki (Chief of Team)

2. Mr. Hiroshi Sasaki
3. Mr. Satoru Gokuda
4. Mr. Mitsuyoshi Ikuta
5. Mr. Koji Ishitaki

From SMEDA:

1. Mr. Ashfaq Ahmed (General Manager)

2. Mr. Fouzan Muhammad (Deputy General Manager)
3. Mr. Haseeb Sarwar (Manager)
4. Syed Babar Umer (Assistant Manager)
5. Mr. Mubeen Abid (Assistant Manager)
Islamic Republic of Pakistan
Small and Medium Enterprises Development
Authority – (SMEDA)

Islamic Republic of Pakistan

The Project for Technical Support to

Auto Parts Manufacturing Industry

Guidelines/Manuals for
consulting services to auto-parts
suppliers
(English Version)
ものづくり指導手引書
(英語版)

August 2019

Japan International Cooperation Agency（JICA）

Asia Engineering Consultant Co., Ltd

 Contents

1. Purpose of Teaching / Coaching ....................................................................................... 1

2. Basic Policy of Teaching / Coaching ............................................................................... 1

3. Policy and Guidelines of Teaching / Coaching ................................................................ 1

4. Contents of Guidelines / Manuals. .................................................................................... 2

5. Individual Work Fields of Teaching ................................................................................. 45

6. Reference Materials of Teaching / Coaching ................................................................ 213

7. Scheduling of Teaching / Coaching ............................................................................ 213

8. Other Measures for Technical Improvement ................................................................ 213

9. Attachment Materials...................................................................................................... 214

1. Purpose of Teaching / Coaching

The project support system members, SMEDA,PAAPAM engineers and local consultants, who are beneficiaries
of JICA Experts OJT on technical support to auto-parts manufacturing industry are required to conduct their
consulting services to auto parts manufacturing factories regarding Japanese method of production management such
as productivity, quality assurance and other individual work fields.
The guidelines/manuals are being positioned as their teaching materials when they are to start their consulting
services newly to auto parts manufacturing industries here in Pakistan by themselves when JICA Experts left the
country. The final goal focuses on teaching the industry to reach the internationally competitive and high level to
guarantee the parts with imported product level.
The members are to realize to teach/coach not only auto-parts manufacturing industry but also other sector of
manufacturing industry here in Pakistan.

2. Basic Policy of Teaching / Coaching

The guidelines/manuals requires the 8 following points which lead basic idea of required manufacturing method.

Basic 1: Realizing that the basic of manufacturing is fostering human resources in your factory.

Basic 2: Required factory management starts from 5S implementation.

Basic 3: Required kaizen implementation starts from elimination of MURI(Unreasonable),MURA(Inconsistency)

and MUDA(Waste).

Basic 4: Required manufacturing operation starts from insured operational conditions.

Basic 5: Required quality assurance starts from realization on quality first and implementation of process completion
and in-stage quality creation.

Basic 6: Required on-site/floor management starts from 3-GEN policy and implementation of visualization.

Basic 7: Required continuous improvement starts from implementation of repetitive PDCA cycle.

Basic 8: Required preventive management of defects starts from implementation of 4M changing points management.

3. Policy and Guideline of Teaching / Coaching

3.1 Policy of teaching/coaching

(1) Realization on Quality First：To keep competitiveness in terms of product`s quality level.

Step 1: To execute competitiveness of the products in the region (domestic territory).

Step 2: To reach the internationally high level of the product in terms of quality competitiveness.
* Quality creation from design development to be conducted.

(2) To conduct high level customer satisfaction (Quality, costing, delivery and after services)

(3) Required concern kept on factory environment and operation safety.

(4) To provide the utmost contribution to the community.

(5) To structure win-win relationship with all stake-holders.

1
 3.2 Guideline

(1) Start from the grasping the present condition of shop floor
1) Organization, factory situation, working condition, person in-charge
2) Parts manufactured, volumes, drawing, specification, standards
3) Current tasks, the past counter-measures conducted
4) Confirm the factory’s task and teaching request by the consultants

(2) Start of teaching/coaching;

1) Analyze of teaching/coaching contents
2) Decide its priority on teaching/coaching
3) Scheduling of teaching/coaching
4) Conduct teaching/coaching(whole factory improvement, productivity, quality management and others
if any)

4. Contents of Guidelines / Manuals

Per the Records of Discussion between Government of Pakistan(SMEDA) and Japan(JICA),fundamental skills of
the project support system members such as SMEDA/PAAPAM engineers and local consultants are required to be
developed.
The 9 following points are being materialized.
Each item shows grand design of teaching/coaching as its essential part, using the self-evident charts and conduct
teaching/coaching by using graph as well as case studies. Each point includes 3 stages such as;
(A) Introductory level;
(B) Required standard level;
(C) Advanced level.
It will help the teaching/coaching applied to any kind level of the target factories.
A: Introductory, B: Standard, C: Advanced
No A B C
1 Confirmation of Parts Development Capability
(Understanding of OEM Production Diagram / Requirement Specification Diagram) 〇
(Drawing Development) 〇
(Flow of Development (approved drawing design – mass production)) 〇
(Other (recent development requirements etc.)) 〇

2 Use of Standards Documents

(Understanding Standards Documents) 〇
(Design Standard, Quality Standard and Work Standard) 〇
(Building of Standard Compliant Implementation System) 〇

3 Production Engineering
(Basic for manufacturing) 〇
(Production / Process Planning) 〇
(Lay-out, Machine, Man, Scheduling and planning) 〇
(Investment, Profitability Plan, Business Plan) 〇

4 Quality Management
(Quality Monitoring) 〇
(Defect Proactive Response / 4M Change Point Control) 〇
(Quality Control in PPAP) 〇
(QC 7 Tools) 〇
5 Production Management
(Understanding FIFO, In-process Item and Stock) 〇
(Order-Production-Shipping Flow and Production Planning)

2
6 Kaizen/Improvement Capability
(Enthusiasm and Action of Top Management) 〇
(KPI Monitoring) 〇
(QC Circle) 〇
(Cp / Cpk, PPAP) 〇
(Process FMEA) 〇
(Enhancement Team Power, Horizontal Development, Skill Hand Down)

7 Corporate Power
(Confirmation of Vision, Mission, and Quality policy)
(Cooperate Culture and HR Management) 〇
(Future Concept)
(Strategic Management Approach BSC) 〇

8 Factory Management
(5S / 5T Activities) 〇
(Visual Control) 〇
(Formulation of System / Method in the Factory) 〇
9 Individual Work Fields
(Gas Welding) 〇
(Resistance Welding + Aluminum Welding ) 〇

10 Press, Die and Mold

(Mold / Die and Press Process) 〇
(Press Facilities) 〇
(Maintenance of Press and Press Die) 〇
11 Machining
(Lathe, Milling) 〇
(Drilling) 〇
(Reamer, Thread Cutting) 〇
(Grinding Process)
〇
(Gear Machining)
(Tightening) 〇
〇
12 Other Individual Technical Skills
(Parts Point Process) 〇
(Aluminum Material) 〇
(Aluminum Casting) 〇
(Plating)
〇
(Heat Treatment)
(Forging) 〇
〇

3
5. Individual Work Fields of Teaching
5.1 Confirmation of Parts Development Capability

① Understanding of OEM Production Diagram / Requirement Specification Diagram

No Contents A B C
1 (1) Definition of a part targeted for a figure of demand specifications： 〇
Generally, referred to as a purchased item, it indicates a part that the OEM partly
designs because the supplier mainly has parts（※1）having performance/function or
basic know-how for achieving the function. Request specifications for parts
development and production are presented from the OEM, detailed design (production
drawing) is made by supplier, and OEM is developed in a form approved by OEM.
e.g.(※1)：H-VAC, Brake, Lamp，Steering(Gear/Wheel), Starter, A lternator, Meter
Assy, Switch, Sensor, Wire/Harness/ Hose, audio, etc.

(2) Detailed item grasp as confirmation of parts development capability：

New inquiry information from the client is requested as follows.
Design specification：Requirement specification diagram（Spec Control Drawing）
Mass production conditions：Production / Quality Requirements in APQP(Advanced
Product Quality Planning:TS16949 Requirements)
On the other hand, the OEM provides the production drawing and all the parts which
are produced and delivered based on this drawing and they are defined as “outsourced
item” for the “purchased item”.
＊In Pakistan, only few OEM's suppliers have purchased items that are compliant with
the required specification diagrams, and outsourced items supplied by OEMs are
mainly used.
However, it is anticipated that parts handled by purchased items (parts
corresponding to required specifications) will increase in the future improvement
requirement improvement rate.

② Drawing Development
1 Outline of drawing development： 〇
Drawings received from customers can be roughly divided into requested specification
drawings and OEM production diagrams.
(1) Requirement specification diagram (Spec Control Drawing)：
Specification request diagram for detailed design of parts production
・Describe dimension data (including CAD data), required function, usage environment,
technical standards to be complied, legal requirements and standards, safety standards,
environmental standards, hazardous substances, required performance (durability
times, warranty years, vehicle interfaces
・Suppliers (parts manufacturing companies) are responsible for detailed design of parts
and products, and quality assurance due to design is supplier`s responsibility.
(2) OEM Designing Production Drawing
・It refers to design drawings that OEM can produce and the suppliers will produce
according to this drawing. In some cases, it is accepted as part of the above requirement
specification diagram. In this case, the following application form is submitted to
OEM including this production drawing.
(3)Approval application drawing (Approval Drawing) The supplier submits the approval
application drawing (production drawing) for which the supplier has adjusted and
specified the specification details to the manufacturer. (Depending on the OEM, it is

4
 called a receipt drawing)。
After receiving approval from the OEM, this approval application drawing will be the
design drawing from a prototype as a production drawing to the start of mass
production.
【OEM】 【Supplier】

Requirement Approved drawing

specification diagram

Production drawing(Approval drawing/Receipt drawing)：This drawing shows the above

approval drawing or a manufacturing drawing constituting the drawing and the
supplier describes all design information (dimensional data, shape, construction
method, material, performance [durability performance, environment]). Products are
manufactured according to this, the quality responsibility as a vehicle often becomes
a client responsibility (the responsibility range is determined by the development
contract)

Production drawing

＊Drawing type：Depending on the manufacturer, there are cases where it is layered

separately from design drawing, manufacturing drawing, and inspection drawing.
For drawings approval, only design drawings are submitted. Manufacturing
approval is done by vans and purchasing.

【Image of required specification】

Required specifications (OEM)

Based on the OEM requirement specification, Supplier submits

detailed specification, production drawing, approval drawing
showing detailed specification, and OEM approves it.

＜Supplementary matter＞
＊Along with the expansion of current regulations in the future, we anticipate that the
era in which not only parts production but also as a development maker is needed to
come to PAKISTAN. And we propose the following items that will be necessary in
the future.

5
A. Training advanced technology：
・To strengthen QCDET (quality, cost, delivery date, engineer [people], technology
[equipment]) and product development capability that can surpass other
manufacturers to make the characteristics (features)

B．Shelving technology：
・Accumulate and standardize the intrinsic technology (4M), analysis method (CAD,
CAM, CAE) obtained by developing and completing new products.
To have a database (technology withdrawal box) in advance to respond to needs from
clients (OEMs) or from market information and keep new technologies, new
mechanisms, differentiation, and intellectual property (including software)
organized.

C．By conducting a benchmark (other company survey), supplier need to grasp the
competence of other companies and make effective use of products and products that
can surpass other companies with QCD.
Be sure to turn PDCA efficiently so that there is no loss of just timing and opportunity
loss for new orders.

D．When reflecting specifications to be added or changed as required know-how not in

the required specification of OEM, technical backing and market performance are
presented in the design review.

・Example： Body Mount

Production drawing Requirement
(current adjustment) specification diagram

When adopting a conventional product (present adjustment product)

with a different form to the required specification, certify that there
is no difference in specifications, performance, reliability required for
OEM, market performance, etc. and get approval.

6
③ Flow of development (approved drawing design - mass production)
1 Development flow 〇
Request specification drawing is issued from the client as described above, and from
the point of view in the approval diagram exchange, the designing by manufacturer side
will start, and the development starts.
(1) Approved diagram design：

New inquiry meeting

・Clarification of the scope of orders
・Grasp of required specification sheet, confirmation,
・Development / production schedule, cost, required quality

Concept sheet creation

Conception A, B, C, D Table creation

A Table: Development/production
scheduling schedule
B Table: Parts delivery plan
(prototype, mass production)
C Table: Preparation of facilities,
molds, tools
Review supplier selection D Table: Test development plan

Part drawing, plan drawing creation, before trial production

Prototype drawing Follow and feedback on

problems before and after
prototyping

Evaluation
For tests and experiments,
evaluation and test procedure for
required specifications are
instructed from OEM, judgment is
mainly in OEM approval format
Technical review
(for keeping confidentiality)
⇒Production Drawing

7
(2) Flow to mass production start
Prototype ⇒ Mass production drawing is issued after design review and mass
production preparation is done.

As large building parts (outer panel

MP tooling panels, etc.) prepare a start
Arrangement preparation drawing at the time of
trial production, change at this point
cannot be done in principle.

Production
prototype

Issue final MP Drawing

Parts review Validity test for MP parts

FQCM Confirmation of PPAP

MP prototype

8
④ Other (recent development requirements etc.)
1 (1) Design in： 〇
Supplier direct design development to OEM vehicles regardless of required
specifications.
This activity is a stage until vehicle concept, design are decided, competing several
companies for superiority in function, vehicle assembling ability, quality, and taking an
optimal solution selection method.
⇒ Many are adopted for newly developed parts
(2)Design review
In the case of parts requiring particularly high supplier know-how in the approval
application drawing to be submitted for the OEM requirement specification, design
review by the supplier may be required in some cases. The supplier verifies the
compatibility of the required specifications of the OEM against the required
specifications that are difficult to develop / study in detail by OEM, explains to the
OEM, makes recommendations, and correct if the required specification is required.
(3) Partial importance rank
We attach importance rank to parts that affects safety quality (※2) legal requirement
(※3) and serious productivity (※4) on parts or components as a whole. (e.g.: A-Parts,
S-Parts: OEM designation differs.) Assurance that the target parts satisfy the reliability
required from the OEM. Specific examples are shown below.
・Perform durability reliability test, life test (test until breakdown)
・OEM side confirmation of sample parts
・Production assurance such as process audit and plant certification (stipulated by PPAP)

※2：Travel function parts such as brake, suspension, steering,

Passenger protection parts such as airbags, seatbelts, seats, door latches, Tow
board, center pillar reinforce, crash performance such as instrument panel,
Parts which can affect passenger injury.
Parts which can lead to fire such as fuel tank / pipe, canister etc.
※3：Regulatory parts such as exhaust gas related devices, lamp / turn signal etc.
※4：Parts leading to critical function malfunction such as ECU, fuel pump, AT
shift lever etc. Engine stall, shift lock etc.
【Example of A Parts in Body: Colored part】

9
2 Examples of requirements used in the development process 〇
(Order Development)
Examples of requirements used in the development process
(Formation of order) 〇
(1)：Order: Create a detailed development schedule. Order approval Detailed development
schedule 〇
(2)：Design planning stage: basic design drawing, design basic concept, benchmark,
preparation for FMEA, etc.
(3)：Produce prototype correspondence drawing: creation of request for quotation. 〇
(4)：Technical review / parts review: Reflected in design review, non-common part 〇
reduction table, basic functional test.
(5) ： Design improvement reflective prototype: reduction of non-common parts,
〇
development test, problem handling in finished vehicles, problem, clarification of
MP specifications
(6)：Design Review: Master Schedule Chart, Detailed Design Configuration, Benchmark
〇
Analysis, Clarification of Customer Specifications, Past Problem Prevention
(7)：Concept sheet
〇
(8)：MP tooling adjustment: Create parts list, set MP drawing number, issue production
〇
preparation drawing, issue actual drawing of the car
(9)：Issue official drawing of MP 〇
(10)：Prototype production 〇
(11)：Confirmation test for specs confirmation: appearance improvement, actual vehicle 〇
equivalent ride test
(12)：Part review: inspection method, standard, measures to avoid mistakes 〇

10
 5.2 Use of Standards Documents

① Understanding the Standards Documents

No Contents A B C
1 Understanding the standard 〇
With standard
Daily business activities, which may be considered as production activities for the sake of
clarity here, are executed according to specific rules (drawings, specifications, purchase
agreement, etc.) for delivering the products with functions / performances agreed to with
customers. Standard is the document which describes clearly the organization's system and
specific methods in order to carry out such rules. It is said that standardization to rule the
activity by standard document.
The key to successful day-to-day activities and management is maintaining and KAIZEN
the standard. While adhering to the technical, management and work place standards that
we currently have, we also KAIZEN the current process to raise the current standard to a
high level. As the quality of work processes improves, fewer errors, fewer internal defects,
fewer reworks, shorter lead times, and fewer materials used. Quality improvement means
improved profitability, and the starting point is standard. In order to create a documented
standard, to drive standardization and to be successful, we need to do four things:
(1) What users can do
(2) What you can follow
(3) Easy to understand
(4) Continue to improve the standards
There are some cases in which management does not comply the standard themselves in
Pakistan, but this is out of the question.
It should be emphasized that the 5S activities are effective in providing education and
guidance so that employees can take the lead without thinking about adhering to the
standards.
Main features / effects of the standard
It reflects the knowledge and know-how cultivated by the activities of each company, and
the specific features are described below.
1. It shows the easiest, safest and best way to work.
2. It is very effective in retaining know-how and expertise. (It is effective for formalizing
tacit knowledge.)
3. It serves as a basis for maintaining the current status, and also serves as a basis for
defeating the current status by KAIZEN.
4. It is effective for worker training and goal setting. In addition to documents, illustration,
photos, etc. are also valid.
5. Updating the standard leads to the prevention of mistakes and the minimization of
variations.

11
 ② Design standard, quality standard and work standard
1 Design standard, quality standard and work standard 〇
Among the clearly written rules necessary to satisfy the quality demanded by customers,
design standards, quality standards and work standards are particularly important in
production activities. (The company also has management standards such as work
regulations, but it is not covered here.)
With design criteria
In order to meet customer requirements for quality at the lowest cost and in the shortest
time, the standard clearly stated the best methods and procedures to be achieved by using
the management resources owned by each company. Design is divided into product design
and process design. The following process design standards need to be implemented in
Pakistan's manufacturing industry.

Process design standard

a. Process design is a design document of how to make things, and it defines the procedures,
materials, equipment, time, and number of personnel required to make things. This is an
important task in the manufacturing industry, since the amount of investment, cost and
profit ratio are almost determined in process design. At this stage, it will be important to
carry out cost control and to avoid situations in which mass production has actually started
and no profits.
b. Specifying rules for making process design documents becomes process design standards.
The process design document changes depending on the proficiency level and knowledge
of the engineer who creates it, and the productivity of the worker of the factory of the
target product, even if the preconditions are the same. The continuous improvement
throughout the entire production activity should be implemented. An example is shown.
* Read the required work from the drawing and estimate the work time. If the target cost
cannot be achieved, improvement will be necessary. In this case, simply reducing the
individual work time results in a loss of quality.
* For example, when the same operation is repeated several times, man-hours can be
reduced by reducing attachment and detachment to a jig by making or KAIZEN a jig.
* Consider changing the layout of the work area and shortening the access distance / time
to parts.
* If 5S activities are conducted, it is easy to optimize parts storage.
Quality standard
Quality includes the quality of the work of developing, producing and selling a product or
service, but here we will describe the creation and delivery of the product on site. Product
warranties in the market require arrangements with the customer. It starts with the purchase
of materials necessary to make a product, and clearly documents the rules of manufacture
and shipping. That is, it is a rule necessary to perform resource management (people,
equipment, materials, work method and measurement) performed on site. The minimum
requirement is that the person in charge, the method, and the criteria for measurement and
judgment are clear. The following standards are listed as an example.
* Acceptance inspection standard
* Outsourcing control standard
* Inspection standard for each process
* Final inspection standard
* Shipping standard
* Equipment inspection, maintenance standard
* Inventory management standard ... etc.
Working standard
With regard to the work content that the worker carries out for each process, the procedure
of human operation and machine operation is defined as the best one at present so that the
same result can be obtained regardless of who carries out. Necessary to optimize safety,
quality and efficiency. It goes without saying that it is necessary to constantly improve, but
12
 at a minimum, it is necessary to specify 1.operation procedure, 2.important points, 3.reasons,
4.description of abnormal situation and action for abnormal situation occurrence. Workers
will be quicker to remember and easier to execute if the reason is known. The following is
an effective method for creating work standards.
* Create small people group including work person in charge of work. Workers
themselves are also easy to implement by participating in creation.
* By making a group, the knowledge and know-how possessed by each are reflected, and
can also foster fellowship.
* Workers themselves understand the importance of their work by analyzing their work,
and foster a sense of responsibility and a sense of role.
Work standards are the safest and easiest way for workers, and the most cost-effective and
productive way for companies to guarantee quality to their customers. It is expected that
work standards will be created that incorporate the company's assets such as knowledge and
know-how possessed by each company.

③ Building of standard-compliant implementation system

1 Building of standard-compliant implementation system 〇
It starts with a firm understanding of how important standards are.
At the GEMBA, there are two major activities on a daily basis regarding management
resources (4M) management. Keeping the status quo and kaizen. Maintaining the status quo
means maintaining and managing the status quo according to existing standards. The second
is to raise the standard itself with KAIZEN. Site supervisors work on either of two functions
and deliver some results on QCD (Quality, Cost, and Delivery).
Companies achieve QCD, that is, deliver products that exceed the quality required by the
customer on a due date on a reasonable price basis, satisfy the customer, gain the trust of
the customer, and increase the creditworthiness of the company. As a result it leads to
increase of sales and profit. You need 4M management on a daily basis to realize the QCD
that customers want, and you need a standard to implement efficiently. Every time a problem
or abnormality occurs, the supervisor investigates it, identifies the cause, corrects the
existing standard or introduces a new standard, and implements measures to prevent the
recurrence of the problem. The standard is one of three major KAIZEN activities:
standardization, elimination of waste, 5S, and provides excellent results for QCD.
Standardization, elimination of waste, and 5S are low-cost activities that do not require large
investment based on common sense, and can be introduced immediately. However, it is
difficult to carry it out continuously, and it is necessary to establish the self-discipline
necessary to maintain it.
If the importance of standardization is understood, it will be possible to "Building a
standard-compliant implementation system". “Building of standards-compliant” requires
“Building of self-discipline”. Will be shown how to do it as one example.
The first step is for management to show a firm determination to carry out standards-based
activities. If management does not show that they are highly motivated, self-disciplined, and
keen on Kaizen, employee will not work to maintain and improve standards and QCD. It is
not possible to achieve the goal (customer's requirements) and satisfy the customer. The fact
that posters (5S activities, safety first, safety gear wear, etc.) are posted but no activities are
being done is a fraudulent example for employees and a bad example of becoming a
company that is not trusted by employees. It needs to be recognized this fact. If this problem
is solved, it can proceed to the next step.
Needless to say, self-disciplined workers are reliable, work on time, maintain a clean, tidy
and secure working environment and adhere to existing standards. List examples of ways to
make workers acquire self-discipline (in random order). Each company should consider and
implement these. As it is often said, having knowledge and just knowing, is useless and
results do not come out.
* Continue 5S activities. (The 5th of 5S activities is “Shituke”, i.e. self-discipline.)
* Clearly communicate what you expect.
* Conduct an assessment. Feedback the results.

13
 * Introduce a reward system. (Reward the effort.)
* Participate in the standard settings. (The participants' attitudes and awareness change.)
* Teach a method and explain the reason.
* Show and share successful examples.
* Create an environment in which work hard together with peers. (Competition among
divisions is also effective.)
* Create an environment in which work together with colleagues at work. (Making a
standard in a small group.)
* Accept questions freely. (If you are not convinced, you will not do it.)
* Create a corporate culture to praise.
* Introduce Kaizen proposal system.
* Introduce a QC circle. Perform process verification frequently.
* Not neglect to do KAIZEN about standard.
Self-discipline means that all management and employees work according to pre-agreed
rules. The activities of all participants can also be expected to develop into TQM and TPM
activities.

14
 5.3 Production Engineering

① Basic for manufacturing

NO Contents A B C
1 Manufacturing starts by confirming the production conditions 〇
1)Produced parts, planned volume, production preparation, confirming
production and shipment scheduling
2)Confirming OEM production drawing, OEM specification and OEM standards documents
Case-1：Explicit instruction of specification and standards in the drawing(Japanese
OEM mainly)
Case-2：No instruction of specification and standards in the drawing, separate material
data/documents.(EU and US OEMs mainly)
3)Need to obtain and confirm every required information from OEM such as
Drawing, specification, standards on design/quality/testing/operation/inspection etc.
Reconciling the contents with the factory situation.
2 Basic for manufacturing 〇
1) Fundamental rule is to manufacture based on production drawing, required specification
and standards documents. Japanese car assembly OEMs reach internationally recognized
level. Therefore it is required standard for auto-parts makers to prove the capability of
parts manufacturing per the required specification from major OEMs.
2) When encountering the case of non-compliance with OEM production
drawing, required specification, standards documents, the suppliers are to consult with
OEMs and obtain their approval finally.
① Non-procurement of materials required→ approval for substitute materials
② No-existing of relative equipment→ approval for substitute process and
alternative work operation
3) Response from OEMs towards substitution request(various replies from
OEMs)
① category-1：No substitute→ when no applicable to drawing, change supplier.
② category-2：potential substitute, assuming required safety and durable quality
guaranteed
③ category-3：substitute, obey to OEM’s required quality

3 Approval from OEM on production preparation plan 〇

1) Approval required for process plan, QC process plan, equipment/jig & fixture plan, testing
and inspection plan
2) Confirmation of production equipment and arrangement of jig & fixture（＝To decide
OEMs or in-house assets）
3) Approval required for on production preparation ,SOP and shipping schedule plan
4) Approval required for first part inspection condition, steady state testing condition,
inspection schedule
5) Claims handling-coping/routing/negotiation of guarantee
4 Start of production preparation and SOP 〇
1) Set of production equipment, jig & fixtures
(conception/design/estimates/evaluation/order and follow-up)
2) Procurement of materials (confirmed schedule, search suppliers, estimates, evaluation,
order and follow-up)
3) Production trial, first part inspection, SOP planning
4) SOP(in-house order, man power allocation, confirming emergency measures）

15
5 Production maintenance after SOP, handling changed condition 〇
1) Planning of daily and hourly production volume and results control
2) Traceability(worker in charge per each process and each part, inspection records and
shipping records)
3) 4M changing point management (pro-active and reactive measures at each changing point
and its record keeping)
4) Defect policy/management (root-cause, counter-measures and roll-out to similar case)

② Production/Process planning
No Contents A B C
1 To confirm Process contents in production 〇
1) To calculate Cycle time per Production volume
2) To plan Operation process & man-hour at each job
3) To plan required number of operators

2 To make Operation process planning (FUNDOSHI) 〇

1) To set up Standard Operation hour for each job
2) To make Operation process plan
3) Take notice on 2 or more operators job jointly
4) No inclusion of emergency allowance
5) To minimize operators moving distance
6) To minimize operators free time (to give another job)
7) To calculate number of operators including line keepers

Step Job Job description Operation seconds

C/T
1 1 Grip Parts & move to Jig
2 Set Parts into Jig & Clamp
3 Welding
4 Remove Parts from Jig
2 5 Receive Parts & Clamp
6 Hand weld-nuts & set
7 Projection welding
8 Remove Parts from Welder
9 Put parts into Pallet
3 1 Set Parts into Jig

3 To Make Action Plan at each process 〇

1)To make detailed process planning & layout
2)To plan required equipment, jig fixtures & tools
3)To make Operation Standard, Inspection standard
4)To make Inspection & Production record sheet

4 Countermeasure & Preventive management 〇

1) To make Countermeasure against emergency
2) To set up system for 4M change point management

16
 ③ Layout, Machine, Man, Scheduling and Planning
No Contents A B C
1 What is Layout plan of a factory？ 〇
Describe the layout plan for the most critical parts produced in the new plan of parts
manufacturing industry. In parts manufacturing industry almost 80% of quality &
productivity is determined during designing stage is well known but from the production
side especially productivity point of view, it is said that 80% of quality is decided in layout.
Therefore, factory layout plan plays the key role to determine the productivity, hence the
concepts and methods described below are also applicable to improve existing factory
layout.
2 Basic concept of layout planning： 〇
Incorporate the following points when making a layout plan.
1. High Quality: Top requirement to win market competition.
2. High Productivity: Mandatory for higher profits.
3. Appropriate Investment: Mandatory for higher profits.
4. Safe & Healthy Work Environment: Worker protection requirement
5. Disaster Prevention Measures: Fire, earthquake, and theft prevention
measures.
6. Visual Control of Production: Production status visual control system
provision.
7. Future Developments: Increase in production & models handling
provision.
8. CSR activities: Promote corporate social activities for the
surrounding area & society.

3 Layout Planning Process steps 〇

The specific procedures and key points of layout plan are described below. Consider layout
plan by following these steps and record all those proposals on paper in chronological
order, which could be utilized for later layout changes in future.
1. Draft production planning parameters: Production parts, annual
production volume, and annual production plan.
2. Draft in-house operation facilities: Basic manufacturing process
3. Annual Production Schedule: Receiving Order, order raw material,
production, stock, delivery schedule/volume
4. Draft Annual Production Lots & Production Sequence:
5. Annual Production Line wise & calculate Machine CT:
6. Prepare Annual Production Line wise & Machine standard operation sheet
(FUNDOSHI):
7. Prepare annual production line straight line layout: In case of
machines set operation time.
8. Describe the required production machines, jigs, racks, pallets in the above
mentioned straight line layout. Incorporate the concepts of 5T & FIFO.
9. Describe the material, in-process parts, production parts flow frequency from
factory IN & OUT gates for the above mentioned straight line layout.
10. Draft factory layout plan: Factory size, consider space in between pillars, and in
principle based on minimum logistic flow concept draft layout, allocate machines
& production lines by utilizing factory space effectively.
11. In the above-mentioned layout plan describe worker location & movement range
(Based on FUNDOSHI)
17
12. For the above-mentioned layout specify,
1) Gemba (workshop)QC area,
2) Visual Control area, training room etc.,
13. For the above-mentioned layout specify,
1) Factory office, office toilet,
2) Factory Entrance & Exit, Factory Toilet,
3) Power Room, Store, Material Store, Delivery Space,
4) Canteen etc.,
Describe factory appearance, worker flow and emergency exits, also calculate
separately the store, raw material store, delivery area, draft the specifications and
size.
14. Draft layout plan adjustable with further expansion on an annual basis.
1) Incorporate future expansion (1st term ～）
15. Connect the factory machines & lights with power source,
1) Electricity (Power wiring & lights wiring),
2) Plumbing work (Water, Air, Gas, Drain) layout draft
16. Power source specification (Incoming transformation electricity, water source,
water treatment) plan and final location & construction specification, draft.
17. To factory plot site,
1) Factory building layout drawing,
2) Passages inside the building,
3) Parking Area,
4) Allocate Maintenance room, etc.
18. Check the final logistics flow, man flow, power flow and layout plan will be
complete.
＊ Note 1：There are certain constraints about land & factory layout depending on
area, customs and religion. In such a case maximum effort to be carried out to
consider this.
＊ Note 2：Consider factory building direction in the land plot by daylight, wind &
rain direction, appearance from the road.
＊ Note 3 ： Regarding air pollution and waste water treatment follow the
environmental regulation of local area.

18
 ④ Investment, profitability plan, business plan
No Contents A B C
1 What is Investment: 〇
An investment is the funding for a business on the purpose of earning a profit. Figuratively
speaking, investing a large amount of money for the benefit of the future. This manual targets
capital investment of Auto parts suppliers to fund equipment arrangements for the purpose of
producing new products (auto parts) in order to respond to customer orders and for direct
market expansion.
Capital investment can be broadly divided into two types. One is a capital investment on
tangible fixed assets such as factory or machine tool for manufacturing goods (visible). On
the other hand, there are also capital investments in invisible objects such as development
costs of products. This is called intangible fixed assets. The range of Intangible fixed assets
are wide for example, investments in personal computer software, patent rights, trademark
rights, etc. which are necessary for management and development. These are invisible unlike
factories and machines.
The continuation of the capital investment by the company means the whole company is
focusing on economic growth. If you want to know the growth of a company, it may be
effective to check the amount of capital investment.

2 Approach of investment plan: 〇

This section describes the way in which the automotive parts suppliers subject to this manual
invest in equipment for the production of parts. In this case, the investment should be planned
with the minimum amount for the target project of the new part production to be managed. At
this time, consider, judge and decide the use of the existing facilities by sharing, diversion,
remodeling and modification.
The breakdown of investment items in case of Japan is shown below.

General- Dedicated investment

purpose
investment
1 case 100,000 yen or construction Fixed asset reserve cost
more & durable life 1 cost
year or more
Other than those above departmental Non fixed asset reserve cost
expenses

3 Breakdown example of investment plan： 〇

Below is a breakdown example of the investment plan. Specific figures are excluded
(Unit: Rs Million)
Capital expenditure Non-fixed Main contents
Constru Fixed Total reserve costs
ction preparation （Excluded
cost cost number）
Sheet metal
Weld
assembly
Resin
Rigging
Inspection
jig
Total

19
 Timing of First half Second First half of Second half Total
implementation of 2019 half of 2020 of 2020
2019
（Capital
expenditure）

4 Profitability plan： 〇
The profitability plan is to consider how much profit will be made in the business that will
start from now on. Even if there is a high volume of sales, there may be no profit. The
purpose of business is to create profit not sales. Therefore, it is necessary to fully verify how
to create a profit.
For capital investment that raises production capacity, the profit or cash obtained by
subtracting the expenses (such as direct material costs, depreciation cost, interest expenses,
etc.) from the income (the increase of sales) expected from the investment, To evaluate
profitability by comparing it with the investment amount.
It is easy to understand the financial plan by creating a table showing the Cumulative profit
and loss for each period or year from the first year of investment. An example is shown
below.
(Unit: Rs Million)
Overall profit and loss 2019 2020 2021 2022 Total
plan
Production volume
Marginal profit
fluctuation①
Fix cost increase②
Profit increase①－②
(Marginal profit＝Total sales－variable cost)
The specific investment evaluation method of the new investment project
implementation judgment in small and medium enterprises will be described at
⑤Standard of business operation judgment below. Profitability can be judged by
calculating whether sales volume over breakeven point of sales can be expected and
whether the company can lower the breakeven point of sales by suppressing fixed costs
and variable costs.

Breakeven point of Sales。

Profit Cost
Sales

Profit
Breakeven point
Total Cost
(Variable cost
+ Fixed cost)
Variable cost

Fixed cost
Sales Volume

Breakeven point of sales

20
5 Business plan： 〇
A business plan is to set numerical targets, management policies, strategies, etc. as the
specific indicators when starting a new business. It will lead to clarifying financial
management and action plan for continuing the business, and helping to understand the
investors and business partners. Business plan will also lead to clarifying financial
management and action plan for continuing the business, and helps to understand the
investors and business partners.
The following contents should be included in the business plan and the plan should be
evaluated by ⑤Business implementation decision described below. Implement and promote
the business (project) by approving as a company.
1. Necessary reasons for the project (Back ground, purpose)
2. Precondition (Product overview, target market / customer and production planning)
3. Investment plan (capital investment amount)
4. Profitability plan
5. Scheduling (Model fix, production start plan, construction method plan, investment
and loan examination, metalworking, trial Mass production, shipping)
6. Issues and responses

6 Standard of business operation judgment： 〇

The following three items are generally used as a business implementation decision
(Decision making for project investment).
It is important to make a final decision based on the anticipation of the future of the
company, using these data as a guide for determining implementation or as an effort
target.

Refer to the technical book for each formula

1. Return on Investment ＞ Target○○%（Must be above interest rate）

2. Pay Back ＜ Target〇〇months（Service life・Less than borrowing period is desirable)
3. Net Present Value ＞ Target○○%（NPV>0 is an investment requirement）

In addition, at the final decision stage, it is desirable to formulate a response policy and
specific measures for the following issues in each project.

Task:
① How do you consider the risks that may occur in the future? (National situation,
demand fluctuation, material cost, labor cost, selling price fluctuation, etc.)
② What is the burden and risk for building a relationship with an external organization to
meet customer demand?
③ Is it possible to establish a win-win relationship with customers and partners?

21
 5.4 Quality Management

① Quality Monitoring
Example: ISQC and its application
No Contents A B C
1 Given below is an example of improvement utilizing idea of ISQC as one of the Quality 〇
Monitoring method.
1. ISQC (In Stage Quality Creation)
One of the Quality Control Tool implemented by some of the Japanese Car
manufacturing OEMs.
It is a concept of a self-completion system that checks, resolves and complete the
defects within process which occur without carrying them over to the finished products.
1) Purpose
(1) Establishing and Standardization of Production style to achieve required
Quality for each process.
(2) Determine Process wise Production Quality checking procedures based on
Production Standards.
2) The Target
(1) To investigate precise root cause and simplification of countermeasures by
clearly determining the defect occurrence process.
(2) By eliminating manual repair work of finished products by eradication of
secondary defects due to reworking.
(3) Reduction of the finished product reworking man-hours

Inspection：The root cause of the defect might not known and the countermeasure
is difficult of defects once comes in flow in the middle of some process, even by
inspection of finished product.
Defect Countermeasure：Analyze all processes to find out root cause of defect
and take the counter measures for all the process which have relative reasons, and
implement inspection.
2. Implementation Example (Case Crank RH)
Quality improvement in ‘Surface Flatness of Cover Crank Case Right 70cc’ to avoid
Leakage & Seepage problem

Countermeasures were taken for the flatness which were out of tolerance given after
milling process.
1) Machining process and factor analysis (Fig1：Process Analysis)

22
【Conventional Concept】
Because it is a defect after Milling process therefore root cause was investigated only
in process and countermeasures were carried out. (Example: Distortion when
Clamping in machining, Cutter cutting parameters, etc.)

【ISQC Concept】
Take the counter measure for root cause process against all processes.
(1)Analyze all processes and extract Indirect reasons which generated defects in
Milling process.
(Ex: Clamping Failure ←Datum height variation ← Casting mold shifting
[Casting])
(2)Milling is OK, but the finished product has flatness defect.
(Ex: Buffing Defect [Buffing Process]) (Distortion after Paint process ← Heat
Distortion of Baking Oven)

2) Consider Measures of Defect Root Cause Process

23
 3) Implement Counter measures

Countermeasure1: Addition and minimization of holding clamp surface

Old fixture replaced with new fixture to minimize the flatness in the part
Countermeasure 2： Improvement of Baking Oven drying tray (for uniform heating)

24
4) Confirmation of Impact 効果の確認 〇

25
 ② Defect proactive response/4M change point control
No Contents A B C
Required management task (application items from suppliers) 〇
(1) Design changes (Requirements including changes in places not described in the
drawings)
(2) 4 M changing points (excluding MAN change point)
(3) Changes of Tier-1,Tier-2 onwards
(4) Changes of shipping box, pallet, packing style
(5) Changes of inspection method, management parameters, management
conditions
(6) Changes of supply parts
(7) Change management system
① Election of Change Manager; A person in charge of change management and
manager responsible for the establishment of MP maintenance system
② Preparation/making of Change management guideline; Based on “4M Change
Notification”, the change management manager adds management items for
the Customers, and defines management methods so that changes do not
leak/miss at each factory and department, and establishes control points sheet
and plans control scheduling.
③ Management of Tier-1,2 and subsequent suppliers; The change manager is
responsible for managing the contents of change for Tier-1,2 and subsequent
suppliers, as well as establishing and operating the same management
guidelines.

(Just for reference)

Per PPAP rules, suppliers are required to submit mandatory documents
①when changes od parts structure, ②material change、③when used new tools,
die/molds, ④ when production line changes, equipment changes, ⑤ when
manufacturing place change,⑥when supplier or outsourced company change,
⑦when process/engineering drawing change,⑧when inspection change,⑨
when procurement of material change,⑩when appearance change.

26
4M change point management;
Changes that affect design quality, manufacturing quality and productivity shown
in the table below-mentioned(Man, Machine, Material, Method defined per
PPAP)

27
 4M change point management table/sheet;
(1) A basic management board is attached for implementing 4M change point
management on site. Experts explain the excel sheet at a production site during the
regular Circuit activities. In addition, the example management table/sheet which
Japanese OEM used is shown as a reference below-mentioned.

(2) The important point in the contents described in the management table/control chart
is to keep a record of the production history after the occurrence of the Change point.
Make it possible to trace the situation of the occurrence when issues/problems occur
in the future (Traceability). As a specific example, keep a record of the target
production lot number and production serial number.

1401...Format 1402...Example
with example of 4 of 4M C.P. control

③ Quality control in PPAP

Product quality requirements, inspection standards, traceability,
No Contents A B C
1 1. PPAP and APQP 〇
1) PPAP (Production Parts Approval Process)
PPAP in ISO / TS 16949 is the only requirement for core tools and is also called
"production part approval process", which is the new product part specification before
mass production, customer's approval procedure in mass production process.
After determining the production specifications with APQP, it is necessary to notify the
customer and obtain consent / approval for changes related to product realization that
affect customer requirements in managing defects and parts and other changes. When
changing the content that may affect the product, based on the customer's prior approval,
the influence of the change is considered, and it is required to submit related technical data
such as verification and validation performed, data, samples, etc. In addition, it is essential
to manufacture samples for PPAP under the same conditions as for mass production.
2) APQP (Advanced Product Quality Planning and Control Plan）
APQP is one of the core tools (core techniques) called "Advanced Product Quality
Planning", and it defines the operation procedure of a new product development project.
This "Advanced Product Quality Planning" work is to develop a new product that meets
the needs and expectations of the customer, obtain customer approval, and shift to sales
production, indicating a guideline for the operation method of the whole new product
development project is.
(The project operation procedure, i.e., project management, is advancing in the United
States in particular, and among them is an excellent operation method often found in
Japanese companies that perform product design and process design simultaneously and
in parallel )
=>APQP required to suppliers is often used as an Action Plan for confirming and
approving PPAPs defined for OEM preparation-production preparation schedule in a
timely manner.
=>The APQP required to the supplier is often used as an action plan to timely review
and approve the development and manufacturing preparation schedules requested by the
OEM.
(1) Five APQP promotion steps
The APQP promotion steps are roughly divided into five stages.
2. Planning stage: Establishing the basic concept of new product
3. Product design phase: Design specific product details based on the basic
concept
28
 4. Process design phase: Designing the manufacturing process of the designed
product
5. Product / process validation stage: A stage to validate the designed product and
process
6. Mass production stage: Continuous delivery of customer-approved products
based on the contract
(2) Items to be confirmed.
The following confirmation items are required in ISO.
1. Product quality planning basis
2. Plan and define program
3. Product design and development
4. Process design and development
5. Product and process validation
6. Feedback, assessment and corrective action
7. Control plan methodology
Followings are presented as a control plan method.
a. Product Quality Planning Checklist
b. Analysis method
c. Reference document
d. Feasibility study report
e. Product quality plan summary · approval
f. Glossary of terms
g. Index
h.
2. Specific application of automobile parts
Although the above description is in ISO, the actual use differs depending on the
product, and for OEMs, specific procedures are specified by each OEM based on ISO
regulations. In JICA Project, this has been explained as a QMS in the Work Shop etc., but
the excerpt is described below.
1) PPAP request case
After production specifications are determined by APQP, OEMs request to be notified
and approved when changes such as new products, process changes, and material changes
occur.
Typical cases where PPAP (production part approval process) is required.
3. New product or new part
4. Change of parts to be supplied
5. Correction of parts defects (measures against defects)
6. Change of design document (design change etc.)
7. Renovation of facilities, large-scale change of layout / production place
8. Product Renewal (addition or change due to improvement etc.)

2) Position of PPAP in preparation for production

Automobile parts are indicated to each supplier in concrete items by each OEM according
to the requirements of ISO regulations from the importance in terms of quality.
Show an example (from QMS data).

29
 The entire QMS is <B> Development complete → After sales (red circle in Figure 1)
PPAP is treated as <B>: development completed → <A1>: correspondence to
mass production start.

3) PPAP requirements and requirement levels

PPAP requirements and submission level (level that OEM decides and requires 〇
submission from supplier) are divided into 5 stages, and it is coordinated with OEM in
advance to decide submission level. Normally level 3 is applied as the standard level.
The requirements and submission levels are as shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1: PPAP requirements and submission levels (A: Required, B: By

arrangement,-: Not required)
PPAPレベル
Submission Material
1 2 3 4 5
1 Design Record (Latest drawing) - A A A A
2 Authorized Engineering Change Documents - A A A A
3 Cover Page, Customer Engineering Approval A A A A A
Design Failure Mode and Effects analysis(Design
4 - - A A A
FMEA)
5 Process Flow Diagrams - - A A A
Process Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
6 - - A A A
(process FMEA)
7 Control Plan - - A A A
8 MSA（Measurement System Analysis） - - A A A
9 Dimensional Results - A A A A
10 Material Test Results - - A A A
11 Initial Process Studies - - A A A
12 Qualified Laboratory Documentation - - B B B
13 Appearance Approval Report(AAR) A A A A A
14 Sample Production Parts） - A A - A
15 Master Sample - A A - A
16 Checking Aids - - A A A
17 Customer-Specific Requirements - A A A A
18 Part Submission Warrant(PSW) A A A A A
- Process Audit - - - - A

4) Example of actual requirements for automobile parts

The present situation is that automobile parts are instructed to each supplier in specific
30
items by each OEM based on the requirements of the ISO standard by the importance of
quality. An example is shown in Table 3 (QMS explanatory material)

Table 3: Example of requirements

Required items in ISO Actual example at OEM (QMS
explanation)
2.2.1 Design document Design ・Receipt drawing (Supplier's drawing)
Record (For detailed procedures and required
2.2.2 Approved Design Change documents, refer to "5-1 Checking
Documents Component Development Capability" )
2.2.3 Customer Engineering
Department Approval
2.2.4 Design FMEA ・Design FMEA
2.2.5 Process flow chart ・Floor layout / process chart

2.2.6 Process FMEA ・Process FMEA

2.2.7 Control Plan ・QC process chart (Control Plan)

・Test confirmation

2.2.8 Measurement system analysis ・Inspection standard

and survey
2.2.9 Dimension measurement result ・Pilot sample (n = 5)

・Pilot sample inspection report (n = 10)

・Inspection results of all items for pilot

sample (shown in red)
2.2.10 Material Performance Test ・Reliability / Probability test result (n = 3)
Results
2.2.11 Initial process analysis ・Initial process capability investigation
(Cpk / Ppk) result
2.2.12 Conformity Testing
Laboratory Documents
2.2.13 Appearance Approval Report
(AAR)
2.2.14 Production Parts (Customer
Evaluation) Sample
2.2.15 Master (standard) sample ・Master sample (standard sample), limit
sample
2.2.16 Inspection aids ・Verifier plan
2.2.17 Customer Specific ・Delivery package form setting document
Requirements
・Lot management notification form

・ Secondary and subsequent business

partner management table
2.2.18 Parts Submission Warranty ・Parts shipment guarantee (PSW)
(PSW)

31
 As an example of the above, attach a sample of an examination confirmation and an
examination standard document (see below).

10 Inspection
Procedure(E_Sam

5) Actual correspondence of APQP

As described in 1-2), the actual operation is that APQP as a development production 〇
plan in OEM requires suppliers to conduct and submit PPAP specific submission,
confirmation and approval process plan as APQP for suppliers. An example is shown in
Table 4.
(□-□: Submission-Approval)

Table 4: APQP Examples

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
3 2 1
QG
Quality gate
F-testing

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★
productionschedule M
Test F try PJ PL PT PP
item form due date

Quality Manager 1.2-01 1month □

□
design change grade 1.3-01 3
APQP(Advanced Product Quality □
1.4-01 3
Planning)
□
Design FMEA 2.3－01 3
□
Production preparation plan 3.1-01 3
□
Floor L/O － 3
□ □
Process FMEA 3.3(2)-01 3,9
P Fin
□ □
Specification sheet of parts packa 3.4－01 3,12
P Fin
□
Tier 1,2 supplier control sheet 3.7(1)-01 12
□
pilot sample(n=5) 4.6-01～02 11
□ □ □□
ISIR(n=10) 4.6-01～02
P
each p-trial
P □ □ □□
(Cpk)Result －
A
P □ □ □
Inspection confirmation sheet 3.8-01 pre rep AP
Pre:1month to
□ □ □
Inspection standard sheet 3.8-05 PJ,Approval： pre rep AP
1month to PP
□ □ □
QC process chart 3.8(1)-01 pre rep AP
□ □
Approval ofPPAP 4.7－01
rep AP
□ □
PSW(Parts supply warranty) 4.7－02
rep AP
□ □
Pilot samplae Inspection report(n= 4.6-01～02
rep AP
Inspectionresult of pilot
indicate □ □
sample(on darawing,important 1month to PP
in DRWG rep AP
point)
Lot control requirement(safety □ □ □
5.4-02
parts) 通 AP
□ □
Parts history record 1.6-01
rep AP
□ □ □
reliability/ES-testing(n=3) 2.6-01
p rep AP
Plan：after PPAP □ □ □
initial quality control 4.8-01 result：1m after MP P resu AP

6) Purpose and effect of PPAP

Required condition of parts procurement＝It shows how suppliers be ready to meet with
the requirements from OEM as well as to understand appropriate know-how to procure
materials and parts in line with the quality assurance condition.

7) Traceability
In order to cope with important defects and market measures (recalls) in recent
automobile parts, it is necessary to track the defect history of shipments and traceability is
required. For this reason, for important parts and safety parts (eg, airbags, brakes, steering
related parts), it is customary that this requirement is added to the PPAP requirement 2.2.17
customer specific requirements.

32
 (1) Material management
Figure 2: Example of material traceability

It is important that each delivery lot of material and quality history be linked to the
actual product.

(2) Lot management and display on products

Traceability management requires lot management of production parts and its display.
Please refer to the attached for an example of the management procedure.

PP13_Lot管理(Lot
Control).pptx

3. Problems with PAKISTAN, examples of improvement

1) Accurate understanding of OEM requirements
The drawings and the specifications required
there are not understood correctly. Or, because the
content is unknown, it is skipped and not reflected
in the manufacturing quality.
(1) Case 1: Drawing (Ni-Cr
plating). Actual product (Ni
plating): Ni-Cr plating is required for Fork
Pipe of suspension due to sliding part.
Actually, only Ni plating was a cause of plating
peeling.

(2) Since the design change information was

not reflected on the production inspection tool, the old product continued to
be delivered and the OEM side
became NG. =>Failure that did
not occur if PPAP 2.2.1-3 design
change procedure and 2.2.16 new
inspection aid procedure were old
performed correctly.

33
 ④ QC 7 Tools
No Contents A B C
1 1. Definition of QC 7 Tools 〇
Details are omitted in this manual. Here, actual application examples and usage methods
are described, and mainly address measures for actual on-site improvement.
2. QC 7 Tools
1) Pareto diagram
2) Cause and effect diagram, Characteristic diagram, Ishikawa diagram
3) Check sheet
4) Histogram
5) Scatter diagram
6) Control chart
7) Stratification
3. Application example
1) Pareto diagram: Countermeasures against burr removal (fender)
A: Injection process A and B: Burr removing

A: Runner cut

Runner Cut / Burr removing

Process Runner Cut Burr Removal

A: Injection
B: Assembly Process B: Assembly

Problem: Defective finish on the burr

removal part (Undercut)
At the beginning, it was dealing with
burr finishing work defects in the
assembly process, but the defects were
not reduced.
Since this work was done in both the
injection and assembly processes,
created a Pareto chart of both processes.

34
 Deburring trouble (All Process)

Deburring trouble (Injection Process)

As a result of Pareto analysis, it was

found that the deburring failure
occurred at almost 100% injection
process. As a result, measures for tool
improvement and work guidance were
implemented, and burr removal defects
were improved.

Improved deburring tool

35
2) Cause and effect diagram (TIG welding
defect: Muffler)
Failure: Melting off at TIG welding

(1) How to create cause and effect diagram.

a. Decide problems(Effect)
Example: Why does TIG welding failure
occur?
Bad example: Weld defect reduction ( Cause ≠ countermeasures)
b. Define the factor of causes based on 5M+1E
c. Describe actual using word in GENBA (parts, machine, process, etc.)
d. Describe Main fish bone based on 5M+1E

MAN MACHINE METHOD

MATERIAL MEASUREMENT ENVIRONMENT

e. Fill in the middle bones and small bones. Consider the factors that cause the
characteristics of the large bone to create the middle bone, and then create the small
bone.
f. In order to make small bones, it is necessary to assess the important causes by
repeating why, why, why....
g. Check the omissions in description.
h. Create a diagram by brainstorming of related members.
i. Make Check mark to major influence factors.
j. For the main cause of the problem, plan and advance KAIZEN activities. (Advance
the KAIZEN circle).

36
 (2) Cause and effect diagram

(3) Factor analysis (from the cause of failure, repeat "Why" five times to investigate
the root cause.)
5W
1H

Welding is unstable welding H

Why burn through of welding?

Welding conditions are varied.

welding condition
Why unstable welding?

Variation of distance
Why variation occurring?

Forming is varied: Loosen of torch

Flash of end contact mount & feeder
Why variation of face of tube
distance occurring?

Why Forming varied Spring back after

bending.

Flatness Hardness is too

Feed thread
reforming = add high = material
Countermeasures change
pre form press control

37
 (4) Countermeasure execution, effect confirmation 〇

Pre hitting before welding Hardness checker of Torch adjuster

(in progress) panel (Implementing) (Implementing)

Chrome Shop Rejection=12%

Welding shop Rejection=9%
Polish shop=6%
C.QTY=1%

27%
26.1%
12

10.8
9
1.41% C.Qty 12.8
6 10.5 11.2
1
MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV

3) Histogram, scatter chart

Defect: Welding distortion
The amount of distortion due to
welding was analyzed using
histograms before and after welding,
and welding distortion was improved
by assembling that reflected the
occurrence of welding distortion.

38
 (1) Histogram creation before and after welding

Compensating JIG (2.3mm)

±2σ≦T(95%OK)
T：公差

(2) Measures
Originally, 3σ or less is desirable, but the
welding variation is large with respect to the
tolerance. Therefore, since it is not within 3σ,
it is determined whether or not the correction
is made with a determination criterion of 2σ
or less, and the correction amount is
determined to be 2.3 mm.
(Theoretically, 5% correction is required)

(3) Effect confirmation, standardization

Rework: 100% (all reworked) 2 2% or less

39
4) Stratification: Investigate the occurrence of each defect at 4M and analyze the 〇
cause factor and the degree of influence and take measures.
Defect: Run out (The correction factor for a run out tolerance of 0.1 mm after
machining is as high as 3.5%. Target is 0.1% or less)

(1) Run-out data of each worker

How to proceed with analysis
Decide what to stratify.
Determine the "quality characteristics" and the "quantity range".
Quantity range: the size of the entire N.
Grab the overall quality figure. Generally, it is represented by "histogram".
Investigate the cause of the fluctuation of run out. The cause of "Fluctuation" is
investigated by using "Cause and effect diagram" etc. And the factor of "Cause and effect
diagram" becomes an item of "stratification".

Frequency table Histogram

Data that is separated is often a factor

other than Machine.

40
(2) Continuous machining result data for each worker

(3) Factor analysis, measures

With the exception of the above singular point (o), Cpk is 1.33 or more, and it has been
found that some workers do not have this singular point at all. In the subsequent survey,
the cause was found to be insufficient cleaning at the time of installation, revised the
work standard, and improved it now. (Rework rate: 0.06%)

層別Ａ
distribution chart
層別Ｂ
0.40

Tolerance: 0.10

0.30
density

0.20

σ=0.0109
Cpk=T/6σ=1.53
0.10

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

data

41
 (4) Reference
Analysis example (Example of machining)
The machining accuracy seems to be stable, but suddenly the machining accuracy
may deteriorate.
(In this example): In such a case, it is not a mechanical factor, but often an external
factor such as dust adhering to the working method or jig, and analysis of factors
other than machines is also included.
The variation in machining accuracy is large and always changing. There is no
machine capability (machine accuracy is poor)
↑0.1
16
×10μ
X軸
14 peculiar points
Y軸

12

10

6 tolerance（100μ）

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

30
μ
X軸

25 Y軸

20

15

tolerance（12μ）
10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

If machining accuracy falls regularly, it is often a tooling factor.

(In this example): it was due to the formation of the composition of the cutting edge.
0.052

25

20 X軸
公差範囲（16μ） Y軸

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

42
The initial stage is variable and eventually becomes stable. It is often an equipment
factor.
(In this example): Oil pressure is unstable (A low pressure clamp was adopted to
prevent distortion of the product. While the temperature of the low pressure clamp
was low, the clamping force was decreasing or fluctuating.)
+0.002

40

X軸
35 加工Data修正（△φ0.02） Y軸

30

25

20

15 公差範囲（16μ）

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

43
 5.5 Production Management

① Understanding FIFO, in-process items and stock

No Contents A B C
1 FIFO 〇
※First-in first-out, it is the same with factories and homes. What you purchased first should
be used first ⇒ Basic rule

The basis of inventory management is "First in First Out", in a wide range of industries from
manufacturing to sales and retail, first-in-first-out is a basic yet very important inventory
management method.

The subject matter is the first-in first-out in the inventory management, but why first-in first-
out can not be implemented? What will happen when first-in first-out is not implemented?
What is the proper way of implementing first-in first-out? These 3 points will be explained
below. This is essential for the managers who are facing difficulties with proper inventory
management.

The reason why first-in first-out can not be performed in inventory management

The following four causes can be considered when first-in first-out is not performed in
inventory control despite the fact that rules are firmly established.

Site workers are not following the rules

Even if there are rules, first-in-first-out will not be performed if the on-site workers do not
follow them. One of the reasons why workers do not observe the rules is that "They do not
understand the rules" and "The rules does not have the force and workers are working
freely".

It is difficult to understand whether the stock is “new or old”

Even though the workers understand that first-in first-out means "using old parts and raw
materials first", but there are many cases where the modification has not been done for the
implementation.

It will be difficult to implement first-in-first-out if it is not possible to determine which stock

is new and which is old at a glance.

There are many opinions that even though the date of arrival and lot number in clearly
illustrated, first-in first-out can not be performed."

Clearly, this will cause delays in work, and as a result, first-in first-out will not be
performed.

In this case, scolding the worker as a manager causes rather a negative effect. It can be said
that it is the manager`s responsibility that efficiency improvement is not considered.

44
 Finished
Finished Finished Product
Product Product
Finished
Finished
Product
Product

3S of stock yard is not thorough

There is a large number of stocks and frequent replacement work is required

Problems caused by not proper implementation of first-in first-out
・Causes defection
・It becomes difficult to grasp the exact number of stocks

The points for proper implementation of first-in first-out

(1) Post work instructions at an easy-to-see location on the site
(2) Managers regularly conduct on-site inspections
(3) Modify the site so that it is easy to understand the "expiration date" of stocks

(3-1) Color seal control

Example
Products arrived at 9:00：Yellow
Products arrived at 11:00: Green
Products arrived at 13:00: Blue

(3-2) Location Control

(4)Implement 3S daily and weekly

(5)Modify the site to reduce replacements

2 Practical teaching example of Pakistan 〇

(1) TM Rubber (Color seal example)

5S selection from
TMR presentation

(2) Standard Engineering（FIFO Sequential Trial）

(P217) Standard
EE FIFO 21MAR20

(3) Shaheen Automotive（FIFO site example）

Observation 26
May 2019.xlsx

45
 (4) Omar Jibran Karachi (FIFO Inclined shelf)

OMAR JIBRAN
FIFO Inclined She

② Order-production-shipping flow and production planning

No Contents A B C
1 Order-Production-Shipping flow: 〇
The flow from order acceptance to delivery is, in the case of an auto part, a make-to-order
production with a production plan based on an order from an OEM. In addition to make-to-
order production, there is prospective production, and the company predicts demand, makes
a production plan, and produces and ships. This is mainly for the aftermarket.
Here, the case of make-to-order production from OEM is described.
1. Confirmation of order information, input to in-house system
Order date, Orderer name, Order item & Part number, Order quantity, Delivery date &
destination, Unit price,
Production instruction etc.
2. In-house production instruction => Production plan
Inventory confirmation, Required specification, Material arrangement, Process design
& production schedule, Shipping schedule, Personnel planning, etc.
3. Prototype
Prototype production, Design and production of Mold & jig design / production, Trial
manufacture, Quality check
4. Production
Material acceptance inspection, Material supply to production process, production, In-
process inspection, Finished product inspection, Quality judgment, Shipping
preparation etc.
5. Shipment
Shipping inspection, Shipping method confirmation, Shipping & delivery note creation,
Shipment, Customer receipt confirmation, etc.
6. Record input
Enter shipping record => Sales slip => Accounting procedure

2 Order-Production-Shipping flow ( Case study ): 〇

The following is a flow chart of the case where order information is imported into the
Electric Data Interchange (EDI) system in the company, and the processes from order
acceptance to production and shipment are managed by ERP.
The flowchart written in Japanese is described immediately below that in English. Look at
both and deepen your understanding of information and the flow of things.

46
 Logistics Management / Manufacturing Management (MES Solution)

General
EDI Server SAP ERP
order server
Confirmatio
Transfer
n / delivery Order
request
instruction

Development
Purchase
Customer EDI of Supplier
order
requirements

Manufacturi
shipping
Indication ng Inventory
invoice
instructions

Production site
*Shipping Production Production *Delivery
*Storage
instruction completion start schedule
location
*Shipping (Product (Material *Delivery
*Move
history receipt) input) history

Product
Material /
warehouse Material
Production Line parts
/ Shipping warehouse
acceptance
site

Order - production - shipment flow diagram (example):

Production_planni
ng.pptx

3 Production planning: 〇
1) As in the case of ①Order - Production - shipment flow described above, the case of make-
to-order production from an OEM is described here.
The basic elements of manufacturing, which is the core of the manufacturing industry,
are as follows.
I. Products required by customers,
II. Only the quantity requested by the customer
III. With the quality required by customers
IV. Deliver on the date specified by the customer
In order to execute these things efficiently, it is the most important task to plan the
production system and preparation for work.
The production plan is to plan the production system and the contents of preparatory
work in time series. The key control point in production planning is to do the following
with respect to the contents of production instructions.
I. Inventory check
II. Amount and delivery date of required materials
III. Preparation schedule of mold and jig etc.
IV. Daily and hourly production schedule
V. Shipment schedule.

2) The creation of FUNDOSHI is very effective to newly calculate the required process,
equipment and personnel required for production. Production efficiency can also be
planned extremely efficiently by finely setting it using FUNDOSHI.
As a note on the introduction of FUNDOSHI, when producing for the first time, workers
47
 and equipment may not be able to cope with the standard time set in FUNDOSHI at the
initial stage, and training will be promoted until the process is mastered enough.

3) In the case where a self-produced sales product or a customer presents a long-term

production sales plan, or when there is a line establishment or sales discontinued product,
it is necessary to cope with the following planning operations in addition.
I. Make a sales plan based on the business plan, demand forecast, and information
provided by customers, and make a long-term production plan of several months
to one year based on the sales plan.
II. Make a plan based on the prospect of about one year when involved in investment
such as installation or remodeling of lines and facilities. In production
management of existing lines, etc., make a production plan with a prospect of
around 3 months.
III. If there is a discontinued product or a new product launched, identify the timing
and quantity at which the sales volume and production volume will fluctuate
significantly, and prepare a response plan.
IV. After planning the production plan, plan and prepare the resources (4M)
required for production.

4 Production plan (basic case):

As in the case of 1) above, template cases are introduced for monthly-based production
planning in the case of make-to-order production from an OEM.

Production plan (Project example):

Set up a key 20 parts, and build a system that monitors production volume (D) from
production planning (A), actual inventory (B), minimum inventory (C) to weekly (E). [Basic
formula: D = A + C−B] In the initial stage, this was handled with Excel softwere, but at present,
48
this algorithm is diverted, target parts are increased, and a dedicated system is being introduced.
Effect: With the theoretical stock maintained, the production volume requirements can be
properly met. As a result, we could reduce the cost of purchasing materials by 12%.

Actual management table (Sample)

E A B C D

Consumption History Chart For Target 20 Parts (july.2018)

Closing Stock
Monthly
S.# Part Name Model (previous Order QTY
Schedule
month)
1 Boss pipe Clutch YLA 1386 2000 310
2 Boss pipe Brake YLA 1386 1450 860
3 Spacer clutch YLA 1386 1200 1110
4 Spacer brake YLA 1386 1300 1010
5 Boss pipe clutch YN3 191 225 93

Minimum Order QTY

LEAD Issuance and Balance Main Store level, based on 15
days safety stock
TIME
w.r.t lead time
(Day) Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
5 936 1411 1661 1130 924
5 950 1100 1375 1025 924
5 720 1020 1445 1095 924
5 950 1225 1450 900 924
5 160 230 165 125 127

Figure 1: Weekly inventory transition monitor（E）

1800

1600

1400

1200
系列1
1000 系列2
系列3
800
系列4

600 系列5

400

200

0
Boss pipe Clutch Boss pipe Brake Spacer clutch Spacer brake Boss pipe clutch

49
 5.6 Kaizen / Improvement Capability

① Enthusiasm and action of top management

No Contents A B C
1 The most basic point to improve the factory 〇
In order to develop improvement capabilities, it is fundamental to have an organization,
organizational structure, awareness within the company that can reliably implement these
7 items.

(1) Enthusiasm of top management、Elimination of 3M、PDCA

< Most basic 3 points >
(2) Self improvement starting with 5S、5T
<5S, 5T, creation of action plan for self improvement,
follow up results>

(3) Continuation of ＫＰＩ monitoring

< After achieving the goal, set further improvement goal >
(4) Promotion of horizontal development
< Conduct improvement activity + KPI Monitoring to new issues >
(5) Implementation of hand down activity
< Posting of JICA activity materials, implementation of internal
improvement activity committees, etc. >
(6) 「Various Manuals」 and 「Various Standards」
< Create, post, report at presentation, and utilize within the
company >
(7) Implementation of improvement proposal system
< Includes improvement suggestions for Manuals and Standards >

Kaizen slogan.pptx

2 Enthusiasm of Top Management 〇

The enthusiasm of Top management is the most effective matter among the
implementing departments of improvement to promote, continue, Horizontal development
and hand down.
In Pakistan, it is important for top management to promote its own improvement
activities top-down.
Also in this project, the Top Management of each suppliers has promised to actively
participate in this activity in the Commitment sheet, which was exchanged between
suppliers and SMEDA / JICA.

50
 ② KPI Monitoring
No Contents A B C
1 KPI Monitoring: 〇
In order to confirm the effects of improvement activities and implement further
improvements, it is important to quantify the effects and monitor them.
The KPI monitoring sheet adopted in the JICA Auto Parts Project is made to manage the
data monthly. Also, monthly "observation," "action," and "results" are specified in the
sheet, therefore the monitoring is “visible” for all the members.

Format of KPI
Monitoring.xlsx

③ QC Circle
No Contents A B C
1 QC Circle 〇
Background of QC circle birth
In order to develop Japan, which has few resources, it is highly dependent on exports,
and it was mainly exported to machinery and metal products, but it is said to be "cheap,
but bad", and the quality improvement was an issue. A training based on statistical quality
control by Dr. Deming in 1950 triggered the introduction of quality control at each
company after 1950. In addition, the usefulness of quality control has been accepted by
each company. Because each company understood that to provide things that customers
are satisfied with will improve the business performance of the company.
The department manager and specialized staff were in charge of the practice, but QC
activities were being promoted in the field front lines under the names of "Work study
meeting" and "Workplace social gathering". “GEMBA and QC” magazine (the current
“QC Circle " magazine) was published in April 1962, and called for “Should have a QC
circle that all the workers participate which mainly by the chief or group leader act”. In
line with the purpose of "Work study meeting" and "Workplace social gathering", QC
circle was born in each company and QC circle activity started.
Basic philosophy of QC circle activity
* Demonstrate human ability and bring out unlimited possibilities.
* Respect humanity and create a lively, bright workplace.
* Contribute to the improvement and development of corporate constitution.
In QC circle activities started in Japan, companies in Asian countries, Western countries,
South American countries and about 80 countries / regions are actively introducing and
promoting QC circle (small group) activities.

51
Evolution QC circle activities 〇
Pakistan currently has many companies are working to introduce, but in Japan, efforts
are being made in response to environmental changes. It may good to use this in Pakistan.
It is important to have the solid purpose for working on QC circle activities and to be
succeeded.
The environment in which work and organization are located has largely changed from
the past, and it is required to change activities in a better way in response to changes in the
environment. In response to this, structural reform of QC circle called "e-QCC / evolution
QC Circle" is being promoted.

Three visions of e-QCC (Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers)

Establish and establish an evolved QC circle activity.
Vision 1: Activities to increase the value of “individuals” and share emotions (personal
development)
Vision 2: Activities to achieve self in business integrated activities (contribution to
business results)
Vision 3: Aim for activities that are used in a wide range of departments, regardless of
their form.
The three visions of the “evolved QC circle activity” presented by the "Union of Japanese
Scientists and Engineers" QC circle headquarters correspond closely to the environmental
changes of these workplaces and organizations. The attached PDF file “Evolution QC
Circle Activity” is a reference for the contents specifically proposed.

e-QCC
Activity.pdf

Advantages of QC circle activities (based on basic principles)

Show the tangible and intangible benefits of QC circle activities and small group
activities based on the basic principle. It is a property that only the companies, small
groups, and people who participated in the project can obtain.
1. I want to improve myself / I want to do a better job ➡ Study QC thinking and methods
➡ Use what I studied and learned ➡ Become understanding well on rational
perspectives, scientific methods, problem solving skills ➡ Grow as human beings
2. Gatherings of people in work place have sufficient knowledge and experience about
practice. And they are peers who know each other well ➡ Sufficient discussion ➡
Enlighten each other / team work ➡ The workplace becomes brighter
3. Various problems in the workplace ➡ Clarification of problems ➡ Determination of
the theme to be taken ➡ Analysis of factors ➡ Consideration and implementation of
measures ➡ Problem solving ➡ Improve the corporate constitution.
In addition, problem solving brings a sense of accomplishment to the QC circle, leading
to individual ability improvement and self-realization.
About the theme of QC circle activity
Here are some suggestions for thinking about what the theme should be, starting with QC
circle activities. The theme is KAIZEN / Improvement of QCDSME, which is an
important matter in the field.
QCDSME Points of improvement activities
Q: Maintain and improve quality * Reduction of in-process defect
* Improvement of process ability

52
 * Minimization of variation
* Reduction of pokamisu
* Relapse prevention measures
* Promotion of standardization
C: Reduce costs * Improvement of yield
* Reduction of working time
* Reduction of man-hour
* Reduction of setup time
* Improvement of equipment operation rate
* Improvement of layout
D: Strict delivery date * Creating and executing production plan
* Creating and implementing maintenance plan
of equipment / tools
S: Ensure safety * Thorough wearing of protective equipment
* Reduction of fatigue
* Reduction of hiyari hat
* Implementation of 5S activities
M: Improve morale * Activation of KAIZEN proposal
* Measures to improve attendance rate
* Activate QC circle activities
* Establishment of evaluation and
commendation system
* Appropriate staffing
E: Improve the environment * Reduce waste of materials / energy
* Implementation of environmental protection
measures
* Reuse of scrap
Implementation example of a company in Pakistan 〇
One of the model case suppliers won first place at the QC circle presentation hosted by
the customer. Presentation was conducted in line with the QC story.
QC Story (tool for summarization and reporting)
This section provides references for presenting the results of QC circle activities inside
and outside the company.
1. Selection of theme: Use matrix diagram etc. and indicate the reason for choosing the
theme
2. Current situation recognition and goal setting: data collection by 5-Gen principle. The
goal setting indicates what, when, and how much to improve.
3. Creation of activity plan: Activity item and then delivery date and role assignment for
each item.
4. Factor analysis: Use characteristic factor diagrams as an example
5. Examination and implementation of measures: Also decide how to confirm the effect
6. Confirmation of effect: Evaluate by comparison of aim and results. Evaluate tangible
and intangible effects
7. Establish standardization and management: Change the process and establish it in the
organization
8. Reflection and future issues
QC circle activity implementation is highly recommended. The following books have
been published by QC Circle Headquarters in order to know more in detail. An English
version is also available for reference.
Fundamentals of QC Circles ISBN 978-4-8171-9271-4
How to Operate QC Circle Activities ISBN 978-4-8171-9272-1

53
 ④ Cp/Cpk, PPAP
No Contents A B C
Outline of Process Capability Indices (Cp, Cpk) 〇
1. Process Capability and Process Capability Index (Cp)
When comparing merits and demerits of most of the production lines or merits and
demerits among various processes workers, it express the percentile of probability in
order to manufacture the products according to customer specification, it is called
“Manufacturing Capability” = “Process Capability”, the numeric values are called
“Process Capability Index (Cp)”.
2. Calculation formula of Process Capability Index (Cp)
Cp ＝ The numerical value obtained by dividing the standard width of “the quality
characteristic” by 6σ. Specifically, it will be described below (at first, from the
explanation of terms).
＊Critical to Quality = The most important factor affecting the quality of products
in each line (Critical to Quality: Length, weight, hardness, flatness, concentricity,
resistance value etc.)
＊ Manufacturers make products to fit within a certain range for each quality
characteristic. The range is called a standard. The difference between the maximum
value and the minimum value is called the standard width.
＊σ ＝ Standard deviation is a statistical name that indicates the variation of
numerical data groups.

X ＝ measured value M ＝ Mean value (𝑥𝑥̅ ) n ＝ The number of data

＊６σ ＝ Numerical value 6 times of the Standard Deviation σ
From the above explanation, the formula for Cp is shown again below.
Process capability index Cp = (upper limit standard value-lower limit standard
σ / 6σ
value)
(Upper limit specification value-Lower limit specification value) has been set in
advance as a product standard.
Therefore, the standard deviation σ affects Cp. Variation large = Cp small
Variation small = Cp large
That is, the larger the Cp, the better the factory line.
Condition: The process is a completely controlled process
= On the control chart, the variation is within the upper and lower limit
standard values, and the average value is the center value of the standard
range
= Following normal distribution
The formula for calculating the probability of fitting within the standard = process
capability index is as described above. However, It is a reality that the center of the
actual product is not the center of the standard range. Therefore, in practice, a
calculation formula that can be considered even when it deviates from the standard
center value is used. It is shown below.

54
3. Practical process capability index (Cpk) formula (k = Katayori = Deviation)
In practice, the average value deviates from the central value  Cp : ×
In practice, use calculation formula to correct deviation  Cpk : 

Select Defect rate=50%

Cpk(L.L.) ＝ (Mean Value － L. L. Standard value)/３σ
the
smaller Cpk(U.L.) ＝ (U. L. Standard value － Mean value)/３σ
value as
Cpk

4. Process Capability and Variation

High process capability = Small Next, the variation in the case of high
Variation process capability and low process capability
will be explained graphically.

Low process capability = Big Variation

= No Margin

5. Relationship between normal distribution and standard deviation

6. Relationship of Practical process capability index (Cpk) and defect ratio

Finally, the meaning of the Cpk variation is shown in the graph.
Central ���
SL=ｘ Central
l
a = deviation

Defective
Products

55
 Utilization of process capability index
The Skill Olympics held in Pakistan revealed that although Cp and Cpk can be calculated,
how to use them cannot be understood. Currently, calculation of Cp and Cpk and histogram
can be easily obtained by using personal computer software. On the other hand, the
meaning of the formula cannot be understood, and in some cases, apparently anomalous
numerical values are used as they are. Once a calculator should be used to calculate Cp
and Cpk and write a histogram by yourself.
By properly understanding and utilizing the process capability index, it can be used for
investigation of causes of failure occurrence, measures, reduction of inspection and
rework, and profit improvement.
The materials used in the special seminar is attached as reference materials.

Outline of
Process Capability

⑤ Process FMEA
No Contents A B C
1 1. What is FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects Analysis)? 〇
FMEA can be described as a systematic procedure of activities
(a) Recognize and evaluate the failure of a product/process and the effects of the failure,
(b) Identify actions that could eliminate or reduce the chance of the potential failure
occurring,
(c) Document the entire process. It is complementary to the process of defining what a
design or process must do to satisfy the customer.

2. Outline of FMEA
FMEA will make is possible to predict failure modes occur in the lowest parts & devices
consist of the system and proceeds with the analysis. For example, by switching the system
with a car, it can predict and analyze the defects and how they are effecting the vehicle.
Moreover, if switch device to work then it will show the operational defects and how vehicle
is getting effected, what kind of trouble will customer will face can be analyzed.
In this way it will spot the defects mode hidden in the product/process and will evaluate
each type of failure mode's level of occurrence, detection, and impact by expressing it in
figure and it is a tool to take counter measures beforehand.

56
2 3. Benefits of FMEA 〇
1) Visible Benefit
① Make a potential failure mode be tangible, prevent a failure from happening.
② Reduce process changes.
③ Reduce complains from a subsequent or downstream assembly operation.
④ Reduce a man-hour and cost.
⑤ Make an operation effective, and improve a detection of defects.
⑥ Make plant maintenance prioritized and effective.
2) Tangible effect
① Hidden failures (defects) mode will become apparent and prior prevention will be
possible.
② Reduction of process changes
③ Reduction of next process claims
④ Man hour and cost reduction
⑤ Operation efficiency and defect detection enhancement
⑥ Focus and streamlining the Machine management

1. Procedure of FMEA 〇
3 1) [Step – 1]：Preparations
(1) Manufacturing production recognition ( Design Engineer has to attend along with
documents such as Design FMEA etc.)
(2) Apprehension of process (check by Process Flow Diagram etc.)
(Note) Also be warned about supplementary processes such as washing process,
transfer between processes, storage, parts supply etc.
(3) Determination of target process and analysis level (to be considered up to what
unit)
(4) Previous quality issues information of similar processes (Process name & failure
Mode)
(5) Participants：Prod. Engineering, Design, QA, Inspection, Production and (Vendors)

2) [Step-2]：Select the target Parts & Process

(1) Determine according to the following principles;
(2) Process where frequent machine problems or defective items produced.
(3) New process or process with no experience
(4) Process where quality defect relates to a serious problem.
Others, process by decision of design engineer
Refer the Concrete sample of procedure=>[Appendix 1:Selection of target parts/process]

3) [Step – 3]：Process Function Recording

Describe clearly and concisely. (This will be important information such as
consideration of Failure mode concept and importance will be important
information)

4) [Step – 4]： Description of Failure Modes

List all Failure modes expected to occur in process based on the process function,
processing points concepts etc. (Consider what causes the failures with the
presumption that failure always occur.)
[Examples of Failure Modes]
Mechanical System: Breakage, cracks, deformation, dropping-off, detachment, peel-off,
deterioration, discoloration, corrosion, abrasion, seizure, loosening, vibration and noise
etc.
Electrical System: Short Circuit, melting loss, opening, welding penetration,
disconnection, overheating etc.
Others: heat-up, degeneration, melting, freezing, dirt, bad odor, roughness, eccentricity,
assembly mistake, casting blow holes, washing liquid residual and dents etc.

57
 5) [Step – 5]：Description of Failure modes effects and evaluation priority level
1. Description of Failure Mode Effects
• When process defect occurs, simply express the mechanism that influences the function
and how it effects the assembly parts or the system (such as not in operation or noise etc.).
(Design Engineer) (consider it as the reaction from customer viewpoint)
• Example：Excessive Cylinder surface roughness ・・・Seal leakage due to Cup scratches,
fast wear & tear of axle bearing metal.
2. Priority evaluation of failure mode
• By utilizing "market quality claims of past similar products", "delivery defects, in-process
defects, information (process capacity)" as much as possible evaluate objectively by
comparison with "Evaluation Criteria" the 3 Evaluation items which are "importance",
"occurrence frequency", "detection level"
3. Comprehensive Evaluation of Failure Mode Priority
• RPN (Risk Priority Number : Risk factors & priority level ranking number)
＝ “S：Importance Rank” ＊ “O: Occurrence Frequency Rank” ＊ “D:
Detection Rank”

6) Description of Reason of Failure Mode

(1) Identify possible causes of failure modes (Occurrence mechanism prediction).
(Consider how failures can be avoided, eliminate all possible reasons of failure.）
Example: Such as Jig setting mistakes, locating mistakes, lack of cooling,
insufficient Chuck pressure etc

7) [Step – 7 ]：Description of countermeasures and their implementation procedure

(1) Determine the need of countermeasure by countermeasure need judgment criteria.
(2) For failure modes with priority reduction required will be,
① Occurrence frequency reduction,
② In sequence of improvement method detection, consider the countermeasures
perceptive and contents.
(Note): When factors are complicated then conduction FTA analysis separately is
effective.
(3) Try utmost to take countermeasures in terms of machinery, equipment, Jigs
improvement and furthermore feed back to design to consider production &
assembly standards etc., for preventive measures proceeding in advance. Avoid
depending on human conditions (Operation warnings etc.).

8) [Step – 8 ]： Description of other necessary items

(1) Clearly describe the responsible department (or in-charge), due date, measures
results etc., and curtail to ensure corrective action implementation.

9) [Step – 9 ] ：Implementation Results and Follow-up

(1) Verify by market information feedback, whether there was not any overlook of
failure mode or priority level evaluation was appropriate?

2. Implementation Timing
(1) Prior to process FMEA method & process planning, implement at the timing when
the results can be reflected in process method & process plan.
(The concept will be clear and implement it up to procurement of machinery)
(Note-1) From the initial stage of development, determine the target
(No. of cases) of process assurance ratio in terms of "design & equipment" and start
activities.
(Note-2) Strengthen the cooperation with design department and check the results of
FMEA for reference.

(2) Review all processes in accordance with the progress of process & method
specifically. (Final will be mass production)
58
3. Issues to implement FMEA and how to handle them
1) Consider to Implement
It is better to implement FMEA for every thing that constitutes the process yet it will
take long time. Therefore, priority will be given to implement it for the items ascertained
from past experience and safety items. It is necessary to exclude the items with less
impact.

2) Implementation of Countermeasures
As a result of consideration, the number of items which need countermeasures with
exceeding the prescribed score often increases but in such a case consider prioritizing
with higher marks to implement countermeasures first is very important. (Implement it
from the high Risk items)

Appendix 1 Selection of target parts & process

Make sure to implement FMEA for any of the following conditions;
(1) For Parts / Process grade class “A” or above ・・・ Table1 -1 Parts / Process Grades
Categories.Hence, safety related parts and critical quality characteristic parts has to be
more than “B”.
(Note-1) It could be skipped when assessed the possibility of similar defects as in
conventional process for parts manufacturing process.
(Note-2) Critical quality characteristic parts class "B", only it can be implemented to the
relevant process.
(2) By the results of design FMEA, if assessed that “It will effect the production process”
(3) For the process with the history of critical defect occurrences.
(Important Information・・・Recall, Improvement countermeasures, and other special
inspections such as pre-delivery inspection etc., has to be carried out.)
(4) For those processes when Quality Assurance department determines need of Process
FMEA. Others, also implement for the processes with low capacity etc., since past.

【Table 1-1: Parts grade】

(Final Judgement) Out of each grade of “parts”, “usage conditions”, “usage results”,
“method”, highest grade will be final judgement grade

*1: Design department will decide

59
Appendix 2 Worksheet Preparation Procedures
1) Evaluation
① Operation Points & Contents Extraction ・・・List up all the operation points and
details.
② Find out the Failure Mode ・・・ Write down possible failure modes for each work
contents.
③ Evaluation・・・Evaluate “priority” “occurrence frequency” and “Detection Level”
on the basis of each evaluation standards.
・Priority・・・Table 2-2, Priority Evaluation Standards
・Occurrence Frequency・・・Table 2– 3, Occurrence Frequency Standards
・Detection Level・・・Table2 – 4, Detection Level Evaluation Standards
④ RPN Calculation・・・Calculate RPN (Risk Priority Number).
(RPN = Priority Rank X Occurrence Frequency Rank X Detection Level Rank)

2) Countermeasure Study ・ ・ ・ Consider countermeasure in sequence of “Structure

measures”, “Machine measures”, “Method measures”.
⑤ Structure study ・・・Ensure the part design (such as no assembly mistake possible)
⑥ Machine Response・・・consider including POKAYOKE.
⑦ Method ・・・Clearly define the rules and ensure practical operation.
⑧ Inspection ・・・If countermeasure in terms of “Structure, Machine & method”,
strengthen the inspection.

3) Conduct Re-Inspection
⑨ Re-assessment (Occurrence Frequency & detection level) ・・・Incorporate the
counter measures and review "occurrence frequency" and "detection level".
⑩ Re-calculate RPN・・・ Re-calculate RPN
(consider countermeasure till RPN 100 achieved)

5. Countermeasure Need Assessment Standards & Procedure

• Implement countermeasure for those cases whose RPN exceeds 100.
• If RPN do not exceed 100 and individual evaluation points of “Priority”,
“occurrence frequency” are high from 9 to 10 then consider taking countermeasure.
(Note-1) Countermeasure priority sequence will be
①occurrence frequency reduction, ②detection level enhancement.
(Note-2) As for countermeasure method, avoid man conditions,
①Consider Design, ②Machine handling, ③Managing by Method, and
④ Inspection.

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【Table 2-1．FMEA evaluation sheet】

[Work Sheet making procedure]

eavluation_work_she
et.pptx

【Table 2-2．Priority (S) Evaluation Standards】

61
【Table 2-3．Occurrence Frequency (O) Evaluation Standards】

62
【Table 2-4．Detection Level (D) Evaluation Standards】

＊ A: Inspection by POKAYOKE, automatic measuring device, etc. (Fool Proofed)

B：Inspection with gauge by man (Gauging)
C: Reading & visual inspection by man (Manual Inspection)

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⑥ Enhancement Team power, horizontal development, skill hand down
No Contents A B C
Principle: Top management and the kaizen implementation team members should work 〇
together to develop the entire factory team.
(1) During PT activities, even if the Kaizen guidance was given to the Team, that was
not communicated to Top management, and the Improvement effort was stopped.
Top management should always keep track of the activities of Kaizen
implementation Team and take necessary measures.
(2) Immediately expand the contents of JICA Expert teaching/coaching in the factory.
The teaching/coaching contents of the day, sharing of root causes, and
countermeasures in future, etc. Every morning, or weekly according to the power of
the factory, Top management to put all the related parties and holding a morning
meeting regarding the issues/task.
(3) Make it a practice to record at every teaching/coaching meeting, to all members of
Kaizen Implementation Team. Without recording of the issues/task, there is no
improvement.
(4) Top management teaches/coaches OWNERSHIP concept to all Kaizen
implementation Team members at the above-stated morning session. It is essential
for Kaizen implementation that “this factory is my own factory”. At the same time,
it is also the determined feeling and passion that Top management would really
embody the improvement or resolve the issues/task in the factory.
Horizontal Development:
Horizontal Development is one of the important processes of the Innovation. The word
is from the “Toyota Way of the Manufacturing Method” and it is to develop and succeed
Kaizen Implementation cases in one process done into another process, and further spread
it into the entire factory, and innovate the whole company.
For example, by transmitting the contents decided in one department to an organization
that is not in the direct command system, such as the next (neighbor) in the horizontal
direction and sharing the facts, methods and resolution, it is one of the ways of thinking
as in-house knowledge and know-how fostered. Usually, since the organization has a
pyramid structure from the Top management level to the bottom, and if the organization
has firm corporate governance, such information can be transmitted laterally through the
official route, however there is no horizontal flow of work achievements as
information/instruction command system. The concept of this horizontal development is
one of the mechanism by which organizations, departments, factories, etc., in a parallel
relationship cooperate with one another. It can be said that it is a way of thinking and
system.

(1) Examples of teaching/coaching:

① Horizontal development on parameter control of CO2 Arc Welding

Optimal condition by trial and error method of welding parameters (voltage/current

value, CO2 gas flow rate, welding wire supply speed, torch angle, torch feed speed,
tip interval length etc.)of the welding machine which show problems with CO2 Arc
welding quality set.

② For the other CO2 arc-welding, set the optimum condition by the same method as
above by horizontal development. At this time, it is easy to find the optimum
condition here by using the above result (the above optimum parameters) as a
bench mark and using that parameters before and after it.

64
(2) Cover Clutch for 2 wheelers(4 ~ 6 cavity)- aluminum casting defects on cavities：

① Major defects are blow holes, flow lines, causes are over flow position shape,
number of gates and shape.
② As blow holes are often solved by improving the overflow position and the shape
of the cavity, adjust the overflow position and shape so that the blow hole
generation location goes to the overflow portion from the flow of aluminum.
③ As long as there are 2 gates in each cavity ,the flow line will not disappear. Crush
one.
④ The parameter conditions that have been successfully improved by the above
measures can be expanded horizontally and applied to the shape setting of the
similar aluminum casting cavity issues.

(3) KPI monitoring（QA monitoring） ：

① JICA project has implemented KPI improvement activities by setting KPI targets
based on the strategic management method”Balance Scorecard”for each of 5
perspectives:financial,customer satisfaction,factory management,production and
others.
② Furthermore, for model case suppliers selected by JICA Experts, 3 target parts have
been selected for each supplier,and KPI monitoring has been carried out with
regard to the most critical quality issue in the factory operation.
③ Implement the above quality monitoring in addition to the model case suppliers and
expand Parts QA monitoring to be implemented by horizontal development to aim
for Quality improvement across the whole company.
④ When carrying out the above KPI monitoring, do analyzing the issue and find the
counter-measures by doing Observation / Activity / Result, keeping recording
regularly for future use.

Skills Hand-down activities:

Know-how and technical skills acquired in teaching/coaching session with JICA Experts
cannot be developed as only individual posession, in order to develop a company, it is
necessary to convey this know-how and skills to the same department and to other
departments in the above horizontal development way. As a result, each individual will
be able to be enhanced through the development of the company. Furthermore, in order
to further develop a company in future, not only the horizontal development, but also the
vertical development, ie, to the young and junior staff in the company and members who
will become management candidates in future could be done same. If those know-how
and skills can be transmitted, it could be further improve and develop in the future as a
benchmark. Skills Hand–down activities are the action to convey the know-how and
skills as stated above to the juniors properly, including the horizontal development.
Concretely, it includes Kaizen improvement Board, posting of Kaizen graphs or materials,
training rooms (Dojyo or QCC), monitoring activities, and holding of a skill competition
etc. It is important to enhance Human Resources who could transmit the existing know-
how and technical skills held in the Company for long time.

65
 WAY of thinking in the teaching/coaching of this Project:

① Way of Skills hand-down

Skills Hand-down activities practice the basic concept of Japanese Way of
Manufacturing, of which essence is the enhancement of Human resources.

Support system members Parts suppliers

・ Hand-down plan （＊１） ・ change of in-house

・ Teaching on-site environment(promotion of
・ exchange activities visualization)
w/Model case suppliers ・ promotion of in-house publication &
・ Manual making on skills documentation
・ establishing in-house training
system(including .OJT）
・ Set up of Dojyo （＊２）
・ holding Skills competition inside and
outside the company

Inheritance of high-quality, high-performance manufacturing by transmitting

skills required

（ ＊ １ ） ＝ transferee, successor, transfer skills, skills, target level, teaching

materials, schedule, location setting
（ ＊ ２ ） ＝ improve the perfection degree in 6 stages: ”I know” ”Can” ”Can
understand the principle”, ”Can be good” ”Able to apply”, ”Can create”.

66
 ② Manufacturing is Enhancement of Human resources

MP days: Human beings are regarded as negative factors and replaced with
machines as much as possible.

Various/small quantity days: Make full use of Human ability, reduce cost, give
top priority to Quality.

Enhancing HR with high ability and leadership is essential,

furthermore, these are continued by improvement of know-how
and skills, and its correct transmission

Teaching/coaching of skills required and transmission at the Skill

teaching Dojyo (In Japan, most of the companies introduced 2000
onwards)

Skill training, developing for further

creative level and enhancement of HR

Concrete Tools:
(1) Kaizen Board

0202...KAIZEN
ACTIVITY BOARD

(2) Posting Kaizen graphs/materials

(3) Training room (Dojyo set-up)
(4) QC Circle activities
(5) Monitoring activities
(6) Various in-house training session
(7) Skills Competitions

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 5.7 Corporate Power
① Confirmation of VISION, MISSION, QUALITY POLICY
No Contents A B C
Confirmation of Corporate Power: 〇

JICA Auto-Parts Technology Transfer Project started with the selection of the Target
suppliers from member companies of the PAAPAM. Then, first of all, OEM and PAAPAM
recommended the candidate suppliers (auto-parts manufacturing companies), while
SMEDA and JICA experts evaluated and selected the final suppliers based on the
documents review per the standard of the supplier selection criteria, following the site
audit by all JICA Experts, including the interview with TOP management with the
confirmation of the current situation of the production line. Out of approximately 350
member suppliers of PAAPAM, Team selected 52 suppliers which require JICA Experts’
teaching/coaching support.
The selection criteria includes VISION,MISSION and QUALITY POLICY which
assure the Corporate Power and its potential development probability, Team advised the
all suppliers which do not have such basic rules to set up those 3 basic rules as soon as
possible.
These 3 guidelines are basic rules to confirm the present and future Corporate Power.
After the end of the project, SMEDA/PAAPAM team should start by confirming these 3
guidelines for the suppliers as they continue to select new Target suppliers.
VISION and MISSION:
Management guidelines are required to maintain and develop the company. Without
those guidelines, the company cannot analyse based on what they are doing now, endeavor
to make it a little better, and having hope to in the future. Whether top-down activities,
bottom-up activities, the company management or employees cannot make decisions on
what to do, No each in-house department or its employees cannot move forward or not at
all.
Therefore, it is necessary to firstly and clearly show in the entire company as a
MISSION aimed at the continuous improvement for the current situation. On that basis, it
is also important to set as VISION (future image) by what you want to become in the
future based on this MISSION.
Confirmation of VISION:
For the company, VISION has the following 2 meanings. When evaluating the
company, it is important to firstly confirm whether the future image based on the above is
properly set and sufficiently infiltrated in the company.

1) From the perspective of the customer (society): What kind of result has it brought
to the future that has accumulated the present?
2) From the perspective of the strategy of the company: The future image of the
company that should be. VISION means what we want to do in the future of the
company. VISION means what we want to in the future of the company. By
defining that the company is an organization to realize such a future. Stakeholders
(customer, employee, stockholder etc.) can understand the company policy.

Example of VISION 1 (ANA Holding Japan):

ANA Group aims to be the world’s leading airline group with the customer satisfaction
and the value creation.
Confirmation of MISSION：
It is easy for the company to understand MISSION in 2 aspects. Then as described in 2
above, it is necessary to set the MISSION from the following viewpoint before setting the
VISION, and to confirm whether it is notified and understood throughout the company as
well as VISION.
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 1) Customer(Social)Perspective:
What is the significance of our Presence for Customers?
For example, what kind of the significance does the presence of the Factory,
service and the company mean to the customer?
2) Company perspective:
What value is it for us to offer? For example, how do you offer marketing and
what products?
Above 1.and 2.basically it should be same contents, only with the different
viewpoints.
With the MISSION being articulated, all the people involved can be united for
the end.

Example of MISSION（Mitsubishi Motors Japan）

1) Provide new experiences for our customers with creative products and service
excellence.
2) Make positive contributions to the sustainable development of our society.
3) Act sincerely as a trusted company.
4) Enhance stakeholder value by leveraging the Alliance.
QUALITY POLICY:
Needless to say, Quality first is the most important policy of the Manufacturing
Industries. Each company should set it as QUALITY POLICY with the contents
appropriate to its current situation and the future image.
By setting QUALITY POLICY together with the VISION and the MISSION setting
described above, the ideal form of manufacturing industry should became clearer.
Confirmation of QUALITY POLICY:
When carrying out the Supplier Evaluation and Selection,it is necessary to confirm the
contents of QUALITY POLICY including the evaluation whether it is suitable for each
supplier.

QUALITY POLICY of Toyota Japan case(Initiative to improve Quality):

Toyota sees quality as the combination of product quality, sales and service quality, and
the quality of work performed by each employee that serves as the foundation supporting
the other aspects of quality.
We also believe that products and services that gain the confidence of customers can be
created only when each employee, who engages in every process from development,
purchasing, production, and sales to after-sales service activities, builds in quality and
implements the quality assurance cycle.
The origins of quality lie in the spirit of audit and improvement, and Toyota’s
unchanging MONOZUKURI (manufacturing) pursues ever higher quality through
continuous improvement based on repeated implementation of PDCA cycle.

69
② Corporate culture and HR management
No Contents A B C
1 Corporate culture and HR management: 〇

Project has 2 major goals; (1) Quality and productivity improvement activities are
spread to Auto-Parts suppliers and SMEs in other sectors; (2) Competitiveness of auto-
parts suppliers is strengthened.

While SMEDA/JICA team have carried out required teaching/coaching to 52 Target

Suppliers in 4 year PT period, team has acknowledged the HR management issues as their
main problem. The following is just for their reference to tackle the issues and also for the
Support System team (SMEDA/PAAPAM and local Consultants) for their continuing
teaching /coaching to other suppliers and ones in other sectors.

First of all, all parties (suppliers and SMEDA/PAAPAM and Local consultants) should
understand the basic rule.
We need “Treasures people” as the basic Corporate culture.
This concept is the basic tool in Japanese manufacturing sectors which show their
successful HR management after the World War II. During SMEDA/JICA Team’s
teaching/coaching to the Target Suppliers, HR issue has emerged the critical issues which
most of the Target suppliers has been suffering.
―Team like to share how far TOP management of each supplier understood and
clarified this issue of HR management to lead their factories in a successful manner.

(A) Customer First policy:

This is Top management’s responsibility to assure that factory is completely ready to

start manufacturing the parts in good quality and designated delivery time per the
requirements of OEM drawing and their order.
From SMEDA/JICA Team observation on kaizen activity effects done by each supplier
during 4 year PT period the team found its difference on Quality and productivity
improvement implementation through and by means of Top management’s
learning/activities/back to the JET teaching basic during 4 year project activities.
Out of 52 suppliers who joined SMEDA/JICA Auto-parts project, Team are enforced to
select only 17 suppliers as Model case suppliers in the project.

(1) Team requests each Top management of the target suppliers in the following
manner;
As management of the factory, how many Supervisors are assigned and located
in each manufacturing shop, especially the critical and top prioritized shop area
for the factory operation to satisfy OEM requirements?

(2) During the regular Circuit teaching/coaching done by SMEDA/JICA team, the
Team has reviewed the factory on-site operation by individual work-field Experts
and indirect shops for whole factory management area by whole management
area Experts in the day, submitting teaching/coaching materials made by
SMEDA.JICA Team to the Target Suppliers by the following day.

(3) Upon receipt of the teaching/coaching materials from SMEDA/JICA Team, each
Supervisor are required to understand what JICA Experts taught/coached on-site
in the target area which requires kaizen implementation-100%.If not understood
to a satisfactory degree, please do not hesitate to listen to the Experts in charge
till you understood 100%.

70
 (4) Taking a variety of operation improvement occasion in the factory such as
Managers meeting or QCC (Quality Circle), please be requested to share what
you obtained from SMEDA/JICA Team-not only successful case of Kaizen
implementation action but even failed case which will help your future
implementation of kaizen in the similar case.

(5) To assure Kaizen effects into your factory operation, please make it a rule to
standardize and make your operation manual in the target shop based on SMEDA
/JICA Team instruction.

2 What is the Human Resources required to assure a good factory operation? 〇

Purpose: Technical transfer Japanese manufacturing method into Pakistani factories;

A: Understanding rule and principles of the manufacturing is good enough?

Please be shared that

At the skills Olympic held in March 2019,participants performed well for the given task,
but according to the observation by the organizers of the Event, they cleared the task only
by trial and error, and shows the lack of standpoint of the rule and principle required at the
normal operation in the factory.
Factory management should firmly recognize this point, and will arrange engineers
from the Faculty of Engineering at Pakistani Universities or industrial high school as the
supervisors of the target shops.
According to JICA Experts observation, the indirect departments of the factory has the
corresponding engineers, but there is no enough staffing on the level required for on-site
managers.

B: What is the responsibility of SUPERVISOR assigned in the target shop?

-Whether he understands the requirement contents and its Quality level requested by
OEM?
-Whether he understands the contents of the drawing and its Quality level and he could
assure the production system required?
-Whether he obtains the required knowledge/technical skills/experience?

C: Factory management should keep this in mind and foster/enhance Supervisors. In

order to do this, make the required education (in-house OJT, external training seminars,
other educational training such as JICA program etc.) and invest in education occasion to
enhance the Pakistani manufacturing HR.

C: The factory’s Supervisor is the key-person in the Kaizen implementation in the factory.
He(She) is required to plat an active role as a guardian of an optimal factory
production system, such as thorough In-House Standards operation rules, thorough
implementation of Standard operation flows and keep necessary parts and stock of
inventory (Hyoujun Temochi).

In order to do so, they are required to play an active part as the core person of the factory.
It includes creating rules of the Standard work for each Target Shop area, most
optimal practice, review of their implementation, behavior management of workers
placed, guidance if necessary and so on.

71
3 C: Measures in HR management; 〇

Most of the issues/task required from the suppliers are Retension and Absentee issues.
As JICA Expert show some cause /effect cases from his HR management experience in
Japan, USA and India, there are measure ideas showed in the attached materials.

(Retension)
① Goal-setting
② Higher goal setting for management candidate
③ Big brother concept

(Absenteeism)
① Stable scheduling
② Planned leave schedule

⇒Please read the attached material “HR Management” and teach/coach the following
contents of the guidance based on each factory situation.

Lastly, requirements for Top Management in the factory; 〇

A:To penetrate Customer First policy in the factory;

As top management, please be required to assure that your factory’s production system
is per OEM requirements,
The required 4M (machine, materials, method, and HR (Man)) is ready per the
Requirements of OEM?
Your employee is not saying that we to purchase materials from the market, though not
even per the Drawing requirements of OEM?

B: HR Enhancement of the factory;

As top management, please be requested to assure that your factory has good number
of SUPERVISORS who can keep good quality production line but also assure the oprimal
production system based on OEM requirements at all times.

C: Please penetrate Treasures people concept in the factory;

As top management, please review OWNERSHIP concept is being penetrated enough
in your factory?
Your investment in HR enhancement enough?
Your employee responsibility is good enough? (Do you understand that all of your
employees are working in a healthy and good environment?)

⇒Please review the attached “HR Management” material for the betterment of your
factory operation.

HR policy
PolicyＡ.pptx

72
 ③ Future Concept
No Contents A B C
Future concept 〇
The future concept is a summary of how you want the company to be in the future at
the present time, when you decide the future plan. The word that specifies the slogan in a
single word is called VISION (future image) here and although the explanation and
confirmation of the VISION have been described in the above ①VISION, an example of
the formulation procedure in the case of formulating specific contents of the future concept
in the item list form will be shown below.

1. Create the new management philosophy

Management philosophy is the basic purpose of management. This management
philosophy is the following.

(1) Increase employee income and management for happiness including future
family
(2) Management that gives customers pleasure, trouble solution, and excitement.

2. Create a marketing plan for Growth

With the current product service as the core, what product service will be developed in
the next five years, and consider to what customers and how will it be sold.

3. Create a target sales profit plan

Plan the structure of sales to what kind of customers, what kind of product, how many
and how much profit business will make.

4. Create an organizational chart of business and personnel

To achieve the target sales plan in 5 years, the single person should not operate the same
job for a long period of time. New business will occur and the number of employees also
increase. Plan the corresponding step-by-step organization.

5. Create a profit sharing system and a profit use plan

Profit sharing is to decide how to distribute the results (profits) of each half year to the
employees. The employee's motivation cannot be expected unless the employee's
remuneration is divided into fixed remuneration and performance remuneration.

6. Create a facility plan

Try to improve your company by increasing the facilities for production, cleaning the
office regularly, improving the work environment. Do not forget to create an investment
recovery plan.

7. Create a system which employees can expect

Most of the Small and medium-sized enterprises does not have their rules, regulations
and mechanisms. Therefore, it is important for the company to incorporate the contents
such as, what is the reason of your salary and how it will change? Is there a bonus? How
will you be evaluated when you achieve good results? What happens if you get sick?
To its management and make the employee understand and foster a sense of unity
between employee and management in an effort to maintain and improve together with
the employees.

8. Create a relationship plan with the customer

Create relationship plan with your current customers and their response plans, as well
as development plans for new customers.

73
 9. Create relationship plans with business partners and industry
Create a plan of the relationship with current business partners, new business partners,
and the industry groups which the company belong.

10. Plan for service contribution to the corporate community

Formulate policies on dealing with surrounding communities as a company to improve
relationships.
With the dream and hope of top management as possible after 5 years.
Create a vision for the 10 contents mentioned above with the dream and hope of top
management in 5 years if possible.
No matter the past, even if the company is facing the difficulties now, it is the top
management`s responsibility to figure out the future.
It is important to portray the possibility which is embraced by dreams and hope in the
future by your own hands. The road of thanks and fulfilling days. This road continues to
happiness and success.
The future is the possibility. The way to success is to live in the possibilities of the
future. Walk straight forward and stay on the path which you have decided. Make sure to
be definite and wise.

5 years plan
The ①Future concept mentioned above shows the development procedure as a goal of
the company within five years. This five years is a period that is often used as a maximum
investment recovery period when manufacturing companies plan to invest in facilities in
the future. Therefore, it is important to formulate a concrete business plan for the next five
years = five years.

Below is an example of the 5-years plan development procedure. As each target subject,
you should consider based on the 1～10 contents mentioned at ①Future concept above.

1. Goal setting after one year

In the current situation of the company, set the realistic goals that can be achieved with
effort.

2. Goal setting after five years

Set the goals that you want to reach in five years to actualize the future vision.

3. Goal setting after 2~4 years

Align the realistic one-year goals with the five-year goals created based on the future
vision, establish a path to an ideal image, and set the goals for each year.
Aim to reach in
5 years to Dream
realize your
dream

Goal
If you align
within
two goals, you
five
will see a path
years
Goals that you
can achieve by
an effort

Goal
within
Align the realistic one-year
one goals with the five-year goals
year
and create a path to an ideal
image

(Reference：The Driving Force of Japan -Small and Medium Enterprises-)

74
 In order to promote the potential of Japanese small and medium enterprises to the world,
the program will focus on the companies' spirit, quality supported by technology, and the
corporate culture that is being passed down through generations. What are the
characteristics and the strength of those companies, which are said to be one of the driving
forces of Japan?
Measures to Improve Corporate Power and Technology
This manual is a summary of the contents so that teaching and transmission of
manufacturing can be effectively performed, based on the guidance to the automobile parts
manufacturing industry by JICA experts with the main objective of improving quality and
productivity.
In order to further improve corporate power and technology, it is necessary to conduct
activities beyond the content of this manual.
When a company request the consultation on further implementation of improvement,
it is effective to give advice on the possibility and measures for the company at each stage
based on the following contents.

1. Establishment and operation of manufacturing Dojo

The establishment and operation of the manufacturing Dojo has already been explained
and taught mostly to Model Case Suppliers. The Manufacturing Dojo is a developed form
of the Training Room, and its purpose is as follows.

1) To be used for various in-house meetings (Meeting Room function)

2) To be used as the place for in-house information exchange (Obeya Room
function)
3) To be used for In-house training sessions (Training & Practice Room function)
4) To be used as the place for various in-house experiments (Experiment Room
function)

Inside the Manufacturing Dojo, information which are directly linked to the
above mentioned purposes such as regular and daily KPI monitoring, education
and experiment dates (plans & results), quality, production, sales, service
information, safety and environmental information should be posted and used
effectively.
＊ An information management sheet for the Manufacturing Dojo for Model Case
Supplier and a flowchart showing the background of setting up the
manufacturing Dojo in Japan are attached.

MODEL CASE ものづくりは人づくり.p

Suppliers Step-up ptx

2. OJT Implementation
Through this project, OJT local consultant members were invited to attend circuit visit
to the suppliers every time, and they were asked by experts to understand the current
situation of each supplier, how to proceed the teaching/ coaching, and the instruction
content for each suppliers. Even for the members of the suppliers, it is important for them
to participate in the following two OJTs, and Promote awareness and knowledge of
employees and transfer of technology.

1) Provide a place for discussion of issues by management, current staff, staff who
might be in charge in future and related parties, and have them to participate and
understand the current situation and issues which they are facing.
2) Assign staff who might be in charge in future and members of related departments
as OJT for routine and daily work.
75
 3) As for the related discussion and the OJT assignment work, create and implement
rules for each related members to report the purpose, issues, details of the
activities, and results.

3. Hold and participate in skill and technology competitions, and conduct

reflection of the results
In this project, the First Skills Olympic was held in March 2019 with the support of the
Japanese OEMs in Pakistan, which was aimed to confirm the results of the circuit visit to
the target suppliers and to share the information related to this project. The Skills Olympic
will be held regularly by PAAPAM in the future and is expected to contribute to the
development of the manufacturing in Pakistan.
As mentioned above, there are various types of skill and technology competitions from
the top Skills Olympic to competitions in each company, however the purpose is to
confirm the result of improvement of daily skills and technology and to share the
information. By participating in these events and to consider your own results and aim for
further improvement, it will contribute to the improvement of corporate power and
technology.
The continuous activity is required.

4. Participation in external training

In addition to receiving practical training and OJT within a company, by receiving
training at an external organization, the staff can update their personal knowledge and
experience and by sharing the training results within the company, the corporate power
will be improved.
As for external training programs and exhibitions, it is important to grasp the
information of OEMs, PAAPAM, and other industries, and to plan how to correspond as a
company, and put it into a budget to be taken into business.
As the Japanese information, there are various trade fairs and exhibitions hosted by
JETRO in Pakistan, therefore it is important to keep an eye on JETRO HP.

5. Introduction of foreign technology, technical alliance

When producing and shipping products for OEMs, it may be conditional for the supplier
to conduct technical introduction and technology alliance with a designated vendor.
The reason might be because the OEMs have an adoption record in their home country
or third country, and the production of this product requires special know-how and patent.
The other reason is because there are important processes and control methods in securing
quality and it is to judge by the OEMS that production cannot be done excluding it.
In such a case, the supplier will first decide whether to conduct technical introduction
and technology alliance or not, based on the profitability and future plan
Also, even if there are no conditions from the OEMs, please consider the introduction
of the most appropriate technology for the supplier in anticipation of the improvement of
the supplier's skills and technology, the strengthening of the competitiveness and the future
business development.
In addition, as for the technical introduction and technology alliance, pay attention to
trends and acquisition of preferential treatment measures such as the development policy
of auto parts manufacturing industry in Pakistan, parts import regulations, parts
localization laws and regulations, introduction of external technology, etc.
The Japanese corporate information can be obtained for free from JETRO HP or
JETRO's business matching site TTPP, as mentioned above.

6. Introduction of foreign capital

One of the developed form of the item 5 mentioned above is the introduction of foreign
capital.
The form of introduction can be divided into direct investment and indirect investment
depending on whether it involves management participation or corporate control.
Even when introducing foreign capital, certain restrictions may be imposed by the laws
76
and treaties of Pakistan, Therefore it is necessary to grasp and respond to the latest
information from EDB etc.

1) Direct investment includes the establishment of subsidiaries / branches or joint

ventures, participatory acquisition of shares, transfer of technology, etc.
2) Indirect investment includes securities investment, foreign bonds, loans from
financial institutions (including loans)

7. Establishment of joint venture company

A typical example of direct investment in the manufacturing industry is the
establishment of a joint venture in Pakistan.
The targets are fields and products that require technical introduction in particular, and
their manufacturing suppliers are selected as the partner of joint venture. As an example,
there is a pattern in which the Pakistani side provides land and buildings and the foreign
capital side transfers production equipment and technology. With regard to the joint
venture ratio, it is often the case that each compensation is assessed with a lawyer, an
accountant, etc. to determine the ratio.
Even when establishing a joint venture, there are restrictions due to the laws and treaties
of Pakistan, therefore it is necessary to grasp the latest information from EDB etc. and
respond.
In the case of a joint venture with a Japanese company, it is also worthwhile to consult
with JETRO's Karachi office once.

77
 ④ Strategic Management Approach BSC
No Contents A B C
1 Strategic Management Approach 〇
In business management, it is almost shared with each company that various data
utilization is not indispensable for business management, and a large amount of data is
accumulated daily in the company. Nevertheless, there are surprisingly few cases in which
data is used in corporate management. The decisive factor is the lack or business strategy.
Although sales and profit performance targets are disclosed, it is rare that strategies to
achieve them are clearly stated in a company, therefore it cannot be said that the staff is
always properly performing activities in line with the business goals.

Hear, the term “Strategic Management Approach” is used to manage data in accordance
with business goals so that corporate activities can be carried out properly for the
development of a company and this approach can be achieved by concrete specification
of strategy at practical level, 1. Goal setting 2. Execution plan 3. Execution 4. Evaluate.
As the representative example, “BSC” will be explained below.
In addition, business strategy can be simply explained as to fight by taking advantage
of the strengths of the company.
2 Process outline of management strategy 〇
Before introducing the BSC, the process of general management strategy will be
mentioned below.
(1) Formulation of strategy
① Analyze and evaluate the external factor of the company or competitor
(capability, resources, etc.) .
② Set goals based on the above assessment. The goals can be long-term to short-
term depending on the level.
③ Develop a strategy by defining the necessary plans and tools to achieve those
goals.
(2) Strategy execution
① Allocate resources (such as funds) necessary to execute the strategy.
② Establish a command line (hierarchical structure) or some alternative structure
(e.g. project team).
③ Assign permissions and responsibilities to groups and members in the
organization.
④ Manage process execution. Allocate resources and change processes as
needed.
(3) Evaluation of strategy
① Assess the effectiveness (reasonability, feasibility, legitimacy, etc.) of the
strategy through KPI monitoring.
② If the strategy is not effective or changes in circumstances occur, change the
strategy as necessary.
3 What is BSC 〇
BSC = Balanced Scorecard is to set business goals by clarifying the vision (future
image) and strategic mission. However this goal does not only include the business
performance represented in financial figures, but also 4 perspective which define the key
success factor (KSF) for the realization of vision and mission. In addition, key goals
indicator (KGI) and key performance indicator (KPIs) is set in order to measure the degree
of achievement and the data which meet the business goals so that corporate activities can
be carried out properly. By grasping the progress of the strategy by KPI, it is possible to
evaluate the balanced performance.
It is a concrete activity for a company to confirm the evaluation result and to implement
an action plan for achieving the goal. It is also required to change and re-form a strategy
if necessary.
The 4 perspectives are “Financial Perspective”, “Customer Perspective”, “Internal
Business Process”, “Learning and Growth Perspective”
The outline of the management strategy by BSC is shown below.
78
 The outline history of this method is as follows.
＊ 1992 BSC methods was invented by 2 professors of Harvard Business School
as Business performance evaluation way
＊ 2001 Japanese corporations started to adopt this method as Comprehensive
Strategic Management way
＊ 2006 Harvard Business School revised the BSC method at the occasion of
Harvard Business Revue 30th Anniversary year in 2006 while most of
the companies in the world tend to follow this methods afterwards.

4 Outline of BSC`s process 〇

Above-stated strategic management approach on the 4 perspective is the main
characteristic of BSC and showed in the following manner.

5 SWOT analysis 〇
In order to achieve the goal, conduct self-analysis on company, departments and
individual in terms of 4 categories (Strength, weakness, opportunities and threats)
to decide optimal use of management resources in response to environmental
changes and setting strategic target items
79
 Based on the given SWOT, the goal
is set after judging whether the
goal is achieved.

However, do not forget the

fundamentally important goals
and high-priority goals.

6 Example of BSC 〇
(1) The following are the examples of the Strategic Goal such as Key Success Factor
(KSF), Key Goal Indicator (KGI) and Key Performance Indicator (KPI).

(2) An example of a personal evaluation introduced by Kaneki expert in a Chinese

company in 2011 is shown below.

BSC for Kaneki in

Chinese Corporation

80
 5.8 Factory Management

① 5S/5T Activities
NO Contents A B C
① 5S/5T 〇
For whole factory improvement by implementing 5S/5T tools
Under-said shows essence of target suppliers’ actual situation to improve.

Stamping/Press Area;
※ 5S/5T improvement is most difficult in Sheet Metal area, and occupancy ratio is
higher as compared to other areas therefore it becomes bottleneck in most of suppliers
JICA team visited.

Material Storage:
Since most of press machines are single Die type, therefore to store materials near the
press machines is good for work efficiency but it is difficult to implement 5S where small
sized press machines installed in a narrow space.
As a countermeasure for this is, production quantity and model which is described on
Delivery Instruction Slip coming from delivery date 3 days earlier and firm order 1 day
prior to production only store the required quantity of Sheet Metal material in a sequence
at a short distance and attach a Tag with Part Description, Part No., etc.
Moreover, also make arrangements for die change similarly. In case of minimum almost
20 to 30 cm2 carry out lot production with approx. Less than 2000 pcs as intended quantity
(it may vary company wise), will not cause any trouble to production efficiency and
storage place and common items lots will be consolidated.
IN→PROCESS→OUT of Press Machine
In principle, materials storage →Press Process→ Finished Goods (Parts)→Scrap（
punched drop scrap, left over scrap）→ Generally scrap.

How to Set in Order? :

Arrange the materials in order in the bins in order to easily count the quantity. Consider
better placing conditions in order to avoid time loss of re-counting.
Do not pile up scrap, the key point is don't place directly on the floor. It creates
additional work load (MUDA) wastage of time collecting again later and also quality gets
effected due to sticking of trash, causing MUDA to clean or wash later. It has to be stored
on some specific rack or simple trolley which can be prepared by simply fixing caster
wheels to plywood sheet. To use trolley or roller with casters, just attach casters with
plywood board, it must be easy job.
Fix a can or bin under the machine for dropping scrap and empty the bin periodically

4 casters wheels
fixed by screws

⇒dispose-off periodically.

81
 Oil spills in some press machines (i.e. draw parts), so clean up periodically including
the surrounding area. It has to be incorporated in Die maintenance schedule. If material
sliding is not smooth it becomes cracks and wrinkles origin (which can be eliminated by
maintenance)

It was observed at some places where single chute was provided instead of in process
bins or cages in order to eliminate space wastage. This is a way of Kaizen (improvement).
(Picture does not show the chute but some press machines arranged in a sequence line)

Press A Press B Press C

Press machines cannot be used for ever therefore, Die Base, Punch Die, Fly Wheel,
Axles and Belts has to be cleaned frequently.
Repaint where paint has been peeled-off because it is important to prevent from rust.
In Press and Sheet Metal area the most difficult is the material storage area. In fact,
there are many process such as, shearing, sorting and setting in order by width, length &
thickness after cutting by Slicer at a size of workpiece. In this area we observed some
issues such as "space cannot be utilized effectively when there is no defined storage place,
no specific production schedule therefore kept close for some reason, things are placed
even on the passage, etc." in many companies actually.
FIFO has to be implemented by clearly describing part number, part name, material,
storage date & duration as per the data of production control and over all quantity general
management.
Chipping scrap has to be transported separately by trash bins and has to be regularly
disposed-off by contractor and it has to be controlled by weight to avoid scrap loss.
Special steel, steel bands, aluminum, brass and copper plate are costly therefore, organize
separate place to store them.
To dispose-off this type of scrap, determine the specified contractor and make him
collect on a regular basis.
If possible to invest, then make a pit in the basement for scrap after press process, lift
up all the scrap outdoors with ramp conveyor from the pit and fill into fixed bins, it will
reduce manpower, maintain safety, prevent contamination of surroundings (if scrap is
scattered on the floor the plant looks dirty ⇒it makes bad impression in Japan, it is one
of the way of handling scrap as manufacturing factory)

82
 Practical example of Scrap handling-
basement pit
5S implementation

Underground Pit

Ramp conveyor

Scrap Bin
Picture example be done immediately,
however in the case of 500 ton, 1000ton
press machines produce a lot of scraps
therefore, consider as suggestion.

Key Points
1) No use of rusted materials in principle.
2) Rusted powder after press processing might be attached to die and punch.
3) Draw products might be cleaned by plating or pre-treatment, all attached materials of
dies affect quality degradation.
4) To avoid such defects, cover the transparent polythene sheet for rust prevention, add
apply oil, and use zinc steel plate subject to OEM approval.
5) To avoid unnecessary order and inventory.
6) Do not leave it in the air as much as possible → prevent it to get contact with
oxygen.

Key Point for Storage of Dies & Molds

While teaching/coaching to the Target suppliers in 1st Term, this point was one of the
difficult task which we could not get the solution easily. Die/molds storage place is
where the methods of storage is not easily decided.
First of all, consider how they should be stored. As JICA Experts, same lessons were
given to the suppliers repeatedly.
83
 1) Prepare necessary racks for storage. Most of suppliers prepared per our instruction,
while some not completed.
2) Store the currently-used die/molds which need for SOP near the press machine area.
Old type die/molds are to be stored separately. Fix the place for storage, attach a tag
with part shape, and covered with nylon bag for safety.
3) The best way to set up die/molds in line with the production instruction process, but it
might be better to spare 1 or 2 die/molds considering sudden production increase
from OEM.
4) Do not keep the bigger Dies/molds too high in order to reduce lifter work load of the
Die set-up, and set in order.
5) In case if finished goods require piecing, bending, drawing and trimming process, set
in order horizontally in process sequence. However, some case requires large
tonnage of press machine, it might be good idea to indicate where the required
die/molds for next process are stored on the array molds.

•
This picture is example of color coding, it is easy for
identification, and fix a chain for safety to prevent from
potential falling risk.

IMPORTANT:
Die/molds are company assets, so clarify whether the die/molds belong
to OEM or factory. Maintain an asset ledger book to record necessary
information such as purchase amount, specification of die/molds,
depreciation and improve to clearly display which die/mold is
currently in use, dispose-off if unnecessary ones. Maintain record and
keep on updating.

Welding Area
(Arc welding, MIG, MAG, TIG, Spot welding, Projection welding, Brazing, Acetylene
Gas)
It is exactly true that the welding shop is dirty, smelly, bad with air and it is difficult to
keep cleaning and cleanliness in a normal condition. But, In order to produce defect-free
parts, as principle of manufacturing, it is necessary to keep 5S rules.

84
Arc Welding
While placing work on the work table, the table is scattered with welded powder,
sludge, and sometimes the residual use end of the arc welding rod.
How to improve → To prevent arc sludge (splashing) from scattering as far as
possible, provide protective metal plate (protective wall) so as not to scatter, periodically
collect dust and place in specified place. Establish waste disposal site. In that case
prepare the can lid.
⇒ To prevent dust fires.
While one part feed is basic operation, possible badge production based on the size
and location of parts, however, to prevent scattering as much as possible.

To prevent from potential falling with chain, gas cylinders lying at the fixed place by
the wall, including CO2, acetylene, oxygen, argon including inert gas etc.
Welding machine- Voltage, ammeter breakage and wiring breakage, bare wires
as putting wires in U-shaped bending to outlets,
⇒It absolutely prohibited.
・Check of tangling for electric wire, gas tube etc.
・Inspection of insertion of plug socket and pulling out,
⇒If no crimp sense when you plug in, immediately replace or modify it.
Work clamp jig is not a welding practice board. So confirmation board to be provided
and check the arc weld condition, bead height, width and wave pitch. → End of the
fixture not to be bead heap.
Store the work standard/ procedure/ manual in a fixed place, so that anyone can
identify part name and number, prohibiting to put it cluttered.
(Be prepared to respond when OEM process audit) → To set in order.

TIG/MIG/MAG Welding
1) TIG
①Always clean up tungsten rod and holder chuck part, not prevent voltage drop
Probe, current checker is easy to check. (After guidance here, suppliers increased to
purchase it.)

②Control of diameter of tungsten rod

③Prepare shelves for the identical ones as φ 2, 3, 4, etc. and store them separately. In
doing so, keep them from moisture, putting in a nylon bag with drying material is
good.

④As workplace is likely to be dirty with arc dust, in → Process →

out operation to be conducted cyclically and move smoothly, before and after work
and minimizing the between process distance.

⑤To devise to prevent scattering. Install the shielding plate, considering ventilation

MIG/MAG Welding
①Like TIG, material coil wire on the jet side to be managed and storage control of the
fixing jig, Write the part number and part name to clarify.

85
 ②To clean weld control panel, pressure gauge, ammeter, surface indicator needle of
voltmeter to keep good condition.

③Check periodically whether piping of various cylinders are not tangled, the tube is
color-coded or rupture of the wire, leakage is not present.

④Since sputtering dust is always scattered, clean regularly.

⑤Collect dust as much as possible, and clean it, collect it in one place, set a can with
a lid,

⑥To keep outside the factory. → In that case, set up roof so that rainwater will not
affect. Specify dust collector. The dangerous thing is the critical point where
moisture in dust (even rare) cause small explosion. It is very dangerous.

⑦MIG, MAG welding manually, special machine welding that can move
automatically also show scattering of wire chip, preparing separate can and dispose
the used and collected ones

Surface Finishing, Polishing, Grinding

Grinders, Hand Grinder, Air Grinder (Leutor),Shearing (thin plate grinding whetstone)
It is a 3K workplace, tight, dirty, smelly, also dangerous → This is due to the metallic
powder which occurs at the finishing process, so if mistaken, it may cause fire hazard
and dust explosion.
One Japanese company is doing casting, shot, deburring of magnesium, but absolutely
avoiding dust scattering.
Dust collector and vacuum drawing pipe to collect all outside of the building, all into
the dust collecting tank where dare to small explosion reaction to protect a massive
explosion. → We add moisture to the dust-trapped Mg, causing chemical reaction.
The meaning to install the equipment outdoors the building is to prevent serious large
explosion inside the building. It is considered when designing the building.
In fact, harmony between zinc, aluminum and iron powder with moisture reaching→
ignition critical point will rarely occur under ambient drying conditions and humidity,
but in Japan with high humidity it occasionally happens.
Dry air here in Pakistan, there may be less outbreak. It would be too easy thought.
Factory management should understand that rainy season has such a danger.
Please refer Neighboring Reference: Indian Mg factory is similar to Japan.
They have Fire countermeasure device and for Dust collection →They have a small
explosion device.

Factory Actual Situation to Share

Rework site for deburr filing, Hand Grinder, Air Grinder (Leutor), Grinder, endless
manually work, sandpaper.
For larger machines, polishing disc, material cutting shear (vertical thin plate grinding
wheel disc).
Although site was visited, dust adhered to the soil floor, or the floor surface was
roughened, it is just dusty.
In Pakistan dirt, tiles and a variety of floors are not cleaned up.
86
 Tools attached with lining code of hand grinder are cluttered, and grinding whetstone,
spanner, wrench and hammer left in disorder.
It is very dangerous for walking workers, and it may cause crack for thin plate grinding
whetstone.
Surface finishing of 1 mm or less with grinding disc, this is also sparking constantly,
the spark ,falling dust as time passes. Please remember it cramped and hard to clean after
making laminated surfaces.
Air Grinder (Leutor), thin plate grindstone wheel disc, As with the above, when left
over tools are damaged and difficult to handle. Thin plate grinding wheel discs,
convenient to slice metal material, but once forced to apply the side, it may be a danger
of bursting, which will crumble in a moment. It is extremely dangerous. When a broken
chip enters the eyes it becomes a big disaster.
The most dangerous work to note, there are few protective covers on the rotating
machine.

Counter Measures
When surface polishing is carried out, still dust is generated, then it is hard to see.
At the time of cleaning, make brightly as possible, gather dust with a hand light. Dish in
a can with a lid.
Clean the adhered dust with a small brush, wipe it off with a waste cloth, and clean the
machine and the floor.
Air grinder (Leutor) and grinding stone are sintered bodies and are bonded with
binders, so when remaining amount is small ,it may crack and destruct, so leaving
surplus amount, (3 mm, 5 mm) and replace.
It is also 5S implementation to obtain instruction manual which varies per whetstone
type (rough, medium, finishing) of the sanding machine and grinding machine and keep
safety of employees.
87
 To keep in mind when filler with hand cloth ripping may insert your fingers while
using it Rubber glove and leather glove may be better than cotton gloves, but at least
stop bare hands.
Since the file is easily clogged, periodically insert chips, clean up by metal brushes
and return to the original storage properly. Sort by size and organize it in order so that
anyone can use them.

Slab polishing（risky to side use due to thinness）

Medium finishing (graphite included), super steel finishing (WC)

88
Safety Measure
1)Wear guard glasses
2)Apron
3)Safety shoes
4)Ear plug
5)Leather glove when hold works
6)dust mask

Dust bin Dust collector

FYI;
To decide which one your factory to select based on
the factory situation, making your policy how to
protect factory environment in prior.

89
②Visual control
NO Contents A B C
① As mentioned in ① of the 5S5T activities above, in Japanese-style manufacturing, to 〇
improve the 6 goals(Q,C,D,S,M,E) it is important to visualize (such as display of data) the
5S5T method and 3 Gen policy attempt, observation results, specific measures and its
results. This visualization is the Visual control.
Visual control is a control which that the normal stage and abnormal stage of the object
can be determined easily and the treatment for the abnormality is clear.
In other words, this is the mechanism which the object under control visually inform
the abnormality to the workers, and the treatment of the anomaly is promptly performed.
In other words, if it is not possible to determine something as abnormal by looking at it,
for example, in a graph where it is not possible to read why a change in situation is in KPI
monitoring, it cannot be said that this graph of visual control.
Here, it is important that not only by the person in charge at the work site but also by a
third person can notice the abnormality.
In addition, it is important that abnormality can be judged reflexively without thinking
about abnormality.
Furthermore, it is important that "the correct judgment" does not cause a workers to
make a wrong judgment.

② Human Error 〇
It is said that "people make mistakes and errors."
The three stages of human error are:

① Mistake of recognition and confirmation

(Errors that occur in the process until information from the five senses, such as
eyes, ears, nose, touch, etc., is recognized in the sensory center of the brain)

② Mistake in judgment and memory

(An error that occurs in the process of making a decision on the adaptive action
and issuing an action command from the motor center by judging the recognized
situation)

③ Mistake of operation
(Error in the process of movement of hands and feet by movement command from the
motor center, or an error caused by omission)
It is said that the most frequent mistake among these is ② Mistake in judgement and
memory.
Therefore, information that can be correctly judged by everyone instantly is the one
which uses color-coded display, lamp display, sign (icon) display, picture or manga
display, card display, graph display, etc. These information is so-called "image
information".
In other words, it is important to implement control that can be seen even if you don’t
want to see it, this is visual control.
The most representative case of visual control is traffic signs. The number of people
judging from traffic signs is numerous for children and adults.
Furthermore, it is necessary to make a momentary judgment from traffic accident
prevention. There are various indications drawn on the road, such as intersection signal,
no entry sign, one-way sign, no right turn sign, no parking sign, road construction sign. In
these signs, character information is written only to a supplementary level.

90
③ Purpose of Visual Control 〇
① Prevention of disasters, accidents, breakdowns, defects in quality by early detection
and treatment of abnormalities
② Prevention of disasters, accidents, breakdowns, defects in quality by prevention of
miss confirmation, miss judgment, miss operation, oblivion and easy mistakes.
③ Efficiency of every job.

④ Target of visual control and examples 〇

Although all control operations such as factory operation, production, purchasing, and
personnel management are covered, the following is an example in the case of a production
factory in particular.

91
 Control
Examples of Visual Control Purpose
Target
・Dangerous goods indication
・Organic solvent storage indication
・Fire extinguisher storage indication
Health and ・Safety indication Disaster
safety control ・Pointing and calling indication prevention
・Danger point indication
・Emergency exit indication
・Cleaning assignment map
・Cleaning tool shelf
・Pokayoke setting mark Prevent
Quality ・Defective product repair item box delivery defects
・Display of sudden change of quality
Control ・Measuring tool control board Process defect
・Quality control board prevention
Non-delivery
・Production ramp display per production progress time prevention
Production ・Production instruction Kanban
Control ・Step change instruction lamp Efficiency
・Shipping instruction Kanban improvement of
・Planned stop indication production
control
・Display of maximum and minimum stock
Inventory ・Location display Inventory
control ・Display of actual product photo Reduction
・In-process product fixed position indication
・Liquid contamination indication
・Refueling tank level indication
・Oil type label
・Inspection point mark
・Direction of rotation display Failure
・Pressure gauge display of normal and abnormal condition prevention
・Flow direction display
Equipment ・Valve open / close display Efficiency
Management ・Temperature display improvement of
・Air flow display cleaning
・Vibration display · Inspection window display refueling
・Filter clogging display inspection
・Bolt / nut type matching mark
・Inspection map
・Inspection menu card
・Inspection order indication
・Distribution of personnel on the day Efficient
・Multi-functional worker development map staffing
Site Control ・Hourly volume display
・Display of sudden change point of work skill up
Policy ・Policy control board Thorough
Control ・Activity board graph display policy control
・Equipment initial management activity board Vertical start up
Other ・Initial flow activity board
Controls ・Consumable tool and instrument purchase price display board Cost reduction
・5S diagnostic map awareness
・Filing display
Working
Indirect Work ・Destination display board efficiency
・Attachment of Working order card
・Circle activity board
Activation of ・Zero defection Nobori Activation of
activity ・Karakuri Kaizen Nobori activity
・Improvement point sticker

⑤ Teaching Cases in Pakistan Project 〇

(1) KAIZEN ACTIVITY BOARD
Among the above control targets, it is particularly important that information on plant
operation, key information to be managed, and data to be collectively displayed in the
plant and be widely shared from the management layer to the workers.
(Case example attached below)

92
 0202...KAIZEN 1200...KPI
ACTIVITY BOARD example with obs

(2) KPI Monitoring Sheet

In contrast to the conventional Japanese KPI monitoring sheet, this project specifically
describes the main points of Observation, Activity, Result for monthly data, and even if
workers other than the relevant department sees the data, they can understand the data
fluctuation situation in monitoring. (Example attached above)

93
③Formulation of system/method in the factory
NO Contents A B C
① Purpose; 〇
In-house organization to realize other items stated in this manual-it is continuous
implementation of Kaizen by factory workers themselves, and the ability to implement
endless kaizen efforts including above-stated purpose through Support System
(SMEDA/PAAPAM/ Local consultants), it is necessary to formulate a mechanism in the
factory and its sustainable management which are necessary for guiding quality and
productivity improvement in the future.

To; Support system members: SMEDA,PAAPAM engineers and Local Consultants：

Firstly, promote the in-house formulation of sustainability and Self-initiated Kaizen

methods, which have been taught/coached during the regular Circuit visits.

① Specifically, 6 JICA FORMATS which are the products of 2 year Circuit activities.
To share the contents of teaching/coaching materials (Minutes, teaching materials,
kaizen before/after records etc.) with all members in the factory at the occasion of
Managers Meeting, QCC (Quality Circle ).
② To proceed with Kaizen effects dissemination, be sure to use Kaizen Progress Sheets
(Before/After Kaizen, and picture records) to share the information not only with the
Kaizen implementation Team members but also with all the company members and
share the Kaizen issues/task so that all members are ready to take necessary action
when new issue coming next.
③ SUPERVISOR and the plant manager use SUMMARY SHEET which used in the
final/last Circuit visits, take up the issues/task for the factory on Critical/high priority
basis, using KPI monitoring method, and proceed the issues by analyzing ROOT
CAUSE and carrying out study, leading to solve the issues by the most suitable
Counter-measures. Implementation results must be recorded as internal property and
to be used for the next potential issues/task.
④ Based on the fact that maintenance of standards in the factory, and a sufficient
understanding of its contents have not been installed, the way of proceeding with
standard work should be rebuilt/formulated for each Target Shop and operation
(especially, the contents of Standard work), visualize the work flow, and thoroughly
confirm the provision of the standard hand-held (parts stock) required. As for the
contents of Standard work, SUPERVISOR for each target shop should incorporate
into the Operation manual the method of work by the best practice worker level in
the work-field. And make sure that OP manual is provided and updated in the fields
of work at all times. All shops in the factory should be prepared by such OP manual
finally.
Plant manager, together with SUPERVISOR, shall manage on a shop basis whether
the quality level requested by OEM is assured ,or whoever working, and the 100%
Quantity of the required parts is well planned to meet the delivery date.
⑤ As the plant manager’s instruction, confirm/assure that 4M system is in the range of
OEM requirements at all times, encourage the realization of OEM requirements,
always confirm with CEO whether required 4M factor have been assured in order to
thoroughly implement OEM First factory operations. As a specific example, it is
impossible for person –in-charge being absent leading no Circuit activities in vain.
Materials cannot be different from the Drawing specification. It is the CEO and the
Plant manager’s responsibility to ensure that the minimum REQUIREMENT from
OEM as a parts produce’s realization.

（SMEDA/PAAPAM: Support system management）

① In the regular Circuit activities, the following were realized as the issue/task of
Pakistani manufacturing/auto-parts sector.
94
 -Human resources who understand the rule and principles of the manufacturing are
not assigned as plant operation leader/SUPERVISOR. Therefore, there is no
guarantee/assurance that the contents of the guidance of JICA Experts will be
sustained as a factory property at the daily operation level or longer term, though
temporarily transferred.

② Therefore, SMEDA management is required to request the following to JICA PAK

Office.
A: From the supplier CEO, TOT (teaching on teacher/SUPERVISORS) is required for
the person who will be in charge of factory Standard operation assurance. TOP
management cannot teach to those level of factory staff due to lack of skill and on-
site experience.
B: It is necessary to upgrade and increase the number of staff in the auto-parts industry
in Pakistan, and from now onwards it will be essential to strengthen on-site guidance
at school or educational institutions as well as on-site teaching/coaching at all
factories.
C: It is essential to realize long-term technological transfer that will be beneficial for
Pakistan and the assurance to sustainability.

95
5.9 Individual Work Fields

Ⅰ Welding and Tools

① Gas Welding
NO CONTENTS A B C
① Melt welding Methods 〇
1)Gas shielded melt weld
① welding form
Butt welding, Fillet welding, Circumferential welding

2) Kinds of Gas Shielded Arc Welding

Metal electrode rod or wire is used as a filler metal, and there are 3 types depending
on the type of shield gas. It is better for welding efficiency and cost, and it is widely
used for mass production.
CO2 weld：CO2 100%
MIG weld：Ar98%，O2 2%
MAG weld：Ar70%, Co2 30%(mainly argon gas)
3) TIG weld (Tungsten Inert Gas welding):
Welding method in which the electrode is made of tungsten and the filler metal is
separately added or the base material itself is melted. Mainly use Ar for shield gas (This
is used for high precision welding). The defect is small and the appearance is clean,
hence the welding speed is slow.
4) Plasma Welding
When the arc passes through the hole of the water-cooled insert chip and is transferred
to the base material, the arc generated from the electrode is squeezed by the water-
cooled insert chip, and the plasma gas with high energy density is ejected from the insert
tip hole. The ejected plasma gas is further squeezed by the shield gas (thermal pinch)
and transferred to the base material.
① Since the thermal convergence is good, the bead width is narrow, high speed
welding is possible, welding distortion is small. (Welding of Forged Gear and Shaft
is common.)
② Arc directivity is high, therefore, it is suitable for fillet welding.
③ Spatter do not occur.
④ Since electrode consumption is small, high quality welding is possible for a long
time and it is suitable for automatic welding.
⑤ Low running cost. (The welding machine is more expensive than TIG welding
machine.)

96
5) Laser welding
Method of joining by local melting with laser light.
The device is composed of a laser oscillator, a condensing optical system, a driving
system, and a shielding gas system.
As the laser oscillator advances to higher power, CO 2 laser and YAG laser are used.
The laser oscillated by the oscillator is guided to the condensing optical system through
the optical path. In case of CO2 the laser will be transmitted by turning back by the
mirror. In case of YAG the laser will be transmitted by the optical fiber and will also
be transmitted by the mirror. The condensing optical system is constituted by a
parabolic surface mirror, a condensing lens, and converges transmitted light to an
appropriate size. Usually, shielding gas (Ar, He, N 2) is sprayed to the weld metal part
to prevent oxidation of the weld metal part.
① High-speed deep penetration welding is possible (part requiring strength)
② It is used for precision welding because welding heat influence and
welding deformation is extremely small

Welding Standard Parameters and Setting, Confirmation Method

(CO2, MIG, MAG)
(1) Basic setting
① Setting around the torch

97
 Because of gas shield effect
Although Lt ≧ Ln (Nozzle height) is desirable,
Lt = Ln - 1 to 2 mm is often taken into account in
consideration of the tip point maintenance.

Lt: Tip height (Tip to Work)

Image of Lt and penetration

a) Overhang length (mm)

Wire diameter 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.6
(mm)
Overhang 12-14 13-16 16-20
length (mm)

Welding current 150 <250 >250

(A)
Overhang 12-16 14-18 16-20
Length(mm)

b) Gas flow rate

Welding Nozzle diameter（mm） Gas flow(L/Min) Wire diameter(mm)
current (A)
130 14 15 0.8-0.9
200 17 18 1.0-1.2
250 20 21 1.2-1.6
(Indication：Nozzle length≒Gas flow)

(2)Influence of welding conditions

・Torch reverse welding Welding speed fast slow
・Bead width is narrow, surplus becomes Bead width small large
high Penetration shallow deep
・Deep penetration. Bubbles tend to be Sputtering many few
98
 generated
・Nozzle height (high) Nozzle height (low)
・Shielding effect diminish and blowhole Sputter clogging
occurs Long time welding failure due to
overheating
・High chip height Wire diameter Small (thin) Large (thick)
・Current is decreased causing lack of Sputtering small quantity
penetration, Arc small (unstable)
・Bead unbalance occurred Deep penetration shallow
Shield gas Welding current small Large
Less spattering and blowholes occur Penetration shallow deep
CO2, Argon deep penetration Small spatter particles small Large
Arc length Short Long Fat on the surface of base metal
Bead narrow wide If it is lot, it causes blow hole
Surplus high low
Penetration shallow Deep

(3) Standard parameters for gas welding

（Fillet Welding）

Thickness Length Wire Dia. Weld Amperes ARC Voltage Weld Speed CO2 Flow Rate

99
Thickness Length Wire Dia. Weld Amperes ARC Voltage Weld Speed CO2 Flow Rate

（Horizontal Fillet welding）

Thickness Route gap Wire Dia. Weld Amp. ARC Voltage Weld Speed CO2 Flow Rate No. of
Layers

Fr. 1
Rr. 1

Fr. 1
Rr. 1

(4) V shape, X shape groove parameters example

100
(5) Overlapped fillet welding parameters Example
Target
Position

Thickness Wire Dia. Weld Amp. ARC Voltage Weld Speed Target Position CO2 Flow Rate

A or B

(6) Welding Parameter Control

1) The following parameters are controlled in three stages of start current, main welding,
and crater treatment.
Examples of timing charts are shown below. (1 case of crater treatment)

ON
OFF
Torch switch
Free flow Anti-stick time
No-load Voltage
Gas flow
After flow

Voltage Slow down feed

Wire feed Welding Current

Start Current
Crater Current

Current (A)
Welding
Arc Start Crater
① At the start of welding
At the start, there is a short-circuit transition region and it is necessary to lower the
welding current (Start Current). If welding current is added suddenly without doing
this, it causes melt down.
With the latest welding machines, the above sequence is built in and Can adjust time
and amount each time.
② Crater treatment
Crater filler is generated at the welding end part, which may affect the welding
strength, cracks, and become defects, so crater treatment is performed to prevent
this.

Crater
Bead

(7) Welding direction and torch position

①Welding direction

101
 Direct welding
Direction Width of surplus penetratio sputter
bead n
Advance Wide Low Shallow Lot Torch angle within 10 °
Recession Narrow High Deep Few (This is the reason for
pin hole)

Feed direction Feed direction

② Circumferential Welding
Depending on the direction of rotation and the position of torch whether the arc
is generated in the molten pool or between it and the base metal, the direction of
sputter generation, the frequency of welding of sputter, penetration depth, bead
width, and surplus height may change.
For plate thickness of usually 3 mm or less, weld around 2 o'clock in the figure.
When the torch angle is in the direction of 2 to 3 o'clock, there is little surplus
without melting down.
Although it becomes a bead with a good appearance, the molten metal falls into a
granular shape during welding, which adheres at the end portion and becomes
excessively large.
For high current welding exceeding 3 mm, weld in 2 o'clock to 1 o'clock direction.

11 O’clock 12 O’clock 1 O’clock 2 O’clock 3 O’clock

③ Aim of the Torch

It tends to melt down if the aim is bad. This is because the heat input of the arc
concentrates on the base material on one side in the thin plate, it is locally heated
and melted down.
This is particularly noticeable in CO2. Since MIG / MAG has good wettability,
the weld metal is a bridging effect (Gate) on both sides of the base material and the
heat input of the arc equally enters the metal on the left and right sides of the joint,
therefore the melting down is small compared to one in CO2 case.

(8) Torch angle and Bead form

① During fillet welding

102
 Poor angles causes welding defects such as sputtering, undercutting, and fusion
failure. Even with horizontal mixed fillet welding with mixed gas, it is possible to
easily form beads of equal length. The wire aiming position and torch angle in
horizontal fillet welding are shown in the figure.

Transition in
Transition in
spray arc >250A
short Arc <250A

Under Cut
Spatter

Spatter

Under position aiming Upper position aiming Appropriate aiming

(9) Mass-production case

Example of circumferential welding with back metal with a thickness of 5 mm

90°+2°
-0
0.6
20

Zero touch
ｾﾞﾛﾀｯﾁ

(10) Welding quality check

F Fusion welding is often used for critical parts around the chassis (Suspension arm,
Propeller shaft, axle housing, etc.), and reliable quality assurance and reliability are
required. An example of quality standards and inspection confirmation for this is shown
below.
① Section macro
Periodically conduct destructive testing of welded parts, macro check cross
section.
(Welding macro check with 18% nitric acid by picric acid)
1. Provisions based on inspection standards (example)

103
 9.0 >

0 > and 6 <

1.2 >
1.2 >

2. Actual Confirmation (example)

3. Inspection standard (example) item Coverng & Cov

a) Welding parameter (example) seald type Ar＋ CO2 ←
gas Q 20 l/m ←
b) Inspection standard dia 1.2 mm ←
wire mark MG-51T ←
DS1A ←
Amp 300 280
Volt 30 30
Speed 53sec 53sec
time － －
clearance － －

104
c) Treatment procedure, Tool change

105
②Resistance welding +Aluminum welding
No Contents A B C
Resistance welding ○
(1) Heat resistance：Heat generation is a direct relationship among electric current,
resistance and current time

Galvanized Copper Plate

Q=I 2 RT [J]
Q: Calorific/Heating Power [J]
Nugget I: Current [A]
Corona Bond
width R: electrical resistance [Ω]
compression T: Current time [Sec]
V: Voltage [V]

Variation of resistance welding ○

(1) lap welding
1) Embossing type（Spot welding）
Using sheet metal（outer panel of vehicle）

(2)Solid projection (Projection welding）

General using for welding nut

(3)Seam welding：can be continuous weld line. Using for fuel tank ,wheel rim for 2-wheel
vehicle, etc

106
 2) Butt welding ○
・ Flash butt welding：Heat generated in discharge between both material contact
face. Even though rough surface of welding, can be welded such as rails of train.
・ Up set welding：Electric current with pressure of welding surface. Need finished
surface of welding(Wheel for automobile , chassis )
3) solid state welding
・ Mushroom welding

roller Foil roller

Roller
electrode
After welding After welding

・ Hot rivet

Variation and specification of Welding Transformer

(1) Variation of welding transformer: AC, Inverter DC and Condenser type are major using
(2) characteristic
Single phase exchange DC inverter Condenser

Electric large middle ～ small very small

capacity （3phase） （AC×15％）
Appearance ○ ◎ ◎
Output PLC timer◎ PLC timer◎ ◎
stability
operation ◎ ◎ ○～△
cost ◎ ○ ○～△
Characterist ・ low cost, low ・ high efficiency ・ small electrical
ic efficiency (power （power ratio-90％） capacity
ratio20-40％) Middle size Al, non- ・ projection, spot
・ mild steel, SUS steel alloy welding for
107
 ・ Zic plate Aluminum =>for
short cycle & large
current welding
・ finishing surface &
output current are
stable
Most of the welding machine in Pakistan are AC type, Low Initial cost but quality and
running cost (economize on electricity) are inferior.
AC DC-Inverter Condenser
Spot Steel, SUS ○ ◎ △
(small nugget)
Cu alloy ×(large ◎ ◎
current)
Aluminum(※) △(large ◎ ◎
current)
Projection steel、SUS ○ ◎ ◎
Cu alloy × △ △
(Heat balance)
Aluminum(※) × × ×
※Spot welding between steel and Aluminum are impossible

Operation for Welding

(1)Spot welding
1)Spot welding process(method)
i. Direct spot
Turn Electricity in Directly to upper and lower electrode
(ordinary process of spot welding)

ii. In direct spot

When it has insulator under parts, electrode can be conducted one side only.
It need in direct welding.

iii. Series spot

108
 In order to hold welding pressure and conduct, Intermediate electrode (Buck
electrode) is used to a parts with complex structure. (available multi spot)

electrode electrode

electrode
Back up electrode

electrode
Contact
electrode
Contact

Contact electrode

(2) Relation between Overhang length and welding condition

Overhang length of welding arm called pocket depth (length E of the figure).Welding
machine is required maximum current depend on the pocket depth in order to control
electrical current variation due to deformation of welding arm. Refer the following table
as Standard value (PNASONIC: 350 and 500KVA). If using over current than standard
value, welding condition is value and arm or electrode broken in worst case.

109
 Max welding current (A)
E: Overhang length (mm)

(3) (reference)standard condition for spot welding（Mild steel: ie SPCC）

110
 Same thickness, 2-plates, without plating or
painting
SPS 30-32kgf/mm2

Electrode material: RWMA Class-2(Permittivity

75%, hardness HR B75)

Min. pitch: Minimum pitch without electric leakage

to adjacent other spot

(4) projection welding

1) Important point of projection welding

Appropriate range of projection welding condition is

small, excessive welding force causes insufficient
welding heat due to electric resistance decreasing.
Excessive welding current causes melting of projection,
even though makes cycle short can’t be achieved normal
welding.

Important point is to keep parallel between upper & lower electrode in order to progress
of same crashing during welding at multiple points (Projection) of Nut is required.

Same melting speed in both projection are required. If welding Nut has tilt
when welding, only tilted projection progress will melt, and other projection
can’t be melted. Causes lack of welding strength.

2) Type of Spot/Projection Welding Machine

○
Projection welding machine is designed large power supply automatically in case of the
low resistance of welding in order to compensate the current when the resistance decreases
due to the crushing of the projection, and the pressure device is designed to maintain the
parallelism between the electrodes to keep high rigidity.

111
 for spot for projection Used as spot & projection

3) Actual case in Pakistan ○

・ Most of projection welding are implemented using spot welding machine in Pakistan, It
makes single projection welding due to wrong Parallelism of projection nut caused by
poor rigidity of welding arm.
・ Also, wrong parallelism of electrode and location of nut without fixing pin, can’t be
synchronized welding of all projection. Causes welding Peel off or break off of welding.
Therefore most of supplier are implementing tack welding which are not required in
drawing.

(Example of spot welding issue)

Welding machine for spot was diverted to projection
welding. Lack of Welding strength caused by slanted
projection due to wrong parallelism of upper/lower
electrode.

(Countermeasure)
・Use welding machine exclusively for projection
・Use Nut location pin (KCF material is best)
・Change welding condition in standard (table)

Controlled range of welding condition ○

(1) Quick heating right after welding start is important in order to keep heat generation.
First source of welding start needs to progress welding with stable.
In case of plating panel, difficult to generate first source of welding start due to easy to
occur electric dispersion on the contact plane. Therefore appropriate condition needs to
shift low welding force and large current.
Projection welding depend on welding machine which has extra performance of output
and welding force. Need testing trial in advance before production.

112
 Conducting time (Cycle/50Hz)

Weld loop of projection nut

(2) Welding cycle (Sample) ○

②

(3) load ration of welding

Welding machine should be controlled electric load ratio to protect machine and ○
control quality of welding. Load ration can be calculated following formula.
Number of spot per min × conduct cycle per spot
60sec × frequency（Hz） × 100(%)---(A)

Max current×0.9 2
Welding current (actual) × rated usage rate(rated value%)---(B)

Judgement criteria： (A)≦(B)

(4) Standard condition for projection nut

113
 Condition Class A class B
NUT Welding Electrode Welding Electrode
Projection T Current Current torque
Size time Force time Force
mm Cycle KN KA Cycle KN KA Nm
4-Projection M6 1.2 6 2.4 12.0 12 1.8 9.5
2.3 6 2.7 13.5 12 2.1 10.5 50
4.0 6 3.0 15.0 12 2.4 11.5
M8 1.2 6 2.7 13.0 12 2.4 11.0
2.3 6 3.0 14.3 12 2.7 12.0 100
4.0 6 3.3 15.0 12 3.0 13.0
M10 1.2 6 3.6 14.5 12 3.0 13.0
2.3 6 3.9 16.0 12 3.3 14.5 170
4.0 6 4.2 17.5 12 3.9 16.0
3-projection M6 1.2 6 2.4 12.0 12 1.8 10.0
2.3 6 2.7 13.5 12 2.3 11.0 45
4.0 6 3.0 15.0 12 2.6 12.0
M8 1.2 6 3.0 14.5 12 2.6 11.0
2.3 6 3.3 15.5 12 2.9 12.0 83
4.0 6 3.6 17.0 12 3.2 13.0
M10 1.2 6 3.6 16.0 12 3.0 13.0
2.3 6 3.9 1.5 12 3.3 13.5 153
4.0 6 4.2 19.0 12 3.9 15.0

Welding for aluminum ○

(1) Arc welding
For Aluminum MIG welding: Can be accepted DCEP machine (DC welding machine)
only⇒If using AC or DCEN, welding material (parts) is melt down due to heat balance of
material larger than welding wire.
(Detail of DCEN,DCEP is shown as (2))

(2) AC, DCEN (Direct Current Electrode Negative) and DCEP (Direct Current Electrode
Positive)
114
 Major kinds of DCEP welding are short MIG (using short arc with constant current)
and pulse MIG (Alternately current of base & pulse current). Pulse MIG can be obtained
better efficiency and good appearance of welding bead. Applied welding under 6mm
thickness material.

(3)Recommended condition for Aluminum alloy (#5000-6000material)

115
1)Spot welding for aluminum alloy
Welding machine of Aluminum alloy needs huge capacity & precisely control of
welding condition due to low specific resistance, high thermal conduction and effected
to surface condition such as oxide film. Hence normal use of welding machine for
Aluminum is DC-Inverter or Condenser type
(AC type can’t be applied due to necessary of huge capacity and difficult to current
control.).
Conductive pattern is called single impulse which can
be one shot conduct without holding.

2)welding condition（Example）
=>3phase rectification

116
5.10 Press, Die and Mold

① Mold/Die and Press Process

No Contents A B C
① Press Die 〇
(1) Purpose
A metal plate material is put in a die portion of a die and pressure-deformed in an upper
and lower integral die portion, and a predetermined shape is punch out, bent and formed.

(2) Classification by processing method

1) Punching (Blank and Piercing): Die and punch are used to plastically deform and
punch a workpiece plate.
2) Bending (Bend): Bending the plate with a die and punch
3) Drawing (Drawing): Drawing with a die and punch
4) Compression processing (coining): A coining process to make patterns on the top and
bottom, front and back.
5) Bonding process (Rebetting)

(3) Classification by process

1) Single shot type (tandem): 1 process
2) Transfer (processing by transfer feeding): Transfer materials by transfer feeding to
process two or more steps.
3) Progressive feeding type (progressive): Perforating, bending, drawing processing is
sequentially performed on a band material, and one product is processed with one
punch.
i. complex type
ii. Process into a cut surface with no fracture surface such as fine blanking type
(precision punching) and tooth shape.

(4) Die of car

Case of die

Press die

Product

117
 1) Design / production process (Table 3)
Design illustration Designers design it
↓
Mockup Life-size mock-up model
↓
Take 3D data from Mock-up mode, and create automobile
Parts design
inner data
↓
Part Drawing →Process Design→Die Drawing→Die or
Die & Mold design
mold Making
↓
Mass production car Part made using actual Die or Mold → ASSY

2) Automobile parts
i. Press parts: Side panel, Door, Bonnet, Roof, Fender, Floor, Dashboard panel
ii. Plastic parts: Bumper, Mirror, Light, Instrument panel, Door trim, Hose, Connector

(5) Automobile Process Design (Example)

1) Side Panel Outer Process Design
Draw ----- Sheet Metal Draw process (3 Dimensional)
Trimming ----- Cutting extra material
Bending ----- Bending process
Piercing ----- Making necessary holes
2) Side Panel Outer Model design
Wrinkle & cracks occur in Draw process. Therefore, draw process is carried out by
holding material at Die Face at first.
In addition, forming simulations are conducted to presume the possible defects and
consider the counter measures at prior stage.

(6) Automobile Die Designing

1) Digitalization of Dies & Molds
In old days, 2 dimensional drawings consist of plan view and cross section view
were main but with the advancement of stereographically data conversion to 3
dimensional, all stages from designing to completion of dies & molds has been
“completely digitalized”.

(7) Prior forecast by CAD, CAE

1) Dies making
Previously the defects which were not know till the completion of Dies can be
determined at designing stage and counter measure are carried out.
2) Effectiveness of Virtual Plant
By simulating plant/factory in computer environment, the issues which were not
known till the completion of actual dies could be listed out before hand and can be
rectified. Hence, it has become possible to complete in short time period.
3)Plastic Molds Process (Manufacturing process changed by utilizing CAE)
By CAE, defect root cause can be considered at designing stage for parts
designing as well as Mold designing.

Improve the product Quality in Mass Production

Strive to reduce manufacturing process & cost down as well

118
 Conventional Process
Product Design → OTS → Die Design→ Die Mfg.→ Correction→ Mass
production
* OTS: Off Tool Sample (Trial)

Process utilizing CAE

Flow Analysis by CAE, Mold Strength Analysis, Mold Cooling Analysis
Product Design → OTS → Die Design → Die Mfg. → Correction
→ Mass Production

4) CAD
Utilizing digital technology ← Design technology, Processing & Planning Technology
 2 dimensional CAD:
Computerization of drawings and special mention of lines, points and dimension.
 3 dimensional CAD:
Wire Frame Model(Frame skeleton)
Surface Model (A model in which paper is stuck on the surface of a frame)
Solid Model (Model representing the shape as a solid)

(8) Dies & Molds Manufacturing Process Flow

1) From ordering to CAD design of drawing data → input to CAM → CNC programing
for machining → Die & Mold machining on CNC control device → Machining.
2) Initial study of the Mold
Product drawing from ordering company (CAD Data)
(A system to produce molded parts quickly) accomplished.
3) Initial Study
Gate for the molded part, runner, eject, basic structure, size, selection of injection
molding material, molded part cost, properties of molding material, expected molding
defects, and mold manufacturing cost.
4)CAE (Molding Simulation)
Resin flow analysis software: To presume flow conditions, cooling, deformation,
and fluidity condition.
Content that can be analyzed: Filling analysis, holding pressure analysis, cooling
analysis, deviation deformation analysis, fiber orientation analysis and the stress
acting on the glass fiber mold can be analyzed.
5)Molding Good’s Base Drawing design
Points to be considered
・Expected Shrinkage Ratio (0.2～2％)
・Releasing Properties countermeasure
・Provision of Ejectors
・Gate
・PL (determine Parting Line)
・Distribution of Cavity & Core and Overflow
・Slider, Core, etc.
6) Mold Structure
Structure of Cavity & Core and Mold Base, etc.
7)Drawing inspection
8)Part drawing designing
Machining dimension tolerances, machining surface roughness, metal material,
hardening heat treatment process.
9) Process designing of machining, machining scheduling and cost estimate is carried
out.
119
(9) How the molds are manufactured

1) Removal ￭ Cutting → Ball End Mill & Milling, Cutting Speed &
Processing Depth, Pick feed
￭ EDM (Electric Discharge Machining)
￭ Grinding Process

Forming・・・Deform the material

Additional Machining・・・Joining the material together
CNC Machining・・・Parameters such as Positioning, Locus, Tooling, Jigs, Machining
Speed, etc.
2) Mold manufacturing by Machining Center
Primarily using a rotary tool, with automatic tool change function is subjected to multi
machining without changing mounting position of machining workpiece by
numerically controlled machine tool.（JIS）

(10) Mold Material

1) Iron and Impurities (P, S, Mu, Si) (Iron and Carbon of Alloy)
2) Special Steel & Tooling Steel: Carbon Steel + additives such as G, Mo,
Mu, and V → Special Steel, Alloy Tool Steel

For Cold Dies & Molds (SKS SKD)

For Hot Dies & Molds (SKD SKT)

Carbon Steel（S○○C）
M/C Mfg. Cr. Mo, Fe SCM
Steel Ni, Cr, Mu, Fe (SUCM)
Iron & Steel
Materials Tools Steel Alloy Tool Steel
High-Speed Steel
Die Material SKH
Non-Ferrous Stainless (Martensitic Stainless)
Steel
Materials
Precipitation Carbon Steel（S○○C）
Hardened Cr. Mo, Fe SCM
Steel Ni, Cr, Mu, Fe (SUCM)

* For Cold Tools Steel (For Press edged cutting tools)

Carbide forming elements such as High Carbon, Chromium (Cr), Vanadium (V),
Tungsten (W), are added for higher wear resistance of materials.
* For Hot Tools Steel (Die Casting, Forging, Extrusion processing)

120
Press Forming Method

Upper Die set plate

Punch plate

Guide post Punch

Die
Lower Die set plate

Material

Blank

Press-processed shape

(1) Blank (withdrawal) mold

1) Clearance
Place the material between the punch and the die with proper clearance and apply
tension to it to cause the break phenomenon to separate the material. The evaluation of
shear processing is made by the flatness of the product and the situation of the cut
surface, as well as the dimensional accuracy. Figure below shows a basic form of shear,
in which a cut surface has a sag, a shear surface, a fracture surface and a burr. The state
of the cut surface changes due to differences in the work material, the punch speed, the
clearance between the punch and the die, and the like. When the clearance is large (d),
the cracks generated from both cutting edges are offset and become torn, the squareness
of the sheared surface becomes extremely bad, and the sag and burr are also large. If
the clearance is appropriate, the cracks generated from the punch side and the die side
smoothly match as in (c) following sagging and shearing. The length of the sheared
surface at that time is generally about 1/3 of the plate thickness.

Shear Sleek R shape

D
Shearing
Sheet Shear
Surfacesection:
Glossy Vertical Stripes
Thickness
Fracture Feels like material
Fracture:
Surface ripped off
Burr:
Bur Jagged, hurts when
touched

1/3

(a) Minimum (b) Small (c) Appropriate (d) Large

121
(i)

Plastic Deformation, Shear Droop

(ii)

Shear Shearing Surface Created

(iii)

Fracture Breakage Occurs

(iv)

Stamping Enters in the Die

① It is easy to crack when cutting edge is sharp

② Die wear out could prevented by crack
③ Heavy force required until it comes to breakage
④ Easy to break if the material is harder
⑤ Generally less burrs and die wear out will also be reduced if breakage from Punch
and breakage from Die coincide.

2) Counter measures for BURR

(i) Accident Life Countermeasures
①Material Positioning defect
②Scrap removal defect

D D
P
Scrap 2pieces
Punching

122
 (ii) Grinding Burr
Blade edges get damaged due to two pieces punching, half punching, scrap clogging,
and burning due to heat up, and cause Burrs (earlier than actual life of Punch).

P Remove the burr by polishing

Slightly chips off due to grinding burr

D D

(iii) Punch & die material NG

① HRC required hardness is 58 ～ 60
It will be NG if softer or harder than this mentioned
hardness.
Hardening → Tempering
(Quenching & tempering has to be done.)
② Un-even Clearance
③ Stiffness (Die, Punch, Die Hold)

(iv) Eccentric Load

If it is shifted towards this side,
If the machine center and Load center is
shifted, life will be shorter in proportion to
its wear out condition.
P If machine load center and reaction force
due to operation is shifted then rotation
force applies and causes biting (chipping
D off). (Punch & Die)

3) Burr Occurrence
(i) It occurs partially at straight line portions etc.
Root Cause: Cutting tool partially chips off.
Root cause of cutting tip
①Grinding burrs dropping in
②Dust and other abnormal particles biting
③Die and processing material heating up
④Lack of Heat Treatment of Punch & Die
⑤Two Pieces dropping or Half cutting
⑥Chipping off due to blank piece clogging and balance
out (Eccentricity)
(ii) Big sharp burrs at the corner
Root Cause:
① Compression stress occurs
② Change in Clearance
Clearance is wider at this area.

123
Burr Occurrence・・・occurs at the last moment of Fracture
(iii)Burr do not occur if fracture position is close to cutting edge of Punch and
breakage or crack from Die
generated by the cutting edge.
P
Stress occurs at the cutting
edge simultaneously due to
which fracture position is
slightly shifted causing very
little Burr.
D
Acute angle no longer exists due to wear of cutting edge causing fracture
position shifting to upward.
Crack occurs from the point where it is not worn out and is the most common
reason for big burrs.

Worn out Crack occurs at

P these point

(iv) Fracture occurs from Punch & Die both sides and there is no shifting in between.
Biting (Flare) Ratio: Fracture timing is decided by the material (Material &
Hardness) but actually it varies and will be fast as sharp is the cutting edge and as
slow as it is in raw state. If clearance is high and if excessively worn out either Punch
or Die used, fracture will occur from one side and thick, causing larger burrs.
(v) Improve the side surface of cutting edge and Sheet Metal sliding in order to
avoid burring.
A strong friction occurs between side surface of Punch & Die and Sheet Metal,
cutting edge side and shearing surface which comes in contact is newly made
without oil layer while oil layer on the cutting edge side also gets removed due to
heavy friction. Hence, friction & burning occurs.
Moreover, heat generated due to plasticity deformation or fracture when
shearing also accumulates in vicinity of cutting edge causing temperature increase
around it. Therefore, chipping due to Punch side insertion & releasing and dragged
tear off due to burning when stripping occurs.

Oil film

Friction with
P Sheet Metal

D D Oil film of side surface gets

cut off

124
 (vi) Tensile force applies in vicinity of cutting edge
In blanking sheet metal gets pressed by Die & Punch, and tensile force occurs causing
fracture. However, if the sheet metal pulling hold force is weaker, then it will not cut the
material properly and not only the cutting edge friction will be high but also it will become
the reason for burrs. Therefore to avoid this it is very effective measure to hold the material
by preventing it to move.

Stripping
force

4) Die maintenance
Blanking & Piercing
(i) Punch & Die Clearance t = 10％ Ordinary Type
t = 20％ Rough Type SPHC

Burr will be produced if Clearance is wider but check the existing Press
machine accuracy, and from the reliability of Die Guides15% to 20% will be
considered appropriate.
(ii) Aren’t there any chipping or damages of Punch & Die?
For Die checking make sure to place final piece on it.
In case of Blanking & Piercing;
①Wear level of Punch sharp edge area
②Whether there are any galling marks on Punch & Die Hole side?
③Whether there is any cutting dust or hit marks?
④Blanked part cutting surface condition
OK
⑤Blanking scrap clogging condition

NG

(iii) Boolts Looseness

① Punch & Die straight Bolt
② Punch Pin & Die Pin’s Bolt
③ Hanging Bold
④ Shank Looseness

Stripper Flatness & Punch Guides

P
SP

125
 (iv) What about distortion of Punch Plate & Die Plate, and Scratches & Dents?
There is possibility of deflection & dents of Press Machine Bolster surface.
To bring the load center in the middle, even if there is 40T Press machine it is
not sure the 40T will apply to center and if Die Plate can resist the 40T then due to
relief hole of the Bolster the Die will bear dents.

Bolster

★ Whether the most imminent condition of parts produced currently are with
appropriate parameter can be verified directly by your own eyes? Blanking
conditions, bending, and draw of finished product has to be determined. ‼
★ By ensuring to check the maintenance as much as possible will link to
assurance of next production parts. If you careless of the work quality will get
worsened even more than the previous conditions, and quality gets extremely
worse after some quantity is produced.

5) Confirmation work at the time of installation

(i) The die and processing conditions must match the performance of the press
machine.
(ii) The upper and lower surfaces of the die and the upper surface of the slide lower
surface bolster of the machine are cleaned.
(iii) The shape center of the die and the load center of the machine are the same.
(iv) The mounting of the die should be parallel to the top of the bolster.
(v) The feed line of the press and the shape center line of the mold should be in
agreement.
(vi) The mounting bracket (clamp) must hold the die firmly.

 Bending die

U bend

Bending shape

126
  Basics of bending and drawing
a) Types of bending
Name Processing content
V bend

L bend

U bend

b) Bending basics
In the bending operation, the cross section has a stress relationship as shown in the figure
below.
(i) Bent cross-sectional shape
A compressive stress acts on the inside of the neutral axis, and a tensile stress acts
on the outside.

The neutral axis moves slightly inward at

Compressive stress the bending portion, not necessarily at the
center of the plate thickness.
Bend R When the bending external force is
removed, the bending angle is opened (spring
Neutral axis
back) by the action of the residual
compressive stress and tensile stress therein.
The harder the material, the stronger this
spring back phenomenon.
Tensile stress

(ii) Bending deployment dimension calculation method

The neutral axis of the bending portion is 40 to 45% of the plate thickness
depending on the plate thickness and the bending angle, and the empirical value is
adopted in calculation.

L=A+(R+t×40～45)×2π×θ/360＋B

127
 (iii) Simple calculation method
In the case of right angle bending, there is a simplified method described on the right.
L = A + B + 1 / 2t
(iv) Configuration of die in bending Material thickness
* U-bending die configuration Bending punch
It is also called drawing processing. It is Die R
common in bending die and this configuration is
Mat.
adopted for most bending processes. The main Bending die stretches

parts consist of bending punches, dies and spring

pads.
Cushion Spring pad
* Configuration of V bending mold
Bending punch
Generally referred to as Yaben bending, it is
often used for simple bending and the like. Material
thickness Die
Mainly composed of bending punch and die, the shoulder

cost is much cheaper than U-bending structure. Bending die

However, it becomes processing of only one place
bending.
Die shoulder width

c) Spring back measures

* In U-bending structure, manufacture molds considering Bending punch
Adjustm
spring back measures. ent
(i) Provide a protruding protrusion at the tip of the bending
punch.
There are methods such as striking type and striking a
wedge-shaped V-notch in the process before bending. In
addition, in many cases, it also serves as a
Striking
countermeasure against spring back and a
About thickness
countermeasure against being pulled by bending.
About 100 degree
Deformation

Deformation
About 1/3 thickness

Deformation

Triangular rib

(ii) Concentration of load on bended place

Punch

Reduce the tip R so that the load is concentrated

on the bend.
Compress in
this part

88~89
degree
In the case of 90° bending, apply a spring back
allowance to the punch.

128
 Punch
Gap The tip is shaped as a hit form to
concentrate the load.

Load concentration

*T: Material thickness

Standard: 8xT

(iii) Double bending: Spring Back Spring Go

1st Bending 2nd Bending After release

Spring Go part

By shifting the second bending

position and increasing the spring go
part, spring back is suppressed.

Single strike
Angle (degree)

Re strike

Tensile strength (MPa)

d) Cause of angle defect and its countermeasure

Defective Cause Countermeasure

condition
The angle Large clearance Reduce the clearance
opens Cushion pressure is strong
Cushion pressure is strong Reduce cushion pad pressure
Punch R is large Make R smaller
Short engagement between 30° taper on the die shoulder
punch and die
Not enough pressure on the Apply a hit form. Reduce the punch
bend angle.
Vertical surface Die bites / Sticking Make the die shoulder R larger.

129
 scratches Reduce the slide lowering speed.
Polish the sides of the die. Use
processing oil.
Unevenness *1
There is a step between the Adjustment of clearance
die and the punched part

*1: How to make the clearance constant

Make the guides which hold the material

longer than the bending part

(2) Drawing die

In drawing, a flat plate material is sandwiched between a punch and a die, and is
formed along the shape of the punch or die while applying compressive force or tensile
force to the material.

Material Blank

Drawing

Drawing Shape

There are three types of drawing, in terms of the flow form of the material in below
figure “Material Flow”, three types: Compression flange, Parallel flange, and
Extension flange. These are the basis of the cylindrical aperture, the square tube
aperture, and the irregular aperture.

Material Flow

(a) Compression
flange flow (b) Parallel flange flow (c) Extension flange flow

Figure “Basic configuration of the drawing die” shows a basic die for drawing. When
the punch is lowered, the material of the flange portion of below figure “Flange Drawing”
is drawn into the cylindrical portion while receiving compressive stress (C) from the
circumferential direction. When the reduction rate is high, this compressive stress causes
the flange portion to wrinkle (buckling phenomenon). In order to prevent this, a crease
holder is used but the flow resistance is increased. In this case, the forming stress acting
130
on the punch is also increased, and fracture occurs when the material at the corner of the
bottom of the cylinder cannot withstand the tensile stress. Therefore, in order to relieve
the stress acting on the material, it is necessary to adjust the clearance between the punch
Flange Drawing

and the die, the approach shape, and the forming speed. Therefore, drawing with a large
reduction ratio divides the process into multiple processes.

Basic Configuration of the Drawing Die

Product

Punch

Wrinkle control holder

Die

Work material

Deformation of Work Material at Cylindrical Drawing

A: Bottom of container

B: Side wall of container

Before C: Side wall of container

drawing
Circle

(3) Stretch Forming

As a method of processing the same shape as drawing, there is stretch forming in
below figure “Drawing & Stretching”. This is different from the drawing in which the
131
 material is drawn in, and the peripheral material is fixed and formed only by elongation,
so the thickness decreases. The squeeze process of figure “Squeeze” is used to increase
the dimensional accuracy and surface roughness of the throttle side wall portion.
Drawing & Stretching Squeeze

Drawing Stretching

After
Squeezing Completed product
Before Side wall thickness is
Squeezing thin.

Below figure shows the average first drawing ratio (m1) and the re-drawing ratio (mn)
of various materials. The initial drawing ratio is as high as 0.50 to 0.6, but the second
and subsequent re-drawing ratio are 0.7 to 0.85.
Drawing ratio
Drawing ratio: m = d / D

Blank

Material Drawing ratio (m1) Re drawing ratio (mn)

SPCD 0.55-0.60 0.75-0.80
SPCE 0.48-0.55 0.75-0.80
SUS 0.50-0.55 0.80-0.85
Cu 0.53-0.60 0.70-
Aluminum Alloy 0.53-0.60 0.75-0.85

② (4) Measures against defects in drawing 〇

1) Wrinkles in shrink flange forming
i. Increase the arc radius
ii. Lower the flange height
iii. Increase die R
iv. Increase the material thickness (increase the buckling
strength)
v. Decrease the clearance ( * )
Wrinkles vi. Use the wrinkle control holder

(*) As the flange plate thickness increases (≒30%), the clearance does not increase up to
the maximum increase rate of the plate thickness

132
 2) Wrinkle and crack in stretch flange forming

i. Increase the arc radius

ii. Decrease the flange height (H)
iii. Eliminate burrs on flange end (B)
iv. Make the clearance smaller
(Slightly more squeezing)
v. Improve the punch R and side surface
roughness

3) Flange wave in stretch flange forming

Phenomenon distorted by spring

back near the flange end face
when thin material.

i. Make the clearance smaller

ii. Deepen the engagement between the punch and the die
4) Flange deformation in Juggling (composite shape)

Simple bending The coexistence of three processes makes

Stretch flange the movement of the material complicated
Shrink flange and causes defects

i. Change the clearance depending on the part as shown below

Simple bending = Material thickness
Stretch flange ≦ Material thickness
Shrinking flange > Material thickness

5) Warpage measures for flanges

①Process in 2 steps (process so that tension acts on the flange)
i) 1st process: process R largely
ii) 2nd process: Work to pull the processed R small
Warpage

133
②Balance bending
Apply tension near bottom dead center

1st Bending

Tension
l
Tension Counter
l bending
2nd Bending
l

6) Spring back measures for flange forming

①Two processes
i.) Large R in 1st. pocess
ii.) Apply regular R in 2nd process
②Reverse warpage of web (Spring Go) Spring
i) 1st process: Warpage by pad pressure Back
ii) 2nd process: Return the warpage of web

1st
Bending
2nd: Die margin
clearance 2-5°

7) Crack in bead emboss

[Crack in part a]
① Increase both corner R and punch R
(Elements of elongation are large and can be
broken locally)
②Improve punch surface roughness
(Use of processing oil)

[crack in part b]
①Increase 1 punch R
Emboss ② Raise punch surface roughness (use
processing oil)
Make corner R large

Emboss corner R

134
③ (5) High Tensile Strength Steel (HTSS) 〇
A steel material with a tensile strength of 370 MP or more is usually called High
Tensile Strength Steel (HTSS), and it is often used for inner and outer plates in recent
automobiles.

1) Specifications of HTSS
Precipitation strengthening
The fine precipitates which are carbides of Ti, Nb and V become dislocation obstacles
and prevent dislocation of atoms of the material. As a result, a steel plate having a
strength greater than that of a normal pressed steel plate (270 MP) can be obtained. High
tensile strength steel plates with a tensile strength of 340 MPa to 790 MPa are called
high tensile strength steel plates, and those with a tensile strength of 980 MPa or higher
are called ultra-high tensile strength steel plates.

2) Press forming correspondence

Details are explained to each supplier in the attached document.
Please refer.

High_tensle_S_B.
pptx

135
②Press Facilities
No Contents A B C
① Press Machine 〇
(1) Types of the press machine
1)Classification by the drive method
a. Crank press
Power source letting a slide make a vertical motion is a mechanical press machine,
and there are crank mechanism and screw mechanism in mechanical structure and
converts the power that saved mechanically into the vertical motion of the slide. For
example, in the case of a crank type, it gives a flywheel rotary motion with a motor,
and power is transmitted to crank through a clutch as power source and turns into a
vertical motion by a connecting rod. With the press machine which the productivity is
in high level, it being used as most common one.

b. Hydraulic Press
Power source letting a slide make a vertical motion is the hydraulic press machine,
the oil pressure type.
By operating a pump by a motor and send oil with the pressure to the cylinder and
move the piston in the cylinder, convert it into the vertical motion of the slide.
The characteristic of the Hydraulic Press is that it can change the length of the stroke,
processing speed and pressurization power freely, it being suitable for deep drawing
processing(e.g. :fuel tank)
However, in the case of an accident and oil leak during oil pressure device
maintenance, it becomes uncontrollable with self-weight of the slide and risk of a slide
fall potential. From the safety and the productivity is inferior to a machine type, it is
restrictively used in late years.

2)Classification from a Form

a. C type press
It called C type press as frame part of C seen from the side
of the machine, also called gap press.
Because near side of the machine is vacant, it being
superior in universality of the work, but a frame maybe
warped when load of the press is too heavy. This called
uncorking and becomes the factor of falling processing
precision. The ability for pressurization is the basic up to 250.

AIDA Hi Flex press

b. Gate type press

Also called the straight side press which has 4 pillars of the
frame to 4 angles of the frame. Rigidity is strong, and the large
press machine more than 250 tons adopt this type ability for
pressurization.

AIDA Hi Flex press

136
 c. Transfer press
A mechanical press machine used in the press line
processing consecutively lot of processes, Regarding a
form which is gate type and large –scale, capable for long
time continuation. Product is supplied to the transfer press
from a previous process by the feeder called transfer feeder
automatically ,and supplied to the next process
automatically after having completed press working.

T/F press
ASAHI SEIKI

d. Servo press
In the case of high precision press with the die of
complicated shape, it is necessary to control slide
speed and process it. But it makes slow of whole slide
movement, having a problem of productivity down.
However, in the case of Servo press, it drops the
movement of the slide of the pressurization part, and
the movement that the vertical motion gives higher
speed and its productivity improves drastically.

Servo press
AMADA TPW

(2)Setting of crank press

1)A stroke and press ability
a. load in the bottom dead center
Crank press converts rotary motion of the flywheel into reciprocating motion through a
link and calculation shows that load becomes infinite at the bottom dead center.

T=R×F0
F=cosθ/d×T
At bottom dead centerθ=0,d=0
It means F＝∞

b. torque ability

c. Vertical load (P) changes due to calculation by a position of the con Rod. As the above
figure shows, at the calculation by a position of the con Rod. As the above figure shows,
at the place of higher position(S2) than rating ability outbreak position(S1) on the bottom
dead center, permission load(P2) becomes smaller than pressure ability(P1),even press of
same pressure ability based on torque ability, load is different by stroke length of transport
and the press. When it surpass ability for torque, crankshaft and drive gear becoming
overloaded and a clutch slips and cannot mold.

137
 Torque ability of crank press

Torque diagram
(stroke/pressure chart)

load

Bottom dead center

Stroke height

Torque ability is expressed by the

position on the bottom dead center of Stroke-Pressure
the slide and trip curve indicating
relation with pressure load. As for
figure2.5, without change of torque of
crank shaft, it shows ability of torque in
case of 250mm and 400mm. This shows Stroke
ability for torque decrease if stroke of
slide becomes long. Above figure
diagram shows a load curve of the
reducing work of 150mm depth, in the Stroke
case of 250mm stroke press, unable to
take out a product and in the case of
400mm stroke, it shows shortage of
torque ability.

2) work ability, setting press ability

The molding by the machine press is
carried out by consuming the rotary
energy of flywheel. Therefore, the
number of revolutions of the flywheel
falls every one work and revives it by
motor. Work ability means that no
dropping of the number of production and continuity of work. The ability of press is
established with the design rigidity of a frame and the bed with work ability (motor and
capacity of flywheel). Please refer attachment for the basic explanation.

プレス能力説明K1.p
ptx

138
 3) Press precision
By JIS requirement, main items of static precision are straightness, a parallelism
degree, a direct angle of a slide and the bolster described in figure below as for standard
and its confirmation method, please see “5,9③maintenance”

Press Precision

4) press rigidity
a. longitudinal stiffness
A slide and a bolster bend and
tie-rod lengthened showed in
figure 2.8 at work. For guided
rigidity of the press, there is a
rigidity value which indicates the
bend situation of a slide and a
bolster when uniformity
δ1: Deformation
distributed load acted on 2/3 of
of Bed
the work area. Just to be sure, the
right and left dimensions of the
work side show center of a slide
or bolster bending 0.1mm.

b. Side rigidity
As for the press molding of
many processes, prejudiced mind
load in below figure “Horizontal
strength of press”.

Longitudinal stiffness of press

139
 Horizontal strength of press

Zero cannot be avoided, a slide being inclined and moves horizontally, make adversely
affecting on product precision and die life. Therefore, to raise the permission eccentric
load, the press taking measures to increase the number of pressure point to 2 or 4 from 1.
Furthermore, by opening PHS between the tray pressure points of figure and lengthen
slide guide structure, and strengthening side rigidity per the structure of 8 right angle
guides and pre-road guide, maintains precision.

c. Load center (center of working force when dies work)

As a method to take measure for
side rigidity in the part side, put a
press machine and the load center
of the part together.
In the case of example, big
burring occurs in the blanking
process due to press ability
shortage, where deburring required
for all parts in 30 seconds, but it
being reduced by putting the load
center together.

140
 Please refer the attached material for Actual
calculation & adjustment method⇒ Loading
center_8thMar18.

5)Stroke setting
 In the case of drawing process which needs load from the high position, confirm
ability for torque by process pressure curve whether it can generate ability for
pressurization from which position: how many mm from the bottom dead center.

Extracted stroke
 Stroke length (mm)
Suitable stroke length for press
processing method is fixed by a slide’s
movement distance in one process
(distance from the position of top dead
center of the slide to bottom dead
center).when used in blanking, shorter
length is required and when bending or
drawing transfer processing case,
stroke length which is approximately 3
times of the molding height is required
with the consideration of automatic
conveyance effect.

6)Characteristic of mechanical press

As previously described, crank press needs to match torque range of capacity with a
using stroke. Various kinds of variation for widening the choice option in a mechanical
press exist. Typical examples;
a. Four types shown as below;
Mechanical type

Crank Press Knuckle Press Link Press Friction Press

141
 b. Torque ability
Velocity characteristic and torque ability in crank, knuckle and link press are shown in
below figures comparing velocity characteristic, link press decreases velocity from the high
position on the bottom dead center, it becoming constant tendency. Velocity change rises
rapidly when passing bottom dead center. As for knuckle press, of which velocity is the
slowest in the neighborhood of bottom dead center, and same tendency during the rising
process and conveyance of supply/discharge of materials difficult. Recently, knuckle
mechanism which has fast feeding back mechanism is developed. Crank press has the in-
between characteristic of both. Link press is the most superior, as for torque ability, link
press is the No.1 and crank press, knuckle press is the following the order.

Velocity Characteristic

Upper Dead Center Revolution angle→ Crank press (rad/sec)

Link press

Crank press

Slide Speed (rad/sec)

Link press (rad/sec)

Bottom Dead Center

Torque Ability
Press loading pressure

Stroke (on bottom dead center)

142
(3)Stroke of the mold
1) Die height
i. Die Height of press machine Specification of Mechanical Press
It is the dimensions from the top
surface of bolster plate to bottom
face of the slide when putting up a
slide adjustment screw to the upper
limit, and move the slide stroke to
the bottom dead center.
Not possible to install the die of a
higher than these dimensions. If a die
of which die height is less than this
height, slide adjustment is possible Die Height
to adjust. Aside from a range of slide
adjustment quantity, in the case of
lower die height, putting a plate for
height adjustment in a die bottom or
top, and install it. Slide
When the die height fluctuates, it Adjusting
enforces to turn a lot of adjustment
screws of the press machine, suffering of die exchange time, to unify the die height of the
die as the way of same press machine used and reduce the adjustment quantity.

ii. Die Height of molds

It shows the height from the die holder undersurface to punch holder top surface where
a punch and die is engaged and processing completed .Like the blanking mold, of which
structure is punch getting into the depth with the die, deciding the depth of entering the die,
and decide height at that time as die height of the die.

Mold Die Height

Die Height

Bottom dead center position

143
 (4) Checkpoints in press process setting
In summary, below figures show the checkpoints in order to define press machine
capabilities and specifications. Molding load is fixed by molding method and work
materials as well as product size.

② Defect Counter-Measures on Compound Molding Process (Advanced Case) 〇

Actual auto-parts have a lot of compound processing which combine the basic
bending and drawing process. Countermeasures of defects on basic method(blank, bend
and draw) listed in”5-9- ① press process and molds”, therefore Cases which are
inspected in the regular Circuit teaching/coaching to target suppliers in Pakistan are
shown here, so please apply in your next similar situations.

(1)Bead embossing
Phenomenon Root cause Counter-measures
Imbalance of Strengthen pad control
sliding of
materials

Surface distorted
Make clearance of straight line
part smaller

With bead, give balancing on

distortion of materials(limiting
material inflow)

(2) Rib forming

144
 Phenomenon Root cause Counter-measures
Rib break When rib size Perform preparatory molding
is big,
material
elongation
allowance is
short and
break

Lower rib mount

Phenomenon Root cause Counter-measure

Flange tilting of Flange tilting due to Move to center position
unsymmetrical position rib unbalancing of tensile of rib.
forming force between right &
left of material.

Scratch of rib forming Scuffing in press stroke ・make rib small

・ Polishing of rib forming
punch
・ Change press oil more
large thickness of oil film

(3)Burring
Face end crack Tilting flange due to ・ Make primary hole
uneven pulling force of large （ Burring with
panel primary hole extension）
Crack ・ Punching direction
should be from burr
occurrence side
・ Improving cutting
edge of primary hole
・ Ironing
burring(Burring
clearance: sheet
thickness ×70%）

Insufficient of burring height ・Ironing burring（makes

flange thickness thin）
145
 ・ Add embossing
process
・ make diameter of
primary hole small

Pierce

Emboss piercing burring

Phenomenon Root cause Counter-measure

Cutting chip remains in Dull Punch blade maintenance
combination process of sharpness of （Wrong maintenance）
primary hole & burring punch

Flange end braking insufficient ・Same clearance aheet thickness and

(crack) in tapping tapping burring clearance （ regular burring）
process after burring. strength due ＊high rigidty in root,so in top that
to lack of
rigidity becomes low ⇒ because of
sheet
clearance is 60-70% of sheet
thickness
thickness）

Fluff burr in tapping Flat shape of punch top

after burring process.

Chamfering of burring pilot hol

Inner dia finishing after burring

(4)Curling

146
 Phenomenon Root cause Counter-measure
Deformation of side Perform preparatory molding
wall part Materials transform
buckled along a punch and
molded. Preparatory
molding is around 60
degrees.

・improve roughness on curling punch surface.

・material maintenance improvement

Phenomenon Counter-measures
Curling does not Preparatory molding required
give perfect Roughness of curling punch
circle surface is improved

Wind up so that burring side becomes inward,

Prevent buckling of the part besides curl molding by axis
pressure

(5)Drawing forming
Phenomenon Root cause Counter-measures
Slide crack Slide crack on die face of Improve die face roughness
materials Use processing oil
・die shoulder Make smoother on die face( 凸
・surface of die, pad & 凹)
stripper Adjust pressing force
Around draw bead Use vinyl film
Scuff defect contamination Protect dust（sand ,dust）
material of die De-burring
Clean up die
147
 Optimization of die material and
heat treatment (low hardness died is
scorched)
Die guide improve mating surface
Flash Chamfering

Crack on air hole ,bolt hole

Sliding face state of punch/pads and knockout

(6)points of the drawing molding;

1)Process design（to balance costing and quality in Pakistan）
a. data bank of the past results(case –studies)
b. the image how the process going on
c. examine processing contents from both sides of materials and die
d. predict the movement and flow state of materials during the processing
e. processing balance at compound process and diaphragm process
f. Corner R shape and size of the mold
g. Preparation of defect prediction and counter-measures

2)preventive measures on wrinkle and crack occurrence is to find a neutral point

(phenomenon point)
For example：Cylinder drawing⇒axial pulling⇒crack
Compression of the circumference direction⇒wrinkle
Drawing factors and crack/wrinkle relation
factors crack Wrinkle
Cushion pressure strong Weak
Roughness of die/wrinkle control large(rough) small(smooth)
face
Die R small Large
Lubricating oil（lubricity） low High
Diaphragm ratio small Large
Drawing speed high Low
Material Ductility (elongation) small large

a. Types
rubber, spring urethane⇒high in first pressure ,so it becomes stronger as compress
it highly
oil air pressure⇒easy to adjust pressure
＊ Diaphragm needs initial pressurization（power to perform material holding）
b. Defects and cushion pressure
rubber, spring, poor parallelism degree of urethane end face, bending and buckling
↓
Partial holding without uniform pressure provided

Die R：Smooth

148
 Cushion plate: small Punch side: a little increasing
roughness roughness in order to hold
pressing load by friction

Die side face: roughness

decreasing
Punch R：large

c. Uneven cushion pins

Wrong Parallelism between die & cushion plate

due to cushion pin height variation

d. wrong parallel degrees between die and

blank holder

Wrinkle: wrong fitting between die & cushion

<Cases>

④ ③ ②
④

Possibility of difference of panel holding strength between right and left side of Back
Panel due to no cushion pin in X (②, ③) direction. Varied wrinkle condition among ④
position due to varied cushion pin length causes unstable holding pressure of panel.

1)Draw speed
Crank press is slow at neighborhood area of bottom dead center, but at45-60 degree
149
 area, it becomes faster.be careful of it.
2)Burr of blanking：effective by press controlling
3)material formability ： SPH and Zin-coating materials show poor diaphragm
characteristic.
4) Cylindrical drawing
Many cases in 2 wheeler plant in PAKISTAN. Major defects and relative counter-
measures are explained.

(1)wrinkle
Phenomenon Root cause Counter-measures
Wrinkle over whole Raise cushion pressure
flange circumference
parts Cushion change from rubber ,
spring into oil pressure
Drop viscosity of diaphragm,
decrease quantity
Partial wrinkle of flange Imbalance of Uniform cushion pin’s length
circumference parts cushion Confirm workability
inclination Parallel degree of die and wrinkle
preventing surfaces
Fix parallel degree of cushion
spring end face and bending
Fix burrs of blanking and warpage

Fix surface crack & dirt of die or

cushion
Crack (erupt of the Most of cracks Diaphragm rate is small
bottom) occur at the
joint part of R Strong cushion pressure
of bottom and
straight line Inappropriate cushion pressure
part.at point of (spring constant)
maximum
Rough face of die pressing surface
tensile stress
Small corner R of punch and die

Slow speed of drawing

Inappropriate cushion kinds of

wrinkle press
Poor lubricious of diaphragm oil

Arc-formed crack of Lot of Defects when rolling materials (impurities,

side wall part rolling crack)
Side wall length break Delayed crack ・ stop draw condition and add
Delayed break: ironing
hydrogen ・baking after plating
toughness

150
Shape deformation
Phenomenon Root cause Counter-measures
Flange part becomes
square
Swell at bottom Secure exhaust at oil hole and air hole of punch
Punch R in draw process and defect position of straight
line part⇒necessary to have longer pre-process for the
straight line part of the bottom(L2＞L1)
（swell occurs in reverse case）

Imbalance of draw height

Weak face press at the bottom
Dents at bottom When slide rises, inside becomes minus number pressure
Unreasonable eject of product (knock-out)
Without oil flow between product and knock-out, liquid
pressure pressing the face
Thickness un- Unavoidable in deep drawing process
uniformity ⇒ add ironing at restrictive process of compound
processes

151
③Maintenance of Press and Press Die
No Contents A B C
① Die maintenance 〇
(1) Concept of mold maintenance
Instead of dealing with the problems that occur, take precautionary measures so as not
to cause them. This is the concept of Preventive Maintenance.
1) To grasp the material origin, the die accuracy, and the variation of the material
2) Make a maintenance plan that matches the equipment and the die based on the actual
failure results.
(2) Check sheet of press die (example)
The check sheet Sample provided to each Pakistan supplier is shown below, for reference.
Make an action plan based on these.

152
153
Check sheet for press die (Example): Check sheet attached at the end.
Control point Checking items/method Symb Interval(K-shot) Remark
ol day 200 400 600 800
1) Polsh the worn of A 1 1 1 Confirming the processing quality of the
punch & die. Polish Replac product.
e
Prevention Burr
Checking burr 1
(Punch, Guide,
2)Scuffing of guide post K,L 1 1 Is there no eccentric load?
Guide post &
(check) Since the guide post and the bush are
Stripper)
combined parts, replace them as a set.
3) Worn out of urethane / C 1 1 Urethane is short life. Change interval should
spring for holding stripper check change be set individually.
Scuffing of guide A 1 Confirm the side force due to error shot in
between punch & stripper double pane or mistaken feed .
Stripper plate tilting E 1 The part is warped due to the eccentric
pressure applied by the tilt of the stripper
plate.
Contact between material e 1
& die.
Lack of releasing gap
Pressure plate tilting e 1 Defect of bending angle, piercing burr and
Stripper eccentric deformation of drawing
Balancing of clearance A,　I 1 Confirm the status of burr occurring
Entwining panel to E 1 Feed mistaken due to feed timing error
stropper
spring C 1 1 1 Damage of spring, To Replace bolt in
Check (Chang deformation of hexagon head of bolt.
e)
Damage/loosen of B 1 1
bolt(hanger bolt) Check Chang
e
Spacer shifted D 1 1 Wrap the paper to prevent moving of spacer
die
change
Scrap clogged, crack of I 1 1 Visual check in work start
die check change
Spacer
Deformation & crack in G 1
the bottom of Die. repair
Die spacer moving D 1 Dowel pin for prevention of die spacer moving
Side pressure on outer G 1 Investigate causes by evaluating occurring
clamping trend
Height block P 1 1 Check the hit condition on the stroke
Check change alignment block.
In the case of work-hardened materials (such
Dead end control as AL) with bottomed molds, standardization
of mold height is set in each process to
determine the quality (confirmation of crushed
state)
Dowel Pin H 1 1 When the die dismantling, the fit becomes
check change loose and rattling occurs.
Die fitment Insert die & punch i 1 Set replacement frequency for each part. Be
As required
check careful of reverse insertion of blocky inserts.
(Pokayoke with projections and marks)
Punch A 1 1 Sharing line of panel has to be near point of
check change corner R of die blade end point.
The position of the crack is shifted due to the
wear, so the worn part is polished and
Blanking die returned to the original height of die by shim,
welding or the like.
Small diameter punch A' 1 Clogging of the die causes wear and
As required
check breakage. Replace both punch and die.
(Better to use insert die)

Check Sheet for die (Sample) ⇒ Die_Check

Sheet(Sample).xls

(3) Maintenance work

Correctly attach cutting tools and workpieces in an appropriate manner.
1) Jig: Positioning and fixing of workpiece, guide of cutting tool (bush)
Positioning mechanism, tightening mechanism, guide mechanism
Chucks, Machine vice tilting table indexing table, Equerry, Pallet, Plate
2) Mounting tool: Mount a work and cutting tool on the machine tool.

Positioning mechanism and General-purpose mounting tool

tightening mechanism Car mounting tool
Multipurpose mounting tool
Assembly type mounting tool

154
 *Simplification of work, saving skills
3) Purpose of jig *Productivity improvement (multiple installation,
And mounting tool: simultaneous processing)
*Machining accuracy improvement and quality
stabilization
*Establish safety work
4) Mounting tool
positioning mechanism:
①Positioning mechanism by fixed plane
②Positioning by pins
③Positioning with adjustment screw
④Positioning by V block
⑤Positioning by hole standard
5) Positioning method
① Depending on the condition of the surface of the work
②Large work piece of radius
③Depending on the size of processing load
④Depending on the direction of processing load
6) Tightening mechanism: Clamping parts (tightening parts)
①Clamp
②Attachment
③Jack
④Stepped support
⑤Clamping unit (unit for tightening)

(4) Main tightening mechanism in machine repair

1) Drilling machine fixtures
Drill installation and removal
①Tapered shank drill (using sleeve and drift)
Clean the spindle of the drilling machine and insert the sleeved drill into the spindle
hole and attach it with light impact. To remove it, insert the drift into the shaft hole
and tap lightly with a wooden hammer. At this time, if you do not support the drill
with your left hand, the drill will drop.
② Straight shaft drill
Clean the spindle hole of the drilling machine and insert the drill chuck shank into
the spindle hole. Apply a light impact and mount the drill chuck on the main shaft.
Turn the chuck by hand, spread the nails, insert a straight drill, turn the drill by hand
and lightly tighten and check the center of rotation (flexure) of the drill and fix it.
③ Reamer installation
Same as straight drill.
How to attach the work
① Vice
② Fasteners
③ Clamps
2) Jig and fixture for lathe
① Mounting of the cutting tool: Align the cutting edge with the center of the
workpiece. Keep the overhang length of the tool as short as possible.
②Drill installation: Center hole drill
Use of drill chuck
Drill (taper, straight)
・Clean the hole of the lathe tailstock and attach the drill chuck of taper shank.
Center drill, Straight shank drill
・Back the lathe tailstock and pull out the chuck. Insert a taper drill with a shank
155
 attached to the taper drill while lightly impact the tailstock.
3) Mounting of the workpiece
① 3 jaw interlocking chuck (Stroll Chuck)
② 4 jaw single acting chuck (Independent chuck)
③ Mounting by centers
Standard Center, Half Center, Rotating Center, Umbrella Center,
Both Centers, Mandrill
4) Mounting jig for the workpiece
① Machine Vice
② Clamp
③ Mounting by the scale
④ Installation using a ramp
⑤ Circular table installation
⑥ Mounting with a universal index table
5) Mounting jig for grinding machine
Grinding wheel installation
① Mounting on flange (Make balance)
② Installation to grinding machine
Mounting and fixing of workpieces
①Universal mounting on surface grinding machines: Electromagnetic chuck
② Fixing by auxiliary block
③ Fixing by angle rest
④ Mass block fixing
⑤ Wax (adhesive) fixing
⑥ By vacuum chuck or freezing chuck
⑦ Chuck mounting
⑧ Center mounting
⑨ Mandrel mounting

(5) Welding repair of mold

1) Welded structure

・Bond part (coarse grain area): In this part, the temperature becomes 1250 ° C. or
higher, and the crystal grains become coarse. In the case of a steel containing a large
amount of alloying elements, a martensitic structure precipitates and is easily hardened
and easily broken.
・Heat affected part: In this part, the temperature is 1250 ° C to 1100 ° C. Fine and
coarse grains are mixed.
・Outside the heat-affected zone: In this zone the temperature is between 1100 and
900.degree. Ferrite and pearlite grains become smaller and become more tenacious.

156
 2) Residual stress and deformation
The process of melting and Base material cause expansion
solidification by welding and contraction.

Heating Cooling
Deforma
Melting
tion Contraction

Deformation

Expansion Strain

Base material is deformed.

Horizontal contraction, longitudinal contraction, lateral bending deformation
Longitudinal bending deformation, buckling deformation, rotational deformation
Residual stress remains in the material deformed by welding.
Heat treatment to eliminate stress. The annealing treatment is maintained at 600-650°
C. and gradually cooled to 200° C.

(b) Vertical contraction (c) Vertical bending deformation

(a) Lateral contraction

Welding progress Welding progress

(e) Rotational deformation (In plane)

Temporary welding
progress direction

(d) Angular deformation (f) Buckling deformation

(Lateral bending deformation)

3) To reduce welding distortion

a) Consider the groove shape.
b) Do not heat the base material more than necessary.
c) Use reverse strain.
d) Use a restraint jig. (Use of clamp)
e) Consider the welding order. ( Split method, symmetry method,
back step method )

157
 60°
60° Appropriate

Consider welding on both sides Make warp to the other side

4) Semi-automatic arc welding

a. In order to keep the arc length constant, it is controlled so that there is no change in
voltage.
Constant voltage characteristics - Constant speed feed method
HAmm Arc

Voltage
A HBmm
HCmm
B
C

Current (A) / Calorific value

Swing Swing
upward downward

Long Medium Short

i. Safe welding with arc HBmm Power supply output characteristics

Point B of current-voltage characteristics
ii. As the handshakes downward and approaches HCmm, the current (heat quantity)
increases and the wire melts quickly and return to point B.
iii. As approach HAmm,
The current decreases and the wire melting rate decreases, returning to point B

Arc length self-control function

b. Basic welding conditions

Welding current, arc voltage adjustment: High current Wire feeding speed is faster.
(The melt speed increases as the current increases.)

Central setting function

Function that welder sets voltage

automatically for set current value.

158
 Low Arc voltage High

Welding wire
Deep melting of Shallow melting of
welds welds

Short Arc length Long

Narrow Bead width Wide
High Bead height Low

4) Welding material, welding condition

The welding repair method of SKD11 is shown as an example.
Pre-heating and post-heating before and after welding should be done carefully to
prevent cracks in the repair area.

Die
repairing(welding)

Press Machine Maintenance

(1) Concept of maintenance
In Pakistan, oil leaks, abnormal noises, and functional checks are mainly conducted at
all suppliers. However, the concept of preventive maintenance to prevent problems in
advance has not yet penetrated. In this manual, the functions and accuracy of the equipment
itself are properly maintained, and further, the main focus is on measures from the
standpoint of Preventive Maintenance without causing equipment failure.

1) Failure curve:
As shown in figure below, from the stability area (Stability Area), there is a limit of worn
out in which wear progresses rapidly. Checks and maintenance should be carried out
properly at the time of the periodic check point (Y) during the stable period and the service
limit period.

159
 Failure curve:

For this purpose, it is necessary to determine an appropriate inspection interval for each
part or unit, instead of uniformly determining the timing for inspections and repairs.

Periodical check sample:

2) Check sheet (Example)

In particular, large hydraulic presses often take time to recover from failures. The
example shows an example of a regular inspection / confirmation sheet in the case of
a hydraulic press. (Full-text description in attached File including English)

160
A Main Cylinder 8 Relief valve(balance piston) 19 Main pressure gauge
B Side Cylinder 9 Sequence valve(blaance piston) 20 Die cushion pressure gauge
C Die Cushion Cylinder 10 Relief valve(Direct ) 21 Suction Filter
11 Check valve 22 Oil Cooler
1 Motor 12 Sol Valve 23 Check valve
2 Oil Pump 13 Sol Valve 24 return Filter
3 Relief valve(Balance Piston) 14 Pilot control check valve 25 Choke
4 Sol. Valve 15 Slow return check valve 26 Oil Tank
5 Counter balance valve 16 Relief valve(Direct ) 27 Thermo meter
6 Pilot control check valve 17 Relief valve(Balance Piston ) 28 Air breaser
7 Relief valve(Direct ) 18 Pre fill valve 29 Micro Separaror

Crown (Upper Frame)

Bed (Lower frame)
Uplight(Side Frame)
Slide frame
Main cylinder
Side cylinder
Bolster
Die cushion frame
Tie rod,Nut
Die chushion Cylinder
Slide Gib
Upper Die
Lower Die
Platform
hand rail
ladder
Pump, Motor Unit
Vulve Unit
Oil Tank
Control Panel

161
 A Main Cylinder 8 Relief valve(balance piston) 19 Main pressure gauge
B Side Cylinder 9 Sequence valve(blaance piston) 20 Die cushion pressure gauge
C Die Cushion Cylinder 10 Relief valve(Direct ) 21 Suction Filter
11 Check valve 22 Oil Cooler
1 Motor 12 Sol Valve 23 Check valve
2 Oil Pump 13 Sol Valve 24 return Filter
3 Relief valve(Balance Piston) 14 Pilot control check valve 25 Choke
4 Sol. Valve 15 Slow return check valve 26 Oil Tank
5 Counter balance valve 16 Relief valve(Direct ) 27 Thermo meter
6 Pilot control check valve 17 Relief valve(Balance Piston ) 28 Air breaser
7 Relief valve(Direct ) 18 Pre fill valve 29 Micro Separaror

Check Sheet for hydraulic press (Example)

Parts Checking Interval Remark

items/method Daily Weekly Momthly Annually
1) Looseness of 1time Properly tightened
bolt(Mainparts of
press,foundation)
-> Wrench
2) whether 1time To clarify no crack or damage
machines are not in
Main parts of
abnormal situation
Press
-> Visual control
3) whether no 1time To clarify no loosening
abnormal situation
in bolt or nut of each
sliding portion
-> visual control
1) To clarify no 1time To clarify no defect of oil leakage
abnormal situation etc.
in cylinder funtion or
surface defect
-> visual ciontrol
2) To clarify 1time To clarify tightening per
loosening in tighting requirements
Cylinder bolts
-> Hexagonal
wrench
3) To clarify 1time To clarify tightening in uniform
tightening of
packing
-> Hexagonal
wrench
1) To clarify no 1time To clarify no crack or damage
abnormal situation
in appearance,
sliding part
-> Visual control
Slide 2) To clarify worn 1time To clarify no partial damage of
out situation of the sliding part
sliding part
3) To clarify grease 1time
lubrication situation
-> Visual control
1) To clarify no 1 To clarify no oil leakage
abnormal situation
in apperance
-> Visual control
2) Oil leakage 1time To clarify no oil leakage
-> Visual control
3) Oil quantity 1time To clarify whether quantity is
-> To confirm by oil more than half
level scaler
4) Oil dergradation 1time To change it within 2,000 hours
-> Visual control
(Confirm inside the
tank）
Oil Tank
5) To check 1time Filter purification etc.
purification of air
breezer filter
-> Visual control
6) To confirm 3 To confirm no adhesion of iron,
adhesion of iron in or exclusion of iron
magnet separater
-> Visual control
7) Oil temperature 1time Appropriate range of oil
-> To confirm by oil temperature 20~50 degreeC,
temperature most appropriate 35~48 degreeC
thermomitor

162
Geat valve,Stop 1) To confirm 1time To confirm no loosening
Valve,Through handle distance
valve,Drain cock situation
Parts Inspection Interval Remarks
items/methods Daily Weekly Monthly Annually
1) Abnormal noise 2 times To memory normal noise
-> to measure by
device
2) Temperature 2 times To confirm abnormal fever
-> Toch by hand or
confirm by
thermomiter
3) Pressure holding 1 time To confirm minimum fluctuation
situation of pressure
Oil pump
-> to confirm
pressure device
4) Oil leakage 1 time To confirm no oil leakage
-> Visual control
5) Discharge flow 2 times
quantity
-> To measure
speed of sliding up
and down
1) To confirm no 2 times Conjugated normaly
abnormal situation
of pump conjugation
Motor (coupling)
-> Visual control
2) Axis deviation 2 times No deviation
-> Visual control
Suction filter 1) Filter clogging 1 time ※ To clean up monthly
1 time
-> Visual control
1) To confirm lock 1 time To confirm no loosening
situation of handle
-> Visual control
Releafing valve setting value and 1 time Within regulated range
working range
-> To confirm
pressure device
Throttle valve 1) Confirm setting 1 time No loosening situation
position (Handle
lock condition)
-> visual control
Pressure gauge 1) Pressure 1 time To confirm needle show
situation 2
0~10kg/cm when no burden
-> Visual control
Pressure switch 1) Confirm working 1 time To confirm workbility in normal
condition
-> Visual control
1) No abnormal
existence in
appearance
oil temprature -> Visual control 1 time Within the normal range±1%
2) Work situation
(Confirm instructed
output）
1) Cooling capacity 1 time Thermostat ON at oil
-> Confirm with oil temperature 48 degree C, OFF at
temperature gauge 35 degree C (unplug water in
Oil cooler
winter season)
2) Water leak 1 time No leakage
-> Visual control
1) To clarify no 1 time
abnormal situation
in appearance
Flexible hose → visual control
2) Tightening 1 time No bolt loosening
situation
-> Visual control
1) Oil leakage 1 time No oil leakage
-> Visual control
Piping
Tightening condition 1 time No loosening of tightening bolt
-> Visual control 163
２）Inspection items of electric system
Part Inspection items and methods Interval Remarks
name Daily Weekly Monthly Annually
1) Confirm abnormal situation 2 times To confirm no damage or aging
in apperance
2) To measure insulation 2 times To confirm more than 2MΩ
Wiring resistence at primary side
-> Mega ohm tester
3) To check grounding 2 times To confirm installation in normal
conductor
1) To confirm abnormal in SW 1 time No clattering or Bias
-> Visual control
On/Off
2) To check workbility by 1 time To confirm operation at On/OFF
switch
changing ON/OFF at several position
times -> By operation
1) No abnormal in appearance 2 times No crack, damage or dirty
-> Visual control
2) Work situation 2 times No abnormal noise or vibration
Electric
-> Visual control
motor
3) To measure insulation 2 times More than 2MΩ
resistance -> Mega ohm
tester
Indicator 1) To confirm indicator light by 1 time
light switch on -> Visual control
1) No abnormal in appearance 1 time No worn-out,crack damage and
Limit
-> Visual control dirty
switch
2) Workbility -> Visual control 1 time To work in normal
1) No abnormal in grounding 2 times No significant discoloration or
-> Visual control burnout
2) No abnormal between 2 times No foreign substance or dust
Electric
movable and fixed iron core - atatched
relay
> Visual control
3) To check no abnormal in 2 times No significant discoloration or
coil -> Visual control burnout
Other 1) To check abnormal in 2 times No worn-out,crack, damage or
parts appearance dirty
Thermal 1) To check rated value 2 times To confirm rated value by makers
relay -> Visual control
Switch 1) No existence of foreign 2 times No oil, dust or foreign substance
board, substance -> Visual control
control
board 2) To check no abnormal in 2 times No loosening or big loss of
operatio terminal -> By screwdriver combustion
n
board,ter
minal
boxes
etc.
1) To check screw dropout, or 2 times To tightening properly
Mounting loosening -> by driver
parts(var 2) To check seismic isolation 2 times No loosening, deformation or
ious) device such as spring, rubber degradation of seismic isolator
etc. -> Visual control

Check Sheet for hydraulic press (Example)⇒ Press_Check

Sheet(Sample).xl

164
(3) Static accuracy check
1) Verticality of ram slide
①Always move vertically to the press bed

Fly
Crank wheel

Stroke
+/- 0.01
Check by
Ram periodic
Connection inspection
screw

Motor

i. Adjustment of Ram guide

Ram's Guide

A structure that adjusts the clearance with a shim or bolt from the side.

By pin Need a locking

device.

Ram Check at least the 90 ° direction

Dial gauge

Press bed

165
②After confirming that the ram moves vertically,

Bottom Top Check the bed and bolster

dead dead ✰ The center of the bolster is
center center concave.

③Make the bolster hole as small as possible even when the press die uses a load
center and the clamp SP.

166
5.11 Machining
① Lathe, milling
No Contents A B C
① (1) Explanation of contents; ○
As there are lots of processing by level (such as production quantity and quality), coverage
(such as the parameter of parts used) and cost requirements, it seems not easy to explain
comprehensive explanation on Machining processing, so the items herewith limited to ones
which Team explained during the regular circuit teaching/coaching to the target suppliers in
Auto-parts PT, and the rules and the principles are describes as important factor.

(2) Table of contents;

1) Types and the basic of machining (major parts of processing performed in Pakistan)
1.lathe,
2.milling
3.drilling/reaming
4.thread processing(tapping, rolling)
5.grinding(centerless grinding/surface grinding
6.broaching
7.gear cutting
2) Measuring instruments and its use
3) Drawing requirements and the selection of processing methods
・types and definitions of drawing requirements in machining process
・measurement methods and management methods
4) Quality control in mass production(MP) processing
・measuring instruments and measuring methods
・sampling inspection and all parts(100%) inspection
・on-site quality control (X-R control chart, process capability)
・set-up changes, tool changes
5) Items related to equipment maintenance
1.selection of coolant(cutting oil)and its management
2.treatment of chips
3.maintenance of equipment
6) Production control of machining(lot production, mixed production of other models)
7) Defect cases in the past in Pakistan and the counter measures

(3) Individual contents (please refer table of contents in II)

1) Types and the basic of machining process
lathe processing
→Lathe structure（Normal lathe）

Below figure：Elements of a normal lathe

167
 ② ③
① ④

①：Main Spindle
②：Chuck
③：Tool Post
④：Tail Stock
⑤：Saddle/Apron
⑥：Bed

2)Size of lathe
Showing at below figure A & B and expressed by processing maximum size.

A: Center distance

B: Swing

3) Cutting tool (bytes)

There are many types of cutting tool bytes according to the processing of outer diameter,
inner diameter and the threading.
a. Cutting edge shapes

168
Cutting edge angle of cutting tool

②
④ ③

name Cutting sharpness chips cutting Edge Blade life

angle strength
① Front rake Small insane Thick Large High
angle cutting
resistance
Big crisp Thin Small Low
cutting
resistance
② Orthogonal Small Wear of High Short
clearance angle flank face
is large
Big Wear of Long
flank face
is small
③ Side cutting Small Large Large Long
edge angle width vibration
of cutting
edge
Big Small Small Short
width vibration
④Nose Radius Big Finished Large High Cutting
surface resistance condition
roughness s are up
-small with
same life
Small Roughnes Small Low
s-big resistance

Standard value (unit：Degree)：

Material Hardness High speed steel（HSS） Super steel（WC）
(HB) Upper Orthog Front Orthog Upper Orthog Cleara
rake onal clearan onal rake onal nce
angle rake ce clearan angle rake angle
angle angle ce angle
angle
Carbon 85-225 10 12 5 5 0 6 7
steel
169
 MG 40-90 20 15 12 10 3 15 7
alloy
AL 30-150 20 15 12 10 3 15 7
alloy

b. Types of byte
・ TA (slow-away type)：it is possible to replace the Types of bytes
tip of the byte and this type of byte is common. Due
to clamp mechanism, there may be processing error
in the inside diameter or installation error of the tip.
Solid type described later for the precision finishing
use recommended. (In the case of precision
finishing by TA type, there is also a byte called
Micro Bore that can adjust the tip position.)

・ Solid type：the tip is integrated with the byte, fixed

by brazing. This type is used for smaller diameter
machining and the precision finishing holes.

・ Boring bar：when applied toΦ10 or more, boring

bar, slow-away type described right figure also
possible to apply, however, if overhang size is
large, the rigidity of the arbor (shaft) is
insufficient, processing accuracy may be further
reduced.

・ Center drill：used for the processing when center-

hole processing in lathe processing.

c. Tool material and the processing conditions.

As tool materials, under-said ones are used.
i) HSS(High Speed Steel):it is high speed processed
steel and made by SKH materials, there are 2 types:
W(tungsten type,(W+V)and Mo(molybdenum type
（Mo＋V or Co）.
Hardness is Hrc55‐60.

ii) Cemented Carbide: WC, TiC, TaC which are carbides of W, Ti, and Ta bound with Co.
and made sintered alloy. Hardness is around Hrc 90.
iii) coating carbide：multilayer coating of TiC,TiN,Al2O3 etc. on a base material of
carbide. With improved wear resistance without lowering toughness, it is almost
commercially available TA tips in the market.
iv) Cermet: tool metal which are Tic, TiN as main component and sintered with Ni.
Hardness is Hrc 93 or higher. It has both the tenacity of cemented carbide and the hardness
of ceramic.
v) Ceramics: Tool steel made by sintering metal such as Tic to Al2O3.
Though hardness is Hrc94 but brittle(low deflective strength）Coping with heat and used
for high speed cutting.
vi) CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride): B and N compounds (boron nitride) sintered with ceramic
or Co as binder. Hardness is Hv4000 or higher and possible to use heat treated steel
finishing processing.

170
 Cutting speed of various tool materials in case outer diameter machining

d. Tool life
Most suppliers determine the life in terms of machined dimensions and surface finishing,
but it should be aware of the tip wearing limits.

Wear amount
Cratering

Frank wear VB:

end Wear

It is usual to define the wear limit value of the Cratering (rake face) and the side flank face
(VB: End Wear) of figure 3.

e. Classification of use of cemented carbide;

The cemented carbides defined in JIS are classified as follows:
K: Join WC with Co, suitable for cast iron and aluminum turning.
P:Bonded with WC, TaC and TiC and Co, suitable for cutting steel (Steel)
M: Intermediate between K and P.

○
171
 Deflective strength and hardness of Material: K and P

f. Types and selection of bytes;

The types and the methods of use of the cutting tool depend on the material of the part,
equipment and the method, and there are many tool makers with many variations. Here, only
the basic example is shown. Actual application requires the technical advices from tool makers.
○
Types of tip:

Round tip：Maximum cutting angle, For heavy cutting and roughing, The rigidity of the
equipment is necessary.
Square tip：Eight faces with zero front clearance angle can be used. The tip angle is large (90°)
and the tip has rigidity. For roughing, if the equipment not rigid, it may break off.
Diamond-shaped tip：Available up to 4 faces. Cutting edge angle is small and the machinability
is good, For finishing of high precision cutting.
Cutting edge angle and usage:

172
 Small
cutting
edge angle,
high
Large accuracy,
Cutting light
edge angle, cutting
medium
accuracy,
heavy
cutting

When the front clearance angle is positive,

cutting resistance is small.
But heavy cutting not possible due to
disadvantageous for the rigidity of cutting tool.

Square tip has negative front clearance angle and

the opposite effect. Tip dimension setting by
cutting depth.
aP：depth of cut
PSIR：front clearance angle
LE: length of cut depth
⇒selection of tip

173
setup of Tip breaker:
The figure shows the Tip breaker during
roughing processing. Reduce the angle
and width closer to the finishing
processing.

wiper tip:

It is also effective to use a wiper tip to

improve the processing surface quality
or maintain the processing surface
quality at a high feed rate.

front clearance angle:

If tip itself has no clearance angle and the rake angle is
negative, the rigidity of the cutting edge increases and the it
corresponds to heavy cutting, but the rigidity of parts and the
equipment is required.(no thin parts possible)

Tip which has a clearance angle is less cutting resistance

and high precision.it is for finishing, however, the back of
tip is used.
○

4) Examples of improvement
a. Gear holes（Φ20+0.01+0.02）boring accuracy
The defect rate is high for tolerance of 10μ and 100% reworking required. TA tip which is
considered to make it brazed, breaker shape and reamer however not succeeded. Finally by
dropping the feed, it solved.

174
Gear hole case:

In Japan, such small diameter high-precision machining requires high-rigidity mounting

which tip being fixed and use soldered bytes that do not show errors.
【Potential root-cause】
By dropping cutting resistance feed,
reducing the deformation of the cutting
tool, securing the holding rigidity of tip
were estimated.
Reference ： formula of cutting
force(resistance)
F=ap×f×Kc
F:cutting force(resistance)(N)
Ap: cut depth（mm）
‘f: feed(mm/rev)
Kc: specific cutting force(N/mm2)
［in case of SCM steel 3600-4500］

b. Milling
Type of machine：Milling Machine

Milling machine-vertical Horizontal milling with horizontal cutter-head

175
 a. Size
・Describes per processing stroke as under-stated
Longitudinal direction Horizontal direction Y Vertical direction Z ○
X
NO
horizontal vertical horizonta Vertical horizontal vertical
l
0 450 450 150 150 300 300
1 550 550 200 200 400 300
2 700 700 250 250 400 300
3 850 850 300 300 450 350
4 1050 1050 325 350 450 400
5 1250 1250 350 400 500 450

・Spindle size (describes per size of National taper [NT])

Main spindle taper size (NT)：NT30, NT40, NT50, NT60

b. Type of tools
・Front Milling Cutter
A basic milling cutter that performs face milling with a
vertical milling machine, also called a face mill. The
slow-away type, which consists of the body of the
milling cutter and the cutting edge (tip) is the
mainstream, and if the cutting ability deteriorates, it can
be used repeatedly by changing the cutting tip.

・Side cutter

Disc-shaped, bore-type cutting tool with cutting edges on the outer

periphery and on both sides. Depending on the shape of the blade,
there are types such as regular blade, rough blade, and staggered
blade. It is used for grooving, step milling, side milling and
particularly in the case of deep grooves, the use of a side cutter is
most suitable for horizontal milling.

176
 ・End-mill

An end mill with a hemispherical bottom blade is a ball end mill, which is attached to a
machining center or a spindle of an NC milling machine, and is used in 3 dimensional
processing such as mold cutting. End mills become more rigid as the number of blades
increases and tool deflection is less likely to occur, making them suitable for precision cutting
and finishing. The disadvantage is that if the number of cutting edges is large, the clearance for
chipping is small, so the discharge performance is not good, and the heavy cutting causes chip
clogging. For roughing, it is common to use a small number offend mills and to use a multi-
edge end mill for finishing.

b. Cutting method
・Down cut and Up cut

Down Cut Up Cut

Down Cut：Tool wear is less, and chattering is also less. The feed mechanism of Machining
Center is ball type, and play is minimized, and it is used for the general metal processing.
UP Cut：In the case of general-purpose milling machines, the feed mechanism is a square
or trapezoidal screw. And the backlash of the feeder increases, and the combination with
the work material, there is a risk that the work material may slip during the material feeding.

Up Cut is used to protect above-stated risk, or the following case.

・To clean the cutting cross section by finishing
・when the surface finish of the work material is rough and the load is applied to the cutting
tool
・ in the case of a large work material(stainless, aluminum) with work hardening(strain
hardening)

・Face milling cutter

The face milling cutter is a cutting tool
that cuts a plane perpendicular to the rotation
axis of the tool. A plurality of tips are
attached at equal intervals along the
circumference, and when the Z axis is fixed,
it cuts the XY plane. The larger the outer
diameter and the more the number of tips, the
more the processing efficiency increases
because the area that hits the material
increases. Generally, a cutter with a diameter
20 to 50% larger than that of the material is
used.
In order to attach a large milling cutter, the
rigidity of the machine tool side is also required, so a large milling cutter and machining
center are also used. On the other hand, in the case of a small milling machine or

177
 machining center, it is necessary to consider that cutting resistance is not easily applied
to the main shaft, and a milling machine is selected such that the approach angle, which
is the angle of the blade to the material, becomes large. In addition, the greater the number
of milling cutters, the better the chip removal efficiency.

・End mill

End mill is a tool that cuts the material like a drill, and differs in thickness, length, number
of blades, twist angle, bottom shape. The blade also has T shape, inverted triangle and taper
shape etc. The blade on the sides is in contact with the material for cutting, peripheral cutting,
curved surface cutting, hole processing, planning and grooving, etc. The larger the number of
blades, the thicker the diameter of the mill and the harder to bend, but the distance between the
blades and blades is short and chip discharge capacity degrades. By rotating at high speed,
cutting hard materials, longer mills may bend or break. Choose shorter ones as many as
possible.

Setting of milling cutter

There are many types of cutters and various settings. Here is a typical face milling setting.

a. Cutting edge angle

178
 A:Rake angle Sharpness Cutting Cutting Chips Bonding
power edge ejecting resistance
toughness
Positive: large good small Small poor good
Negative: poor large Large good poor
small
Rake angle is generally designed depended on orthogonal clearance angle, Rake angle is
already designed in proportion to orthogonal clearance angle.

b. Engage angle (important)

The engage angle€ is determined
by the cutter diameter and the width
of the work material, and if it being
too large ,the tool life will be short
due to hitting from the cutting edge
of the insert when biting the work
material.

When engage angle is large when engage angle is short

The standard for engage angle recommends that 18to -10 for steel, 53 or less for cast iron
and 37 to 42 for aluminum.

179
 c. Cutter diameter

To use one which is 30～50% larger than the width of work material.

If the diameter of the cutter is too large, the distance until the cutter bites the work material
and comes out becoming long, and the efficiency lowered.
Milling cutter diameter;
The width of the work material are as follows;
Steel 3:2
Cast iron 5:4
Aluminum 3:2~5:3

180
 d. Cutting angle
Also called corner angle. When it is large, less cutting resistance and cutting depth (fz) is
also large. The efficiency is good but the axis resistance increases and vibration occurs if there
is no equipment rigidity. Cutting is no good.
It is standard that general steels are 30°and others are 45°.

Standard parameter of milling cutter（quoted from Mitsubishi Metal）

Less than Less than 5mm
material hardness Supe 1㎜
r Cutting Feed Cutting Feed
steel speed(m/min) (mm/blade) speed(m/ (mm/blad
symb min) e)
ol
Steel ≦HB150 P20 125-200 0.1-0.3
～HB150 P30 100-150
Alloy ≦HB150 125-200
steel 150～350 100-160
～HRc50 50-100 0.2-0.4
Cast iron ≦HB220 K10 100-150 0.1-0.15 80-125 0.1-0.3
FCD τ≦50 K10 60-120 0.1-0.15 60-100 0.1-0.3
τ≧50 K20
FCMP HB150- P20 100-160 0.1-0.3
250 P30
SUS ≧HB250 P20 60-100 0.1-0.15
Al HB90- K10 400-1000 0.05-0.10 300-500 0.1-0.3
120

181
Examples of improvement
(1) Improvement on milling feed direction (Case, Crank RH）

Cutter rev Up Cut

Down Cut

Feed

There is chattering at the time of cutting. As part of measures against flatness defects, by
changing Down Cut to Up Cut method, and also change engage angle up to 40° (change also
NC data) and improved the flatness as well as the chattering.

(2) Cutting performance improvement by the number of teeth of milling cutter (arm, trailing)
Poor surface roughness due to the
chattering .Milling cutter change from
2 blades to 4 blades and improved.
【Cause】As the number of cutter
blades increases, the resistance per
blade decreases and the machinability
improves. (However, equipment
capacity is required).

182
②Drilling
No Contents A B C
① Drilling ○
Many Drill processes are adopted in Pakistan. However, there are many examples not
based on the principle of tools and construction methods. Please fully understand this
manual and promote improvement of drilling process.

(1) Types of Drill

1) Classification by structure
Type Description
Solid drill Body and Shank together

Blade tip drill The cutting edge of another material stuck on the
shank

Insert drill Insert the body into the shank and braze

Indexable drill Replaceable the cutting edge tip

Detachable drill The blade is mechanically attached to the body

2) Shank shape
Type Description
Straight Shank Shank is cylindrical

Straight Shank with tongue In addition to the above, there is a tenon drive for
anti-stick

Taper shank Tapered shank (generally used)

3) Classification by application (Table 3)

Type Description
Pivot drill The diameter of cutting blade and shank is different

Core drill There is no cutting edge in the drill center and it is

used to expand the hole. (3 or 4 blades)

183
 Center drill Used for center hole processing

Starting drill Used for preliminary drilling to increase hole

location accuracy, and chamfering.

step drill Two-step drill used for two-step holes and holes +
chamfers

Single groove stepped

Double grooved stepped

(2) Names of parts of the drill

184
Drill setting
A: Drill blade length

Allowance for
discharging chips

B: Hole depth

Drill blade length (A) = (B) hole depth (including bush work distance and bush length)
+ 1.5 x D (diameter of drill) + regrind and penetration allowance.

(3) Each part shape and specifications

a. groove
The groove forms the rake angle of the cutting edge by the twist angle and the tip
angle, and is an important factor that determines the drill performance. The chips
generated by the cutting edge are discharged along the groove of the tip. On the other
hand, the cutting oil is supplied from the inlet of the hole toward the cutting edge
contrary to the chips. It is the groove that fulfills this series of functions, and the deeper
the hole to be machined, the greater the influence of the groove shape on the drill
performance.

Groove shape
Name Shape Web Application
General form 0.1 ～ There is a large chip
capacity.
0.25D
・For general use

High rigidity foam 0.2 ～ High rigidity, high feed

Low thrust thinning such
0.35D
as R thinning is
necessary.
・For heavy cutting
Flat grooved foam 0.3 ～ A foam that takes into
(Parabolic type) account the rigidity as
0.45D
well as the width of the
groove.
·Used for deep holes

b. Web
Web refers to the thickness of the web at the tip. The thicker the web, the higher the
strength of the drill, but conversely the shallower the groove. If the hole to be
processed is deep, the groove length of the drill will be long, so it is necessary to make
the web thickness thick to avoid bending and breakage.
Further, it is necessary to secure the width of the groove for discharging chips, and
the thickness of the tip is made thin, and a web taper is provided so as to increase in
thickness toward the shank side. Also, as the web gets thicker, thinning is required to
reduce resistance.

185
 Web taper

Web
Web taper
taper Flat Grooved Type
General Type

c. Helix angle
The twist angle of the drill is synonymous with the rake angle of the cutting edge.
When the twist angle is increased, the cutting resistance is reduced. However, when
the torsion angle is excessively increased, the drill rigidity is also reduced. (The
carbide drill has a low toughness and is up to 6° for steel). A weak twist (hard edge
strength UP) for hard materials, a strong twist (favorable sharpness) for soft materials,
and a weak twist as the diameter decreases.

Helix Angle

Tip angle and substantial cut amount

Twist angle (= Rake angle)

Weak twist angle Strong twist angle

d. Tip angle:
The tip angle is most commonly 118°. If it is increased, thrust resistance will
increase. The contact length with the work material (cutting edge length) and the actual
cutting depth (chip thickness) also change, and affecting the cutting performance.

Tip angle and thrust resistance

F: Cutting resistance
H: Thrust resistance
Tip angle 118° Tip angle> 118° U: Centric force

e. Clearance surface
The cutting edge is formed by providing a flank on the end of the groove. The shapes
are as shown in the table below and can be used depending on the application. Since
the regrinding of the drill only involves the tip, the ease of regrinding is also important.

Clearance surface
Name Shape Application
186
 Conical General drill grinding
grinding

Two-stage It is used for small diameter

flat drills because of its
excellent centripetal and
bladed precision.

Spiral The clearance of the chisel

edge is wide and suitable
for soft materials.

Flat Although the centripetally

is bad, it is possible to take
measures against burrs and
counter boring.

Radial lip It is effective in improving

surface roughness,
suppressing burrs and slap
during penetration.
Used for cast iron and Al
castings.
Candle It has the effect of
sharpening suppressing burrs and
vibrations when penetrating
thin plates and the like.

Two-step The shoulder edge has high

grinding strength and is effective for
drilling hard materials.

f. Thinning
If there is a chisel edge at the tip of the drill, the rake angle will be very small and
the tip pocket (clearance) will also be a small wedge shape, so a very large thrust load
will be generated compared to the cutting edge part. Biting property and centripetal
also gets worse. Therefore, a method of shortening the chisel edge and attaching a
scoop to improve chip discharge ability from the central part is called thinning
(thinning the web thickness).

Thinning
Name Shape Application
No thinning General purpose

R type ・Heavy cutting

・Good bite property・Chip cutting
・Reduction of thrust resistance

187
 X type ・Good bite property
・Effective for drills of relatively thick web
・Reduction of thrust resistance
N type ・For drills with low web thickness and
small tip angle
・Wide tip pocket
・The tip strength is large
S type ・For drills with low web thickness and
small tip angle
・The tip strength is large
・Easy regrinding
W type ・For heavy cutting
・For high hardness material
・Chipping measures for cutting edges
・High cutting edge strength
・Reduction of thrust resistance
Three rake ・The cutting edge accuracy is good
type ・Improvement of hole accuracy
・Not suitable for high web thickness
drills and high feeds
Special ・High cutting edge strength
thinning for ・Reduction of thrust resistance
high ・Suppress chipping in high hardness
hardness material processing
(W+R type)

g. Clearance angle
Generally, it is set in the range of 6° to
15°, and is set small in the case of a
carbide drill or a drill having a large tip Vertical clearance
angle or a large diameter, and conversely, angle
in the case of a high speed drill or a drill
having a small tip angle, a small diameter
drill. The relief angle determines the
escape with the work material, and if it is
too small, seizure occurs due to heat Side relief angle (JIS)
generation, and if too large, chipping
occur due to lack of edge strength, or chattering occurs.
It is necessary to be careful because incorrect setting of the relief angle at the time of
regrinding causes trouble.

Recommended machining standard conditions (HSS drill)

Material Tip clearance Helix Chisel
angle angle angle angle
Cast iron (HB 150) 90-118 12-15 20-32 125-135
(HB175) 12
(HB250) 118-135 7-12 20-30 115-125
FCD 118 12-15 20-32 125-135
Forged steel (Normalizing) 118-125 10-15 20-32
SCM 125-145 7-12 20-32 115-125
SUS 118-140 30-40
Aluminum (Short hole) 90-120 12-15 17-40 125-135
(Deep hole) 118-130 32-35

188
(4) Material of drill
Generally, materials of the same series as lathe tools are used, but drills require tool
rigidity, so generally high speed steel (SK, SKS) and cemented carbide are used.
Equipment rigidity is important, so use of a high hardness material (Cemented carbide)
for equipment without rigidity (e.g. Drilling machine) will cause breakage easily, so care
must be taken.

(5) Processing conditions

The processing conditions of the drill differ greatly depending on the rigidity of the
equipment, the method of drilling, the type of tool (drill), and the variation of the material
of the material to be cut.
The cutting condition reference table and tool manufacturer's recommended values are
selected for each work material to be described later, and processing is actually
performed, and the quality of processing is judged from the accuracy of hole and the state
of chip discharge.

Standard condition in case of SK, SKS

Material Tensile strength or Cutting speed Feed
hardness ［m/min］ ［mm/rev］
Carbon steel 50kg/mm2≧ 20-27 0.7d-1.0d
50-70kg/mm2 16-25
70-100kg/m2 12-18 0.7d-0.9d
Alloy steel 120kg/mm2≧ 10-16 0.7d-0.9d
120kg/mm2＜ 5-12
Cast iron HB170≧ 20-30 1.0d-2.0d
HB170-220 15-25 0.8d-1.5d
HB220< 10-20 0.7d-1.0d
Aluminum HB40-120 30-150 1.0d-2.0d
Cupper HB50-120 15-80
SUS 10-16 0.7d-1.0d
‘d: Diameter of drill(mm)

Standard conditions for carbide drills. (Table 8)

Material HB Cutting speed[m/min] Feed [mm/rev]
Φ3- Φ5.3- Φ8.5- Φ3- Φ5.3- Φ8.5-
5.3 8.5 10.6 5.3 8.5 10.6
FC - 30-60 40-70 50-80 0.1- 0.15- 0.2-0.5
0.25 0.35
FCD - 25-30 30-60 40-70 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.15-0.45
-S15C 200 40-70 0.15-0.4
≧
S45C, 200- 30-60 0.2-0.35
SCM 300
SUS 15-35 0.1-0.25

(6) Chuck ○

189
 There are the following types, which are selected according to equipment and purpose.

a. Straight Shank
b. Taper shank
Roll

Double taper collet

Single taper collet

Thread pulling

Single side

Plane end

Thread pulling

With Tongue

(7) Surface treatment of drill (Table 9)

Processing method Purpose Feature Application
Steam treatment Anti-adhesion ・Modified surface with 1 ・Applicable to
(Homo processing) improvement to 3 μm oxide film of general-purpose
Fe3O4 stainless steel
・Porous and hold cutting and mild steel
fluid such as SS41
・ Decrease of friction and S15C.
coefficient ・ Not suitable
・Adhesion prevention for Al.
・ Not suitable for non-
ferrous metals

Nitride treatment Wear ・Treatment layer 30 to 50 ・ Highly

resistance μm abrasive
improvement ・ Surface hardness 1000 material
to 1300 HV ・Cast iron
・ Abrasion resistance ・
improvement Thermosetting
・Reform the surface by resin
the infiltration into the ・ Possible to
inside of the substrate combine with
homo
processing

190
 Coating Wear ・Film thickness of 2 to 6 ・ Hard-to-cut
resistance μm materials
improvement ・ Surface hardness 2000 ・ Hard alloy
HV or more steel
・ Abrasion resistance ・Stainless steel
improvement ・Heat resistant
・ Decrease of friction steel
coefficient ・ Titanium
・Adhesion prevention alloy
Electrodeposition Wear ・ Adhesive bonding of ・ Grinding of
resistance diamond and CBN super hard and brittle
improvement abrasive grains by materials such
electroplating as ceramic
・ Abrasion resistance
improvement

(8) Chips processing

The form of the chip is very important for the cutting performance of the drill, since
the drilling process cuts in the hole and discharges the swarf through the grooves.
Chips are roughly classified as follows.

Zig-zag-shaped Transition broken Needle-like Long pitch Conical spiral Powder fan

Inappropriate form of chip causes the following obstacles.

(a) The fine chip is clogged, which lowers the life and the hole accuracy, and also causes
drill breakage. (Powder shaped fan)
(b) It becomes a long chip, wraps around the drill and interferes with the work and
causes the drill breakage. (Conical spiral, long pitch type)
(c) Long chips inhibit penetration of cutting fluid (Conical spiral, Long pitch)
Chips are divided appropriately by various methods to eliminate chipping and improve
the processability. With metal materials, as the feed rate per blade increases, the thickness
of chips increases and the form of chips tends to change, and the chips shape also changes
depending on the work material and cutting fluid. Therefore, the cutting conditions are
adjusted and stable drilling is performed so as to obtain a transition broken shape with
good chip treatability.

Measures against chips

Measures Remarks

Increase the feed Use rigid drills and machines

Intermittent feed Cycle time increases

Attach the chip breaker How to put a breaker is difficult

Apply thinning Requires dedicated regrinding machine

191
(8) Measures against precision defects ○
a) Hole accuracy
With regard to hole accuracy, machining hole enlargement, hole position
accuracy, hole bending, roundness and surface roughness can be mentioned. In
addition, burrs generated on the outlet side in drilling with a drill often cause
problems in post-processing operations. In machining, it is clear that high rigidity
and accuracy of tools, workpieces and processing machines are effective for stable
high-precision machining, but in drilling
・ Drill installation runout, processing conditions (holder, cutting speed, feed
amount, cutting fluid)
・ Drill shape (length, tip shape, web shape)
・ Shape of processed work (inlet side processed surface condition, shape of inlet
and outlet, thickness, holding condition)
These affect the accuracy of the hole.

b) Hole enlargement
Center offset and hole diameter
It is generated by swinging
Runout when installing = 0.034mm
or vibration of the tool during
processing. Shows the
influence of runout on
mounting on hole diameter
and hole position (from OSG Runout when installing = 0.112mm
technical data). For general
purpose drills with low
rigidity, this tendency is further
increased.

c) Rifling
The fact that the hole is polygonal is called rifling.
This is a phenomenon in which the hole is
distorted into a polygon due to the vibration of
the drill. In most cases, it is a triangle or a
pentagon. The two points on the cutting edge of
the drill vibrate as a turning center and draw an
equal-diameter strain circle each time it rotates
about 60 °. This is caused by the imbalance of
cutting resistance, and the drill makes one
rotation and the distorted hole produces the
imbalance of cutting resistance in the second
rotation, the phase of vibration shifts one after another, and the top of the triangular hole
has three streaks. It is a kind of regenerative chatter that appears as a streak. In most
cases, as the hole gets deeper, the friction between the drill margin and the wall of the
drill dampens the vibration, the rifle mark disappears and the roundness also improves.
However, the hole at this time is a wide funnel-like hole in the mouth. In order to
eliminate this phenomenon, it is possible to suppress run-out during installation, lip
height, and irregularities in point shape, etc.

a. Increase the rigidity of the drill

b. Increase the feed per rotation (roundness improves as feed amount increases)
c. Reduce the clearance angle
d. Thinning shape change

192
【Pakistan case】 Figure 9: Cover Brake

The accuracy of the hole diameter of Φ10

hole and the pitch of Φ12-Φ10 are poor.
Also, the machined surface is bad.

i. Cause: The drill is dislocated and chattered because the normal drill is used for the pilot
hole (a normal drill cannot be bored). Since there is no drill rigidity and no bush is used,
the rigidity of drilling is insufficient and the hole is in a rifling state.

ii. Measures: A change in the tool (Change from drill to boring or core drill) has been
proposed but it is not accepted in terms of cost. Temporary measures are currently made
by increase the machining allowance for finish reamers and lowering the machining
allowance for drills.

d) Burrs
During drilling, burrs may come out at the hole outlet and hole inlet sides of the
workpiece. It occurs particularly when drilling ductile materials and thin plates.

Figure: Mechanism of burrs

Plastic
The end of drill hole processing deformation

Bending
(roll over)

Countermeasure for burrs

Increase the relief angle Suppress burrs by sharpening the
cutting edge and reducing cutting
Cutting chips
Cutting edge resistance.

Large relief
angle
Work material

193
 Increase tip angle By increasing the tip angle, it is
possible to shorten the plastic
140 Tip angle 160 Tip angle deformation distance so that the force
acts in the direction to suppress the
rollover.

W angle, corner R shape Suppress burrs by changing the cutting

thickness and changing the direction of
cutting force.
Decrease feed amount Reduce burrs by reducing the amount
of cutting and cutting resistance.

【Pakistan case】
This is an example in which the penetration of the
drill is uneven and burrs are generated because the
biting surface of the drill and the drilled side are
not horizontal and are curved surfaces. At present
the burrs are removed manually.

The method for improving the hole position

accuracy is described below. I hope you will try it
in the future.

(a) Centering (starting drill)

(b) Counterbore processing
(c) Increase the rigidity of the drill (stub type, higher core thickness,)
(d) Make point shape and thinning with emphasis on biteability
(e) Lower the feed

(10) Regrind
When the drill has reached the end of life and the need to regrind, the following is
taken into consideration.
(a) Wear amount of cutting edge corner, chisel, margin, etc. (JIS B 0171 excerpt)

Flunk wear Peripheral wear Rake face wear Corner wear Chisel edge wear

(b) Machined hole size, accuracy, surface finish

(c) Chip color and shape
(d) Cutting resistance (spindle current value, sound, vibration will be substituted)
(e) Processing quantity

It is necessary to decide the judgment standard which is easy to manage from these
according to the contents of work. According to the wear judgment, regrind is only for
the flank surface of the tip and thinning, so if it is used until the wear is considerably
advanced, the regrind itself takes time and the tool life may be shortened even if it can
be regrind.
It is important to determine the economical amount of tool wear taking into account
the total life of one drill = regrind life × number of regrindings.
The judgment criteria based on the machined hole shall be when the expansion

194
allowance of the hole, the bending or straightness of the hole, etc. exceed the control
value as a result of confirmation by the limit gauge, cylinder gauge, etc. It is also an
effective way to stop the equipment when torque, thrust or power requirements exceed
certain limits. In constant management, the above items are comprehensively judged,
and a fixed quantity is used as a judgment standard.
In drill regrinding, it is important to use a drill dedicated or universal type tool
grinder to obtain stable life and hole accuracy. The shape of regrind is basically to be
the shape of a new drill if it can be processed without problems with a new drill.
However, if there is a problem with the shape of the new drill, select a suitable cutting
edge shape and thinning depending on the processing purpose.

▶ Notes on regrinding
(a) Do not give the drill a heat that causes a decrease in hardness
(b) Eliminate all damage, especially damage to the outer margin
(c) Eliminate imbalance in point shape as shown in the figure
(d) Remove grinding burrs without giving chipping or chipping by grinding

Eccentricity of the chisel edge Lip height

Half width error

Carbide drills are regrind to have the same shape as new drills, because the degree to
which the quality of regrind affects the performance is high.

195
③ Reamer, Thread cutting
No Contents A B C
① (1)Reamer processing ○
1)Reamer shape, specifications

食付部

a. Diameter
The diameter（D）means the diameter of the cylindrical part immediately after the bite,
and in machine reamer, in general, is the diameter of apportion 1.0~1.5D long from the tip.
It is important to make the diameter of this part correctly aligned with the processing
dimension.

b. Back taper
The reamer is tapered from the length of the diameter towards the shank. This is called
a back taper, and 0.02 to 0.03mm/100mm is the standard. If it being too large, the burnishing
effect will be reduced and if it being too small, the reamer due to tightening by inner
diameter of the hole, the burnishing torque becomes excessive, causing chattering or burn-
in results.

c. Number of blades;
The number of reamer blades is even
and one which has large number of blades Diameter(mm) Number of blades
becomes better finished surface, however 3.0-12.5 4-6
the cutting resistance will increase. 13.0-25.0 6-8
Also, the strength of the cutting edge is 26.0-38.0 8-12
reduced, and chip clogging tends to occur. 40.0-52.0 10-14
Standard values show in Table 1. 55.0-78.0 12-18
80.0-100.0 14-20

196
 d. Land & margin
The dimensions to the cutting edge and
the heel are (L)land and there Material Number of tooth
are(M)Margin and Clearance surface Cast iron 0.05-0.10
between them. If land is narrow, cutting Alloy steel
blade stiffness decreases and chatter Heat resistant 0.10-0.30
occurs. Margin is a portion which steel(SUH)
determines the dimensional accuracy by Cu
burnishing the inner surface of the hole, Aluminum 0.50-1.50
cut by the major cutting edge with the Mg 0.20-0.60
minor cutting edge of the biting portion.
If margin width is narrow, it causes wear and charring. If it is wide, the burnishing torque
becomes large and tool life becomes short. Table 2 shows the margin width standard.

e. Bite part
A reamer bite (chamfer) has a bite portion for cutting and a guide portion for scribing,
which forma cutting edge. The inclination of the major cutting edge with respect to the
reamer axis © is a biting angle, and a machine reamer has a standard of 45°.The connection
between the main cutting edge and the secondary cutting edge may leave a feed mark on
the inner diameter, and the biting portion be in 2 stages. The 2 step cutting blade is only for
a through hole and not applicable to a blind hole.

f. Rake angle
The standard cutting edge of the Material Rake angle: degree
machine reamer is (A)rake angle 8°, Carbon steel 5
(B)rake angle 0~5° (standard values are Alloy steel 7-10
shown in Table). SUS
Cast iron 0-5
Aluminum 5-10
Mg 5-8
L

ⅳ
C

(2)Cutting allowance, processing conditions(HSS reamer);

The reaming allowance is 3% or less of the machined diameter, under hole diameter
(Example: 0.3 allowance, 0.6 diameter in ⌀20). Processing standard values are shown in
below table.

HSS Reamer-cutting parameter

Material Cutting speed Feed (mm/rev)
(m/min) ReamerΦ5
≧ Φ5-20 Φ21-50 Φ50＜
Carbon Steel Soft 3-6 0.2-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-0.6 0.6-1.2
- Hard 2-4
SCM, SCr Soft 3-4 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.4 0.4-0.5 0.5-0.8
197
 (Alloy steel) Hard 2-3
FC (Cast iron) Soft 4-6 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0 1.0-1.5 1.5-3.0
Hard 3-4
FCD Soft 4-6 0.2-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-0.6 0.6-2.0
Hard 3-4
Aluminum Soft 12-2- 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0 1.0-1.5 1.5-3.0
Hard 3-12

The removal allowance of the reamer has a large effect on machined hole accuracy. In
addition, the Coaxiality between the machined pilot hole and the reamed hole is also
important, and if this is deviated, the reamer is vibrated due to the unbalance of the
machining allowance, which causes the chattering and the hole accuracy defect.(see Figure)
< hole accuracy defect > <Floating reamer holder>

There are also chucks of floating Reamer Holder (see the above figure) that can be
machined by shifting the reamer axis during machining of the center hole of the pilot hole
and the machining hole. However, the hole position follows the pilot hole (if the pilot hole
position is misaligned, the reamer hole also effected to shift).

(3)trouble shooting

Defect Root cause Counter measure

hole diameter accuracy Fast cutting speed Reduce its speed
variation
Fast feeding Reduce feeding speed

Weld to margin width Margin optimization

Chuck accuracy, runout Equipment rigidity taper

chuck
Insufficient coolant Internal fueling to deep
hole
Composition of cutting Reduce cutting speed
edge Coolant change
Allowance optimization
Reduce margin width

Imperfect surface finish Less burnishing Increase margin width

Reduce bite angle/back
taper

198
 (4)Pakistan cases
Finishing surface of reamed hole is imperfect accuracy

Before: Wrong roughness

(Requirement :12.5 S After improvement

[Cause]
too large of allowance and lack
of burnish

[Counter-measure]
optimum of allowance and
change of margin width
（0.05→0.10～0.12mm）

(5)Tap
Here, the machine tap for mass production is described.
（explanation of Hand Tap is omitted）

1)Types of tap
The taps are finished in 1 step using taps with 2.5ridgesfor bite part.
In the case of blind hole, there are 2.5 incomplete threads.

There are the following types of taps.

Spiral Tap：used for blind holes. The grooves are spiraled

② to facilitate the discharges of chips.

Point tap：used for through holes. Suitable for work

pieces with continuous chips.

199
 Roll tap：Finish the thread by rolling instead of
cutting. Pre-hole (pilot hole) accuracy is required, but
thread strength can be improved about 1.4 times that
of the cutting tap. Suitable for ductile materials
(aluminum, steel, copper) etc.

2)Cutting conditions
Tap speed is automatically determined by the number of tool rotations and the thread
pitch. Here, only important cutting speeds are shown.

Tap cutting speed（m/min）

Material Spiral Point Roll Cemented
carbide
Carbon steel ≧S15C 8-15 10-20 8-15 -
S15-45C 6-12 8-14 7-12 -
S45C< 5-10 8-12 5-10 -
Steel(Heat treatment) <HRc45 3-5 4-7 - -
FC - - - 15-25
SCM 5-10 7-10 5-10 -
SUS 3-8 4-9 6-15 -
SKD 5-8 6-10 - -
FCD 5-10 5-10 - 12-20
Cu 8-12 8-13 25-35 15-33
AL -7000 15-25 20-25 25-35 23-40
AC,ADC 11-22 12-24 15-25 15-25
Ti_Alloy 6-9 6-9 - -

3) Pakistan cases
a. thread defect（Front Arm Setting Nut）
Thread shape defect occurs with thread gauge.

【Cause】
Improper processing speed
【Counter-measure】
Tool rotation speed optimization
1120rpm→460rpm
(21m/min→8.6m/min） ：
Normally 6～12 m/min

【Results】
Defects improved to almost zero.

200
b. Insufficient thread strength (Crown Handle)

Strength test for M8 × 1.25

thread of Crown Handle
Improving with Roll tap

【Cause】
The number of effective threads 【Counter-measure/Results】
in the cutting tap is small and the Improved by changing from
strength does not meet the OEM cutting tap to rolling tap.
requirements.

201
④ Grinding process
No Contents A B C
① Grinding process ○
There are Machine grinding using a grinder and Free Grinding performed by Hand
Grinder etc., but only Machine grinding is explained here.

(1) Mechanism of grinding

This is a process in which a grindstone as a tool is rotated and a workpiece rotating
in the opposite direction to the grindstone is cut with abrasive grains having a particle
size (in the case of mechanical grinding: # 46 to # 220).
The abrasive grains are sintered with a bond. Abrasive grain wears and falls off at
the same time as processing of a workpiece by grinding. At this time, chips adhere
between the abrasive grains and clogging occurs, and the machinability gradually
decreases.
Therefore, during processing, a "Dressing" process is required to scrape off the wheel
surface.

Abrasive
Grain
Bond
Grinding
wheel

Grinding
Workpiece wheel

Workpiece

Chip abrasive Air hole

grain

Above figure: Outline of cutting (quoted: Grinding basics, Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun,
2006)
The grinding speed is expressed by the peripheral speed, and is very fast at 30 to
100 m / sec (1800 m / min-6000 m / min). Therefore, the following matters are
important.
・The grinding wheel and spindle are balanced.
→ Not only does the accuracy deteriorate due to vibration, but it also carries the risk
of grinding stone breakage.
・ Selection of grinding conditions according to the specifications of equipment and
grinding wheel
→ Do not exceed the maximum peripheral speed of the equipment and grinding
wheel

(2) Cylindrical grinding: Machining the outer diameter or end face of a cylindrical
workpiece. Using a cylindrical grinder, one with a 90° angle to the part is called (P)
Plunge cut, and one with an inclination is called (A) Angular Slide grinding.

202
 Types of outer diameter grinding

(P)Plunge Cut Travers cut

Taper grinding Edge grinding Form grinding

(A)Angular slide cut Multi wheel

Angular Grinding example

In the case of Angular

Grinding, it is necessary to
determine the feed position
of the grinding wheel at two
points, diameter (D) and end
face (L).

Automatic sizing
apparatus:
Control the grinding wheel
L feed position by
measurement of end face
position (L) and outer
diameter (ΦD)

Grinding conditions (It will be described as an example because it varies depending

on equipment accuracy and rigidity)
※ Data not disclosed for aluminum grinding
Material Grinding Circumferential Feed (Coarse / Allowance
wheel: Type speed (m / sec) Fine: μ / rev) (mm)
(Grain size)

Cast iron A,WA(#32-80) 45-120 5-8/1-2 ≦0.15

Steel, Alloy WA,GC(40- 45-120 1.5-3.0/-.5-1.5
steel 100)

Aluminum GC,CBN 500-1200 ※ ≦0.10

203
(3) Surface grinding
Surface grinding machines are classified according to the orientation of the main
spindle with respect to the table surface, and there are vertical axis types and horizontal
axis types. Moreover, it divides into a square table shape and a round table shape
according to the shape of a table. Reciprocating the table is in the form of a square
table, often used for mold correction. It is a round table type that the table rotates.
Figure: Surface grinding type

Grinding wheel Grindingwheel

Grinding wheel
Grinding wheel
Workpiece

Table
Table
Vertical axis square table type Vertical axis round table type
Grinding wheel

Workpiece
Table
Table

Horizontal
Horizontal axis
axis square
square table
table type
type Horizontal axis round table type
Vertical axis round table type
(4) Centerless grinding
As shown in below figure, on the Work rest (Blade), the workpiece is sandwiched
between the grinding wheel and the adjusting wheel to carry out grinding. The
adjusting wheel drives the workpiece so as to give a rotational difference compare
with the grinding wheel.
Grinding wheel Workpiece Control Wheel
hole

Blade

Work rest

The grinding wheel speed (circumferential speed) is the same as cylindrical grinding,
but the rotation speed of the adjusting wheel is selected so that the peripheral speed of
the workpiece is 1/20 to 1/50 of the grinding wheel. The adjustment wheel and the
workpiece are offset at the center position, and the workpiece is pressed against the
work rest by the rotational difference between the grinding wheel and the workpiece,
and grinding is performed.
(5) Through feed grinding
When grinding parts longer than the grinding wheel width by centerless grinding,
the adjusting wheel is inclined and the grinding force of the grinding wheel is exerted
204
 in the cross feed direction on the work rest to continuously grind the outer periphery
of the shaft. In this case, the adjusting wheel is not straight but is slightly concave in
shape, and the dressing is also concave in shape.

Control wheel

Tilt angle
Center height
Contact line

Control wheel diameter

② Convex amount

Dressing

Center height
Tilt angle

Thorough feed grinding

(6) Notes on centerless grinding

a. Work rest height
In centerless grinding, the grinding wheel, adjusting wheel and parts need to be
held in balance on the work rest, so the Work Height becomes important. The
position from the center of the grinding wheel and the adjusting wheel to the center
of the processing part is (D / 2) + α (α = 2 to 4 mm: adjusted by the material and
the grinding accuracy).

b. Adjustment wheel material

Abrasive grain Basic grade use A abrasive grains and high grade (high durability
and high frictional force) use AZ abrasive grains
Particle size The standard is # 150. Grain size selection affects workpiece slip
and accuracy.
205
 Degree of The standard is R.
coupling

(7) Grinding wheel

Grinding wheel symbol

A: Shape
1: Flat type 2: Ring / disk 3: Taper on both sides 4: Taper on both sides
5: Recess on one side 6: Straight cup 7: Recess on both sides
8: Safety 11: Taper cup 27, 28: Offset type
B: Outer diameter x Thickness x Hole diameter
C: Abrasive grain — A,WA,PA,SA,CX,C,GC,CBN,Diamond
D: Grain size: 8-3000, For general mechanical grinding, use 46 ~ 220.
E: Hardness (Degree of bonding): A (soft) to Z (hard)
F: Structure: 0 (Soft) ~ 14 (Coarse)
G: Bonding material: V (Vitrified), B (Resinoid), R (Rubber), M (Metal),
P (Electrodeposition)
H: Maximum operating circumferential speed: 30, 33, 40, 45, 57, 50, 63,

serial (C)Abrasiv Usage Remark

e Grain
Al2O A Carbon steel, Alloy steel
3径 WA ≧HRc50
PA Carbon steel, Alloy steel, Cast iron
SA
CX Carbon steel, alloy steel, Cast iron, stainless
steel
Carbo C Cast iron
n GC Carbid, Aluminum
Speci CBN Steel, Cast iron Long life
al grinding
Diamond Carbide, Ceramic, Glass
2, 80, 100 (m / SEC)

(8)Dressing
In the case of the grind wheel, when the number of operation increases, the
abrasive grains wear, drop off and clog, the sharpness decreases, and the grinding
burns and the processing accuracy deteriorate. For this reason, it is necessary to
cut off the surface of the grinding wheel and the adjusting wheel with a diamond
or the like. The conditions vary depending on the grinding conditions, but please
set the following reference.

a. Grinding amount: A single infeed is 0.03 or less, and is selected according to the
required surface finish.
Infeed (mm) 0.005-0.009 0.01-0.03 0.031≦
Grinding High precision Normal grinding Roughing etc
206
 surface
Requested finish 0.8S≧ 1.6S-3.2S 6,4S≦

b. Feeding: The following formula is standard.

F＝(d×N)/(2.5×1000)
F: Dresser feed speed (mm/min)
D: Average grain size of abrasive grains (μm: see the following table)
N: Grinding wheel (or adjustment wheel) rotation speed (rpm)
Feed speed of general grinding wheel (particle size # 46-# 100) and grinding
surface roughness reference standard.
Finished surface 0.006 0.003 0.002 0.001
Feed (mm/rev) 0.2 0.1 0.06 0.04

Grinding wheel grain size number and abrasive grain diameter

Number (D) 30 36 46 60 70 80
Diameter(μm) 590 500 350 297 210 177
Number (D) 90 100 120 150 180 220
Diameter (μm) 49 125 105 74 62 53
【Pakistan Case】
1. Finished surface and dimensional accuracy

Unable to satisfy required accuracy 1.6s,

dimensional tolerance ± 0.005

Measures:
・Change the abrasive grain size to
46 from 32.
・Optimize the work height
Correct to standard value (d / 2) + 4

Blade

Work rest

207
 Formula used for improvement (Method to measure work height from
equipment)

Work Height=gf=(D2/2)-ef
ef =df-de
df=Actual Measurement
de=ab×(L2/L)
ab=(D1/2)-(D2/2)

2. Feed mark
Through Feed
Feed mark flaw occurs in ”Through feed process”.

Correcting the wear of the

work rest and the dressing
shape of the adjusting wheel.
(In progress)

208
⑤Gear machining
No Contents A B C
① Gear machining ○
Due to the difficult Gear machining, will explain herewith the basic design concept
and its machining (processing) outline. Target is limited to spur gears. However, gears
used in automobiles have higher requirements in terms of accuracy and strength such as
helical, rack, pinion and hypoid, and actual machining/processing requires many other
techniques and experience.

(1)Gear tooth shape;

Involute
When the yarn wound
around a circle is
unwound in the
circumferential direction,
the locus drawn by one
point of the yarn is called
involute.

(2)Gear dimension
a. specification
Gear specification

b. Tooth size
M: Module
Module is the factor which represents the tooth size and expressed in the following
formula.
D：Pitch Diameter
D
Z: Number of tooth
M= Z
209
 c. Pressure angle

Common Line of action

Basic Circle
(Gear B)
Basic Circle
(Gear A)

Normally there are many gears atα=20°

(3) Off set gear

In theory, if the number decreases the

tooth base will be in a shape of scooped up
(Under Cut) and strength falls. The tooth
shape with the meshing pitch circle shifted
to prevent this is called OFF set gear.

Normal tooth form Off set tooth form

Off set gear is a gear whose
meshing (T) pitch circle meshes
D outside of a regular tooth shape
(D) reference pitch circle, and the
pressure angle on the meshing
T pitch circle is called the meshing
pressure angle, and is different
from the calculated pressure
angle.
D

There are plus transitions in which the tooth thickness is larger than that of the regular
tooth shape and minus transitions in which the tooth thickness is smaller than that.

210
(4)Hob processing
a. tools and principles
Hob cutter
The hob is a milling cutter with a
cutting blade on the worm.
As the hob rotates, each cutting edge
on the thread surface synchronizes
with the rotation of the workpiece to
create a tooth shape.

Blade pass profile

Hob processing principle

Blade Pass

Tooth

211
 Module & pressure angle are constrained on hob blade specification. Gear train
between hob and workpiece gear has to be changed depend on number of teeth of
workpiece gear.
Ex: NJ-300(Japan machine) defined calculation formula is
12/N= (A/B) × (C/D) =>N=Number of teeth.
In case of cutting teeth 165 of gear,
A=99, B=80, C=24, D=99 are calculated and
12/165= (99/80) × (24/99) is selected.
With this machine, in case of N=12, rotation is determined D=A, so one revolution of
hob spindle rotate 1/12 revolution of workpiece gear. Each hobbing machine has
calculation formula or setting tables.

b. Cutting conditions;
i) cutting speed：50 (TiN coating) ~250 (PVD coating) m/min
ii) feed：greatly affects the finished surface,
standard value (figure quoted from Mitsubishi Material)

Hobbing Feed(m/min)
finishing 0.8-2.0
Before shaving 2.0-4.5
Before cutting 2.0-6.5
iii) shift
The hob is determined by the amount of wear that causes maximum wear on the bite
side (rough cutting area), and the regrind timing is determined. The hob cutting
position is moved in the direction of the hob axis at a constant cutting length, and the
maximum wear amount is dispersed to each blade. This is called Hob Shifting.
iv) Machining time
machining time is calculated in the following formula.

T= Z・I・N Z・N(l1+b+l2)
=
F・n・Zw F・n・Zw

T: machining time (min)

Z: number of tooth
I: hob movement amount (mm)
‘n: hob rotation number (rpm)
N: number of cuts
Zw: hob row number
‘ l1: hob movement amount at start of cutting (mm)
‘ b: tooth width (mm)
‘ l2: hob movement amount at end of cutting (mm)

212
 v) Climb Cut (Down Cut)/ Conventional Cut (Up Cut)
Cutting Method

Hob rotation

Hob Feed

Conventional Climb

Conventional Climb
Large module Medium/small module
Hob flank wear × ○
Finish roughness ○ ×
Cutting bite × ○
Chips dischargeability ○ ×

vi) Hob regrind

The hob is re-polished with a dedicated grinder on the rake face. The shape
accuracy of each blade is important to ensure the accuracy of the table.

【standard condition：CBN wheel】

Grind speed：1800~2000m/min
feed：150~250m/min
incision：0.1~0.15mm/pass

Hob re-grind accuracy and gear accuracy

Error Hob shape Cutting gear tooth form Impact to gear
Groove Error
Division 0.1mm=>tooth
shape error 6μ

Rake Rake angle

angle error
1°→pressure
angle 3°

Swell in Scooping
scooping surface 凸 0.1
surface ㎜ →tooth
shape error 6μ

213
 Groove Lead error
lead 1°→pressure
angle 10°

Attach Swing 0.025 ㎜

swing →undulate
9μ

vii) Hob axis accuracy

Runout management of the hob shaft and the processed product mounting shaft
required. (Less than 0.02 for 2nd class Gears)

Hob accuracy

(4)PAKISTAN cases
Kaizen cases
Gear Idler
Base tangent length is out of tolerance. As
a result of the investigation, since the
variation was little in the new hob, re-
polishing accuracy was estimated to be
insufficient.

214
Counter-measure-1) Counter-measure-2)
Manual indexing the position Correct the runout of the
of hob grinding machine→ cutter arbor of the hobbing
Change to use Index Plate and machine（0.04→0.015mm）
implemented Kaizen.

215
⑥Tightening
No Contents A B C
① (1) Tightening ○
In spite that tightening is important, it can be carried out with simple tools and are
often handled easily, but there are many problems over time (problems occurring in the
process of using for the products). So it can be detected at the time of the shipment and
causes problem. Their effects can be fatal. As a result of conducting a survey on the
thread tightening failures of the car which one OEM shows that the tightening failure
is the main cause of the trouble and when loose fatigue destruction related to it added,
it nearly shares 70% of the total problems related to the tightening.

Since the initial tightening force directly affects the functional quality with fatigue
destruction or loosening of the fastening body, the reliability of the fastening body
largely depends on this tightening control.

(2) Bolt tightening method;

① torque method,
② torque gradient method,
③ rotation angle method,
④ elongation measurement method;
There are 4 methods and ②③④ are limitedly applied to the specialized parts such
as engine of which details information are described in the general rules(JIS B 1083).In
this manual, only ① torque method which used widely in general are explained
intensively.

(3) Torque method;

When the bolt is tightened, the torque is consumed 50% to the friction of the bearing
surface, 40% consumed for the friction of the thread face, only the remaining 10% is
converted to the axial force. Transmission efficiency is insufficient and axial force
variation is likely to occur, however, it is widely used because that it is a simple method
with excellent workability.

(4) torque and axial force

When bolt is tightened, in general, as figure Bolt strain and axial force
“Bolt strain and axial force” shows, the axis
surrenders to with value lower than b of the
simple pulling and relatively decreases
the axial force. This rate of decline is big
as friction coefficient of the thread face
Axial force

and the bearing face, and friction

coefficient is to be fixed in the material,
lubrication state of the fastening body and
the female thread.
Aimed clamping axis force are usually
fixed in the elasticity domain that strain
maximizes 70% of standard
Proof stress when they tighten a bolt by
torque method.

(5) Calculation of torque;

Relation between torque (Tf) and axis force (Ff) is expressed in the formula (1).
Tf=k・d・Ff…………(1)
Formula (19) is replaced with (2) by the variation of k or tolerance set of Tf.
In general, the tightening torque TfA is determined by formula (2).
TｆA＝0.35k(1+1/Q)σy・AS・d……(2)
Where k is the friction coefficient of the thread surface (μS), the friction coefficient of
216
the bearing surface. Typical values are determined by (μw), as shown in the below table
“Torque factor”.
⇒there is a difference in the value of k depending on the combination condition. It
turns out to be a factor which generates variation in tightening axial force.
Q is called a tightening factor and can be expressed as Q=Ff max／Ff min ,which
serves as a measure of variation. Q varies depending on the method of tightening and
tools, etc. and standard values are shown in table “Tightening factor Q”.

Torque factor
Bolt surface treatment Torque factor(k)
A
B

A-B
Steel bolt 0.145 SCM-FC
(black oxidation film) 0.155 SCM-SCM
with oil 0.215 Al-Al
Steel bolt 0.25 SCM-FC
(black oxidation film) 0.35 SCM-SCM
no oil 0.550 Al-Al

Tightening factor Q
Tightening Method of Surface condition Lubrication
factor :Q tightening Bolt Nut
1.25 Torque Phosphating - all
wrench
1.6 Impact MoS2 pasted
wrench
1.8 Torque No lubricant
wrench(with
limited
torque)
3.0 wrench all

The point to be noted is that torque coefficient t (k) changes the coefficient of friction
in the surface condition of the bearing surface and thread surface. As a result, the value
of k fluctuates by nearly double. In other words, even if the same thread, by change of
adhere to oil or not, the axial force is doubled at the same torque.
⇒oil adhesion to the thread surface cause thread breakage and torque slippage (Slip),
due to excessive axial force.

(6) Standard torque;

Standard torque is defined in JIS by bolt strength grade（4T～12T）.Normal design
standards are based on this rule.

217
Standard torque（N-m）

(7) Notes on torque control and tightening works;

For torque operations which require torque control is torque wrench and to manage
the tightening torque.
Notes in this case are the following.
a. The most common errors are to forget tightening. Checkmarks must be made at the
same time as the torque wrench operation (Collective marking later would be NG)
It is also necessary Pokayoke such as a counter type torque wrench which can
monitor the number of tightening.
b. For confirmation of QL type torque wrench(type in which the neck part is bent and
make sound at specified torque. Be sure to turn nut with torque wrench (to confirm
218
 tightening margin), and confirm the
tightening sound (to confirm tightening QL type Torque Wrench
rotation), if no rotation, there is the
possibility of over torque.
c. Stop tightening when a confirmation sound is
heard.
d. When confirming torque of the completely
tightened parts again at the shipping inspection
etc., confirm that the tightening rotation can be
performed with 15% or less of the specified torque
(retightening torque).
e. Type F should not be used in MP lines, as there
are many human errors with over tightening.
f. Check the torque of important fastening part F type Torque Wrench
after 24 hours passed after the complete
tightening.(The bearing surface may conform with
the passage of time and, axial force may decrease
in particular, tightening at the sheet metal surface.
g. No adhesion of oil on tightening surface unless
there is a draw instruction（possibility of too high
Axial force）
h. Ensure flatness and parallelism of the
tightening bearing surface(the axial force
decreases over time)
i. Torque check is basically on the nut side.
j. Check torque of bolt and nut with small torque tolerance. If there is a risk of over
torque in case of retightening torque, check the tightening torque by the angle
method.
Angle tightening
③Re-tightening
④ Confirm torque of
①Make marking on nut or bolt in
tighening position ① the tightening state.
② Loosen

②Loosen around 45 degrees

③ Again, tighten it with torque

wrench(F type) to the marking
① Marking position of①.

④ Confirm the torque at the

position of marking.

(7) Tolca bolt;

Bolt which applied a friction regulator and to lower coefficient of friction of thread
surface, giving high axial force used in the chassis of the car which requires high axial
force is called tolca bolt.
The method of tightening is subject to OEM instruction, however, notes in the
following points.

219
 a. Axial force, depending on the tightening speed, controls tightening speed with AC
servos（Be careful at the time of manual operation）.
Reference: A parameter “joint Coefficient” to prescribe tightening speed and torque
curve in the case of torque bolt.
b. Reuse is impossible.（not possible to retighten）
Electric wrench
(9)Impact wrench;
Usually drive with air, and often results in over torque
by a shock at the time of the tightening. Form air
pressure control with using regulator.

(10)Electric wrench with torque detecting function

recommended (please refer to the figure “electric
wrench”).

(11)Locknut
a. Reuse is impossible, use a new part always.
b. Prevention Torque added (idle tightening torque which do not adhere to the
bearing surface) to set management tightening torque.

(12) Thread locker

a. Use one conforming 100% with drawing requirement.
b. Adhere to usage expiration date.

(13) Pakistan cases Seat assembly

Figure “seat assembly” shows the
situation of thread hole repair at the
time of Seat assembly, which is
important safety part.
Since welding accuracy
insufficient, almost all thread are re-
tapped (Re-Tapping) and then bolts
of the adjuster and the seat body
tightened. In this case, there is a
possibility that thread may be
damaged and it may be loosened in
the process even if the torque is
apparent.
It is necessary to check the torque
after 24Hr after the tightening as
well as single part accuracy
improvement.

220
 5.12 Other Individual Technical Skills

① Parts Paint Process

No Contents A B C
① Major Principle 〇
According to the OEM Parts Drawing & Required Quality Specs.

② Selection of Paint 〇
Basically, follow the OEM required quality specifications and decided paint maker brand.
1) Solvent Paint Properties：Short Delivery time (less tinting time), Maximum possible
small lot size (tinting only the required quantity), easy color change (Possibly only
Thinner Washing)
2) Powder Coating Properties：High paint film thickness possible (one coat 50~80μ),
Excellent Environment performance (Non Organic Solvent), reusable (recoverable
overspray), difficult color change (hard to manage at site, good to use for mono color).
3) Water base paint properties：High safety (Non inflammable), environment friendly (Non
organic solvent)
③ Main Paint Procedure 〇
An overview is given below;
1) Sheet Metal Exterior body parts：
1-1．Pre-Treatment → ED → Top Coat (Body Color & color matching)
1-2．Pre-Treatment → Top Coat → spray top coat
2) Sheet Metal Chassis Inner Sheet Parts：
2-1．Pre-Treatment → ED → (Spray top coat)
2-2．Pre-Treatment → Spray Powder Coating
3) Plastic Exterior Skin Parts：
3-1．Pre-Treatment → Spray Powder Undercoat → Spray top coat
4) Aluminum Outer Panel Parts：
4-1．Pre-Treatment → ED → Spray top coat
4-2．Pre-Treatment → Spray Powder Undercoat → Spray top coat
5) Major warnings：
5-1．Pre-Treatment：Painting items are Sheet Metal, Plastic, Aluminum, each has different
processes and chemical agents.
5-2．ED：Paint items are Sheet Metal Exterior Skin & Chassis Inner, paint will be different
for each of them.
5-3. Spray Undercoat：Paint items are Sheet Metal, Plastic, Aluminum and paint is
different for each of them.
5-4. Spray Top coat：Paint items are Sheet Metal, Plastic, Aluminum, and paint material
is different for each of them.
④ Paint Plan 〇
As per OEM’s drawing & required specs, plan paint as per following sequence. Major
points are required process, machine capacity, and secure paint environment.
1) Pre-treatment / Paint Process Plan
2) Pre-treatment / Paint equipment & Layout Plan
3) Chemicals / Paint Selection
4) Exhaust & Waste Water treatment plan (Exhaust & waste water treatment plan which
qualifies the environmental regulation of the area)

221
⑤ Pre-treatment / Paint Process：Sheet Metal ED Case 〇
1) Hanging on Hangers
2) Hot water bath
3) Pre-degreasing
4) Degreasing
5) 1st water bath
6) 2nd water bath
7) Surface Conditioning
8) Phosphating
9) 3rd water bath
10) 4th water bath
11) D.I. water bath
12) Electro Deposit (ED)
13) UF water bath
14) D.I. water bath
15) Air Blow
16) Dry Oven (160～210℃ ×15～20 minutes)
17) Setting
18) Spray top coat
19) Setting
20) Clear Coat
21) Bake Dry (140～180℃ ×20～30 minutes)
22) Unloading

Benefits of Electro Deposit：

ED Paint is lead-free Epoxy Resin Pain. Therefore, it is excellent for rust prevention,
adhesion, and to ensure uniform film thickness. Its expected resistance is more than 700
Hours in Salt Spray Test (SST).

Passivation Treatment not required：

Unless the part to be painted is not temporarily kept as stock between the pre-treatment
and ED (in order to carry out continuous production), passivation treatment in between is
not required. It is not only for ED but it will also bet the same for under coat (Spray, Powder).
⑥ Pre-Treatment/Paint Process：Exterior Plastic Panels Paint Case (BS, PP parts) 〇
1) Loading
2) Air Blow
3) Degreasing
4) Under Coat (Spray, Powder)
5) Setting
6) Spray Inter Coat
7) Setting
8) Spray Top coat
9) Setting
10) Low Temperature Dray Bake (70～110℃ × 20～40 minutes)
11) Unloading
Paint Process Key point：
In case of 3C (3 coats) of body, inter coat will be painted in such a case but inter coat will
be eliminated in case of vehicle body 2C (2 coats). In this case OEM consensus is required.
222
⑦ Pre-Treatment/Paint Process：Exterior Aluminum Panel case 〇
1) Loading
2) Hot water rinse
3) Degreasing
4) 1st water bath
5) Neutralization (Oxidation)
6) 2nd water bath
7) Chromate Coating
8) 3rd water bath
9) 4th water bath
10) DI water
11) Dry
12) Setting
13) Under coat (Spray, Powder)
14) Setting
15) Inter Coat (Spray)
16) Setting
17) Top Coat (Spray, Color)
18) Setting
19) Dry Bake Oven (130～150℃ ×20min.)
20) Unloading

＊Paint Process Key point：

In case of 3C (3 coats) of body, inter coat will be painted in such a case but inter coat will
be eliminated in case of vehicle body 2C (2 coats). In this case OEM consensus is required.
⑧ Paint Defects and their Root Causes： 〇
1) Dust：In air, paint, Paint Equipment, Paint Booth, Worker
2) Flotation：Paint Viscosity, Worker, Worker posture
3) Gloss：Paint Tinting, Dry Bake Oven Parameter (Temp., Time, Humidity)
4) Orange Peel：Paint Tinting, Dry Bake Oven Parameter (Temp., Time, Humidity)
5) Uneven Color：Paint Tinting, Paint Equipment, Worker
6) Scratch：Worker (Handling), Paint Jig Design
7) Uneven Paint Film：Worker, Worker Posture (wrist paint is NG), Paint Equip. 〇

⑨ Dust Countermeasures：
(1) In order to find the root cause, check the dust area using magnifying glass and also check
in which layer of paint surface it exists. Then focus for root cause only that specific
area, consider countermeasure and implement.
Clear coat film
A
Top coat film
B Under coat film
C
Phosphate layer
Paint Object

Dust A：The top painted surface, deposit after paint due to setting or baking.
Dust B：Inside the top coat, it exists in the paint or booth or in spray equipment.
Dust C：On the object surface to be painted. It deposits before or during pre-treatment process.

223
 Counter measure for Root Cause：
Dust A：①Maintain positive pressure inside the Paint Booth. Prevent from air circulation
from outside. The only possible through the Air Filters.
②Air Filter cleaning, replacement (Paint Booth & Inside Oven).
③Dust, abnormal particle Dust & dust particles (such as application
of grease layer to paint booth)
Dust B：①Filter cleaning and replacement when paint tinting.
②Paint piping, Paint hose, Spray Gun cleaning
Dust C ： ① Pre-treatment tank cleaning, pre-treatment liquids refreshing, work place
cleaning.
②Enhancement of pre-treatment implementation, especially, degreasing, water
bath, and final water bath.
⑩ Counter measures for un-even paint film thickness： 〇
(1) ED Film：①Review the position of electrodes. Equal distance between painting object
and electrodes.
②Revision of electrodes shape.
③Try with dipping of coating parts in paint bath at different angles, and
vibration during energizing process.
(2) Spray Paint Film Thickness：
①Main root cause is derived from operator’s skill. Especially, pay
attention to the following in spray paint.
②Operator’s posture, spray gun holding style, spray movement
speed.
③Spray gun with shaking wrist is NG. In principle paint at right
angle position to the coating object and constant spray painting.
④For longer size painting objects operator will bend downward
and paint as mentioned in 3).For longer size painting objects
operator will bend downward and paint as mentioned in 3).

⑪ Paint Tests： 〇
Mainly paint film efficiency is important. Basic tests (JIS K 5600) are given below, but
follow the OEM requirements for production parts.
1) Appearance, hardness, film thickness
2) Adhesion
3) Wear resistance
4) Weather resistance
5) Chemical resistance

224
② Aluminum Material
No Contents A B C
① (1) Characteristic of Aluminum material 〇
1) Characteristic⇒Apply auto parts (Example)
Light weight ⇒body panel/structure parts
Anti rust ⇒paint less (Motor cycle parts) :high texture
Low electric conductivity ⇒ Battery case, electrode
High thermal conductivity ⇒ Engine parts(C/H,C/B)

Specification of metal materials

material tensile Elon sharing Densit melting conducti Heat
N/mm2 gatio strength y ℃ vity conduct(2
n N/mm2 IACS% 0℃)
％ μm/m℃
Cu:hard 343 6 192 8.9 1065- 100 390
:forg 233 45 158 1082
Iron:Cast 206 0.5 302 7.1 1305 2 50
:Plate 350 21 288 7,65 1530 16 70
Steel:Cast 515 24 412 7.86 1466- 11 50
:Forg 412 30 309 7.85 1510 12 60
○
SUS:Soft 618 55 460 7.9 1427- 2.4 20
:Hard 1059 15 769 1471 2.1
Ti :soft 392 42 245 4.5 1660 3.1 17
③ AL:-H18 166 5 89 2.71 657 57 230
:7000T6 566 11 338 2.80 476- 33 130
638

2)Classification of material
Usually, Auto parts of aluminum are using as Aluminum Alloy which contained of Si,
Mg, Cu and other materials.

1. Classification of wrought method

①Wrought aluminum alloy(Rolling, Extraction material）
：1000－7000series
②Casting（Die casting, sand molding）:ADC, AC, Al-Si casting aluminum alloy

2. Classification of Aluminum alloy

Heat treatable Alloy：2000,6000,7000,[Casting]Al-Cu-Mg-Si-Ni
Non Heat treatable ：1000,3000,4000,5000,[Casting] Al-Si ,Al-Mg

Refer the classification at figure “Serial of Aluminum Alloy”

225
Serial of Aluminum Alloy

(2) For casting material (Material for Die Cast & Sand casting）
1)Die Casting material
（ADC: Described of 1, 3, 5..are showed as ADC1, ADC3, ADC5..）
catego range Composition
ry Cu Si Mg Zn Fe Mn Ni Ti Pb Sn
1 Max - 11.0 - - - - - - - -
Min 1.0 13.0 0.3 0.5 1.3 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1
3 Max - 9.0 0.4 - - - - - - -
Min 0.6 11.0 0.6 0.5 1.3 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.15 0.1
5 Max - - 4.0 - - - - - - -
Min 0.2 0.3 8.5 0.1 1.8 0.3 0.1 0.20 0.10 0.1
6 Max - - 2.5 - - 0.4 - - - -
Min 0.1 1.0 4.0 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.20 0.10 0.1
10 Max 2.0 7.5 - - - - - - - -
Min 4.0 9.5 0.3 1.0 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.30 0.2 0.2
12 Max 1.5 9.6 - - - - - - - -
Min 3.5 12.0 0.3 1.0 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.30 0.2 0.2
14 Max 4.0 16.0 0.45 - - - - - - -
Min 5.0 18.0 0.65 1.5 1.3 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3
Al Max - 8.0 - - - - - - - -
S9 Min 0.1 11.0 0.10 0.15 0.65 0.50 0.05 0.15 0.05 0.05

2)Material for sand molding

(AC: Description of 1B,2A, …are showed as AC1B, AC2A…)
Upper value: Min limit, Lower value: Max limit
Ve Composition
r Cu Si Mg Zn Fe Mn Ni Ti Pb Sn Cr
1B 4.2 - 0.15 - - - - 0.05 - - -
5.0 0.30 0.35 0.10 0.35 0.10 0.05 0.35 0.05 0.1 0.05
2A 3.0 4.0 - - - - - - - - -
4.5 6.0 0.25 0.55 0.8 0.55 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.05 0.15
2B 2.0 5.0 - - - - - - - - -
4.0 7.0 0.50 1.0 1.0 0.50 0.35 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.20
3A - 10.0 - - - - - - - - -
0.25 13.0 0.15 0.30 0.8 0.35 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.15
4A - 8.0 0.30 - - 0.30 - - - - -

226
 0.25 10.0 0.60 0.25 0.55 0.60 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15
4B 2.0 7.0 - - - - - - - - -
4.0 10.0 0.50 1.0 1.0 0.50 0.35 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.20
4C - 6.5 0.20 - - - - - - - -
0.20 7.5 0.40 0.30 0.5 0.60 0.05 0.20 0.05 0.05 0.05
4C - 6.5 0.25 - - - - - - - -
H 0.10 7.5 0.45 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.20 0.05 0.05 0.05
4D 1.0 4.5 0.4 - - - - - - - -
1.5 5.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.05
5A 3.5 - 1.2 - - - 1.7 - - - -
4.5 0.7 1.8 0.1 0.7 0.6 2.3 0.20 0.05 0.05 0.20
7A - - 3.5 - - - - - - - -
0.10 0.20 5.5 0.15 0.30 0.6 0.05 0.20 0.05 0.05 0.15
8A 0.8 11.0 0.7 - - - 0.8 - - - -
1.3 13.0 1.3 0.15 0.8 0.15 1.5 0.20 0.05 0.05 0.10
8B 2.0 8.5 0.50 - - - 0.10 - - - -
4.0 10.5 1.50 0.50 1.0 0.50 1.0 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10
8C 2.0 8.5 0.50 - - - - - - - -
4.0 10.5 1.50 0.50 1.0 0.50 0.50 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10
9A 0.50 22.0 0.50 - - - 0.50 - - - -
1.50 24.0 1.50 0.20 0.80 0.50 1.50 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10
9B 0.50 18.0 0.50 - - - 0.50 - - - -
1.50 20.0 1.50 0.20 0.80 0.50 1.50 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10

3)Effect of elements in Aluminum Alloy material

Metal Effect Defect remark
・hardness increasing ・loses anti corrosion
Cu ・Matrix enhancement
・free cutting(macining)
・High temperature strength
・metal flow sitimulation
・AI-Mg Alloy
Si ・Function of Rizer
(loses elongation,
・reducing heat expamsion
deterioration of shock resistance
・wear resistance
・Al-Mg Alloy:Improving anti
Mg corrosion,sterength and free cutting
・increasing viscosity of molten metal
ability
・Ai-Si Alloy:age hardening
・improving liquidity
・loses anti corrosion
Zn ・(Al-Zn-Mg alloy:improving strength with
Mg
・die cast alloy: Prevention for heat ・FeAl3,Al-Fe-Si deposited: loses
Fe sticking toughness
・Sludge⇒hard spot
・Al-Mg alloy: loses anti corrosion

・Prevention of loses toughness and anti ・deposited sludge

Mn corrosion

・High strength, ・anti corrosion

Ni capacity increasing for heat resistance

・Grain refining
Ti ・macineability(*1) increasing ・increasing viscosity of molten metal in
*1: elongation,toughness
・Al-Cu　alloy: prevention for shrinkage excessive
crack

(3) Molten metal treatment

1) Al-Si State Diagram & Fine Grain Treatment
Shown Fig-1 as “State Diagram of Al-Si Alloy” which using for casting generally.
Same as state diagram of carbon steel, Alloy which has Si less than

227
 12.6% is called “eutectic Si-Al Alloy, has Si over than 12.6% is called hyper eutectic Si-
Al Alloy.
1. Hyper eutectic Alloy
Such as AC9A which contents Si over than eutectic amount , Primary eutectic Si
miniaturization process .In case of hyper eutectic Al - Si alloys, coarsening of primary
crystal Si occurs and adversely affects abrasion resistance, machinability .need to
prevent occurrence of the phenomenon.
revent growth of eutectic Si : In case of untreated Si eutectic, it grows in a needle shape,
it can be improved to a fine granular shape which has more aantageous strength by the
treatment.

Eutectic Point

Liquid

Liquid +Si

Liquid +Al

State Diagram

For improvement of eutectic Si, Basically,base elements which contained Na, Sr and
Sb are used. Generally, contained NaF, NaCl flux , based on Na, areused into the
molten metal using Phosphorizer . If Si is high and the cooling rate is slow, increase
the amount of Na added. 50 to 150 ppm for sand mold castings and 30 to 100 ppm for
die castings. Na oxidizes and consumes quickly, therefore tablet type flux used floating
on the surface of molten metal is used recently.

2. Eutectic alloy
AC1A -AC7A which contents Si less than eutectic amount, Alpha crystal appears as
primary crystal upon solidification. If it becomes coarse, becomes a factor of short and low
toughness.

※1：αCrystal: In case of eutectic alloy, crystal of solidification in cooling grows to large

size due to dendrite solidification of aluminum alloy. It causes crack or shrinkage of casting.
Crystal in dendrite is called alfa crystal.
Prevent growth of eutectic Si. In case of untreated Si eutectic, it grows in a needle shape,
it can be improved to a fine granular shape which has more advantageous strength by the
treatment.
For improvement of eutectic Si, basically, base elements which contained Na, Sr and Sb
are used. Generally, contained NaF, NaCl flux, based on Na, are used into the molten metal

228
using Phosphorizer. If Si is high and the cooling rate is slow, increase the amount of Na
added. 50 to 150 ppm for sand mold castings and 30 to 100 ppm for die castings. Na oxidizes
and consumes quickly, therefore tablet type flux used floating on the surface of molten metal
is used recently
Without
With Miniaturization of Miniaturization of
primary crystal Si. primary crystal Si.

Effective of Grain refining with extra element adding（AC4CH)

.

a) None b) Na

c) Sr d) Sb

229
2)De-gassing treatment
(1) Explanation for improvement of Aluminum casting molten material regarding
Grain refining/strength improving and reducing porosity.
①. Treatment of molten metal
5 kinds of treatment needed: NO4).5) has been explained in above section.
i) De gassing treatment( Hydrogen gas removing）
ii) Sludge cohesion, filtration of molten metal
iii) Grain refining of macro crystal grain.
iv) Improvement of Eutectic （Grain refining of micro crystal of Al-Si alloy )
v) Grain refining for Primary crystal of Silicon.
①-i). De gassing treatment
Moisture in the air reacts with molten aluminum, hydrogen is generated and melts in the
molten metal.
This hydrogen becomes H2 gas porosity when aluminum coagulates.
The method of degassing treatments are as follows.

1] Inject an inert gas as Ar, N 2 directly into the melt through a pipe (lance).
2]. Blow Ar and N 2 into the molten metal through rotating nozzle.
3].Add the flux of halide (ethane hexachroride: C2Cl6) into the molten metal. (Add 0.2
wt% of the molten metal to the phosphorizer and wait for completion of reaction)
4]. Combine NO 1 and 3 are used , Ar and N 2 are used as carriers and NO 3] is blown into
the molten metal
Formerly, 1] was the mainstream, but NO 2] has become widespread lately.
This merit is effected in the short time (within 5 minutes) than 1 (30 minutes) and
also has low contents of H2 gas (0.1 - 0.15 ml / 100 g), high purity gas with low
dew point is used to avoid water contamination in the gas.

When high temperature and high humidity in the summer season or the holding
temperature of molten metal is high, the molten metal again absorbs H 2 in the air
after degassing treatment. This tendency is especially high for molten metal
improved with Sr. Accordingly, it is necessary to control the use time after the
processing or to repeat the processing.
[Example of PAKISTAN]
(1) Tablet is used in supplier, however most of supplier is using the tablet before 2-4 hours
of casing (need to use within 60min before casting.) and also using amount are not clear.

(1)—2 Treatment for Sludge removing

The oxide film and the nitride in the molten metal are adhered to remove the inclusions
of the molten metal.
1]. Inert gas or halogen gas blowing
2] Flux treatment
NaCl, KCl, NaF, and flux with Na2SiF6 and Na2SO4 added as main

230
 components. The addition amount is standard 0.2% of the molten metal.
Reaction temperature is used at 700 ~ 760 ℃.
(Use on surface of molten metal in order to help oxide burning)
3]. Filter Filtration
Reticular filter, spongy filter (ceramic)
4] The combination of above

4. Heat treatment for Aluminum Alloy

1) When the Aluminum alloy is kept at a high temperature right below the Freezing Point,
atoms of alloy elements such as Cu, Mg and Si in the crystalline structure of Al are
uniformly dissolved forming a “Solid Solution” state.
This state is called “Solution Treatment”. When not completely melted alloy elements from
this state, stable large crystals such as CuAl2 and Mg2Si are formed, and these crystals
will be dispersed in some area of crystal structure of Al structure (the “Precipitation” state).
In this state, the precipitates are large and the alloy is not strengthened.
Without performing slow cooling, the high-temperature solid solution state is carried over
(maintained) at room temperature at a high temperature by means such as quenching into
water (quenching).

The material in this state is called a Super Saturated Solid Solution. After this, as shown
in FIG. 2, the element dissolved in the aluminum alloy is finely precipitated by maintaining
the temperature at room temperature to approx., 200 ° C. for several hours to several days
(in industrial terms, several hours). This precipitate stops the movement of dislocation of
metal atoms, therefore strength is increased.
This phenomenon of alloy hardening is called the “Aging Hardening”, and such treatment
is called “Artificial Aging Treatment”. This phenomenon is used to strengthen aluminum
alloy by Heat Treatment。

Aging Curve of hardening for AL-Cu Alloy

231
1) Kinds of treatment and condition are described in following (Fig-3)

232
[Example of Pakistan]
(1) Improvement of T6 treatment
Supplier has implemented T6 treatment at constant temp of 525 *C for 8 hours of
AC4CH. and change the stacking alignment of wheels from tower to pyramid like
shape. As a result hardness improved up to desired level 65 ~ 70 HB (Previous 40-
45HB) after heat treatment. After painting wheel rims are again baked in which
hardness improved further up to ~ 90 HB.
(Supplier explained that heat treatment for 10 hours is costly & not cost efficient.)
⇒Heat treatment condition of aluminum has to be controlled in tighten tolerance
due to solution treatment effects in severe condition of aluminum.
(Ex: Treatment Temp.525±5℃）

Aluminum Wheel (AC4CH-T6) Crown Handle (AC4CH-T6)

233
③Aluminum Casting
No Contents A B C
① 1. Alloy Classification 〇
1) Material difference between Aluminum Casting and Die Casting
(Refer to details of each material for "Aluminum material")
Table1：Material difference between Aluminum Casting and Die Casting
Casting Properties Material Requirements Recycle
(Warnings) Material
Aluminum Pressure & cooling speed Allowable value of 0~50%
Casting are low, and roughness & impurities including Fe (less tolerance
(AC) blowholes occur during is small. Add additives for impurities)
solidification for miniaturization.
Die Casting Because of high melting To prevent from seizure Below 90%
(ADC) speed & pressure, cooling marks on mould, Fe
speed is also high, makes contents has to be less ○
fine structure but seizure & than 1.0%. Impurities
sink marks occur on mold tolerance is high than
surface. casting material.
2.Casting Concept
1) Mold Casting
(1) Basic Concept（Please see below figure）

Casting
Model

Core Molten metal

Mold Structure
Bent hole
Gate hole

Riser
Upper
mold
Upper frame

Gate Product Lower mold

234
 (2) Mold Classification & Properties
(a) Sand Mold
Concept of mold design using Binder agent and thermosetting resins with Silica Sand or
Phenolic Resin. Classification and properties are shown in below table.

Sand Mold Classification

Normal Silica Sand + Bentonite Low cost, easy to Not suitable for high
Mold Thermo- Sand Mold
(Binder) dismantle precision castings

Oil sand Clean Casting surface Mold preheating at 250 ° C

setting

Phenol Short molding time is required, mold thermal

Furan Based High precision deformation.
Binder cost is high
inorganicCement Easy to mold Difficult to maintain mold
mold Hardening

Water Glass High mold strength accuracy in repeated

Gas Curing Self -

Organic Furan and high-pressure casting (Binder effect)

Urethane resistance.
Special inorganicWater Glass The forming is faster. Difficult to re-use mold
Mold Good mold accuracy sand
Organic Furan
Urethane without thermal
Phenol deformation

LOST-WAX Small Precision Mold cost high

Precision

Plaster Mold Casting

casting

Ceramic Mold

(b) Mold
Use metal for mold. It is classified as below as per molten pouring method.
① Gravity Casting
Same concept as mentioned sand mold except that mold material is
metallic.
Mold is durable and mass production is possible by same mold.
② Inclined Casting：As an application of gravity casting, a concept to tilt the mold ○
and hold molten material in a pan temporarily and pour it indirectly.
By controlling the pouring speed, high quality products with less defects
can be produced. (Implemented for Engine Parts etc.)
③ Low Pressure Casting
In a closed crucible 0.1to 0.8 Mold
barometric pressure (Bar) is
applied and fill mold with
molten metal from Stoke Pressed Air
inside the molten metal. Since Packing
pressure is applied from Molten
Metal Packing
molten metal outlet therefore
no pressing for molten metal is Furnace
Stoke

required, so yield is better and

because casting is done inside
the inert gas therefore good
Crucible

casting with less blow holes or

sink marks can be achieved.
(Implemented for Alloy
Wheel, etc.)

235
2) Die Casting
(1)Basic Concept
Mainly a horizontal Cold Chamber Die Casting machine is used as shown in below
figure.

pressure plate

Tie bar Plunger rod

Sliding plate Accumulator
Link housing
Toggle Pusher pin
system
Base plate

Injection cylinder

Base frame Stand

Hydraulic pump Core (fix)

Hydraulic cylinder Plunger rod coupling

Punch
Motor
Push rod C-Frame
Plunger tip

Cold Chamber & Hot Chamber

Characteristic remark
Cold 1.available for large size casting
Chamber 2.Can be made in high pressure casting
3.Available for computer control casting
4.Cycle time is longer than hot chamber due to pouring
movement needed
Hot 1.for small parts casting
Chamber 2.Short casting time than cold chamber
3.Stability of molten metal temperature
4.small load to mold die due to low injection pressure
5. Not for large size casting

236
 Cold chamber

Ladle
Punch
mold Cavity
mold
Melting
furnace
Molten
Metal
Plunger

Hot chamber

Punch
mold
Cavity
mold Plunger

Nozzle Melting
Furnace

Goose Neck

237
(2)Mold Structure

Water Cooling Hole

Insert

(3)Die Casting Process

Die open,
Die close, Injection Kick out of parts
chambering

Setting Parameters (For Ref.: Example of less than 800t machine)

Operation Machine & mold
Mold life 500-800K_pcs Mold temp. 220-250℃
Die coat water Rite_Lube Primary speed 0.3-0.5m/s
Mixing ratio 1:50-80 Secondary 3-5m/s
speed
Spray time depend on Ejector 10-15Mp
parts pressure
Anti-solder #127: Apply after 5pcs Injection 30-100Mp
wax Apply after 5pcs pressure

238
 Generally in die casting, to fill the molten metal in thin cavity, high speed & high
pressure injection parameters are required. To prevent the air entrapment in injection
sleeve, at the start injection speed is kept slow and then material is filled in mold at
once with high speed.

【Actual Situation in Pakistan】

1. Leakage due to sinking
Due to effect of mold temperature and
delay Molten metal filling in mold causes
thin areas or complex shapes (ribs) etc.

【Countermeasures】
￭ Optimization of mold temperature （225±10°）⇔ Actually it is difficult to control
due to variation at different areas therefore, practically it is done by mold
maintenance & application control of releasing agent.
a. Control of Releasing Agent Application (Automatic application is desirable
b. Injection Pressure & Speed optimization (Adjust by PLC)
c. Molten metal temperature control (670～700℃)
d. Mold water cooling pipe maintenance
e. Molten metal degassing: Usage of appropriate flux (for details please see
Aluminum material section)
* Although there are multiple elements of short molding counter measures and actual
root cause, it cannot be covered all by above mentioned only but it is important to set
standard parameters as given in Table 4 and to maintain them set the maintenance &
operation standards.
（There are a lot of examples showing, injection parameters are entrusted to machine
manufacturer at the time of machine installation and later no control when doing
mass production.）
2.Hard particle (High hardness foreign particles)
It was observed in high pressure die casting, highly hardened substances deposited
inside and cause breakage of tools in machining process.

239
Results of analysis with SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) and EDX (Energy dispersive
X-ray spectrometry)：Conducted in Japan

1 2

Analysis Point 1, 2 components Na and K do not exist in ADC12. Therefore, possibly it is

because of contamination of plated parts.
Point 2 is close to the abnormal particles but Si contents are abnormally high (30%) means
Si eutectic crystal is assumed at this area (please see “Aluminum material” for Si eutectic)

【Countermeasures】
a. Molten metal crucible was changed from Cast Iron to Graphite (black lead) in order
to prevent deposit of crucible components.
b. Increased cooling speed (by controlling mold & molten metal temperature)
c. Plated parts were excluded from the Return Material, and only virgin material and
recycled material were used. Also set the usage ratio for each.
240
3.Other Examples and Countermeasures
1) Blow Holes
Mold Overflow Improvements

Short shot

As for countermeasure
of short molding add
Overflow at gate edge.

B A

241
4. Mold Material for Die Casting (For reference：SANYO Catalogue)

symbol application features

QDN Large, Squeeze dies Superior nitriding property
QDN1-R High toughness & greater high
temperature strength
QDX- High performance dies, precision High toughness & softening
HARMOTE dies, squeeze dies resistance, Excellent heat-check
X resistance
QDH Precision dies, High silicon type toughness & high strength in high
temperature
QHZ High silicon type, For Pin & Matrix type high speed steel
Sleeve combining high toughness with
high temperature
PCM30 Prototype, Small lots holder plate Pre-hardened(30-33HRC) with
superior machinability &
toughness

242
 〇

243
No Contents A B C
① 【Ⅰ.Plastic Moulding】 ○
1. Resin material Overview
1)Resin means
(1) Micro and Macro-Molecules
A substance is consists of several atoms like water and carbon dioxide (see Fig. A-
1) but sometimes more than 1000 atoms gather to form a molecules (See Figure A-2).
This type of huge molecules is called macro-molecules and the others are called micro-
molecules.
(Fig. A-1) (Figure A-2)

Water molecule Carbon Dioxide molecule

The temperature is directly related to the

movement of the molecule and molecule start ○
to move actively when the temperature rises
while distance to molecule becomes wider
and it can move freely. (The reason why the
polymer expands as the temperature rises) As
shown in Fig. 2, polymer moves freely as the temperature rises because it is in the form
of a string but molecules become entangled and they become difficult to move when it
cools and becomes separated by a distance. Using this theory, the plastic can be heated
to a make desired shape and allowed to cool and maintain its shape.

(2) Monomers and polymers

In the case of resin molding materials using petroleum raw materials "Polymeric
substances" and "high polymeric substances" are generated (polymerized) from
"Monomeric substance” in the following manner. Plastic molding is carried out by raw
materials of "pellets" and "powders”.
a) Monomer Formation
"Monomers" are produced by decomposing and chemically synthesizing "Naphtha"
obtained in the process of distilling crude oil, which is a small molecule (micro molecular
weight substance). These include ethylene and propylene, which are called
petrochemical based products.
b) Polymer / High Polymer (high polymer) formation
The monomers are combined with one another to form large molecules (polymerize)
(polymer substances), by becoming “polymers” or highly polymerized “high
polymers ”. For example, a polymer in which ethylene molecules are polymerized is
"polyethylene" and a polymer in which propylene is polymerized is "polypropylene".

Polymers/
Gasolin Monomers High Polymers
Crude Oil Ethylene
Napht Polyethylene
chemical synthesis
distillatio

Kerose Polypropylen Polypropylene

Decomposition /

Light Other Other Polymers &

Oil Petrochemicals By High Polymers
Di l
Polymerizat

Heavy
Oil
ion

244
 (3) Material Form
Processed into Pellets or Powder which is a suitable condition as a plastic molding ○
material (pellets or powder), then additives and colorants are mixed with the resin and
after passing through a process called "compounding", pellets and powders are formed.
The “thermoplastic resin” uses pellets in which the resin is in the form of rice grains,
and the “thermosetting resin” uses a powdered resin.

(4) Classification by nature of resin

Resin (plastic) melts (decomposes) and becomes soft when heat is applied, and can be
deformed (formed) and solidifies in the deformed shape when cooled (Solidification).
The resin is mainly divided into two types depending on the properties after
solidification (after molding) by cooling.
a“Thermoplastic resin” deforms again with plasticity even if it is heated after molding.
B “Thermosetting resin” do not deform even if heated after molding.

Thermoplastic cool Heat ○

solidifying
Resin

Resin Dissolves
(Plastic)

Thermosetting Heat solidifying Heat

Resin

Dissolves

This occurs because the resin molecules are in the form of strings. Thermoplastic resins
return to their original form when heat is applied, because the way of becoming a solid is
intertwining each other's molecules. (Fig. 1) Thermosetting resins cannot be softened again
because they cause a chemical reaction to bridge each other's molecules and form a bridge
when solidified. (Figure 2: This is called a crosslinking reaction)
Accordingly, thermosetting resins have the property of being "heat resistant" and are used
for kettle handles and the like.

(Fig. 1)

Red marked area is bridge

(Fig. 2)

(5) Types of Thermoplastic Resin

When resin molecules cool and solidify while forming string-like molecules (crystals)
while solidifying (crystalline resin) and various defects in the string
(in case of uneven size of the yellow spheres shown in Fig. A-2), the molecules
245
 separate into those (non-crystalline resin or non-crystalline resin) that solidify without
aligning (without making crystals). (Figure 3)
a) Characteristics of Crystalline Resin

Amorphous
crystalline

Red circled portion

crystalline
Fig.3
Compared with Amorphous by having crystal
ⅰ Its not Transparent
Because the refractive index of the crystal part and the amorphous part is different
ⅱ High Chemical resistance
Because the surface of the plastic is covered with a strong crystal
ⅲ High Shrinkage Ratio
This property appears because the crystal part has more molecules per volume than the
amorphous part.

(6) Amorphous Resin

The thicker the plastic molecules, which are in the form of a string, the harder it is to
vibrate by heat and the stronger it is against heat.
The molecular form of the resin is as shown in Figure A-2, where the green part is
called the main chain and the yellow part is called the side chain.
The main chain which makes this string is
i. For carbon only: Relatively heat-sensitive (heat distortion temperature less than 100
degrees) General purpose Resin
ii. When elements other than carbon are contained: Heat resistant (heat distortion
temperature over 100 degrees) Engineering Plastic (Functional Resin Functional
Reinforced Resin Engineering Plastic)
iii. When Benzene is contained in addition to carbon: It is highly heat resistant (heat
distortion temperature is over 150°) It becomes Super Engineering Plastic.

246
 General Engineer Super
purpose ing Engineering
Resin Plastic Plastic

Thermosetting
resin Crystalline
resin
Plastic
Thermoplastic
resin

Amorphous
resin

(7) General Purpose Plastic

“General-purpose resin” has low deformation temperature and is easy to mold
Because polypropylene and polystyrene are relatively inexpensive, they are used for mass
production of various products such as general goods, packaging, and agricultural
applications.

Major types of general purpose plastics and application examples

Polyethylene Low Density Polyethylene Film, Laminate, Wire Coating
(PE) (LDPE)
High Density Polyethylene Film, Food Content, Shampoo and
(HDPE) Rinse Container, Bucket, Gasoline
Tank, Pipe
Ethylene / Vinyl Acetate Agricultural Film, Stretch Film, Toy
Alcohol Copolymer (EVA)
Polypropylene (PP) Auto Parts, Home Electric Parts,
Packaging Films, Food Containers
Polystyrene / Styrol Resin (Ps) Oa. TV Housing Cd Case, Food
Container, Toy
Vinyl Chloride Resin / Polyvinyl Chloride Water and Sewage Pipes, Hoses, Pipes,
(Pvc) Fittings, Gutters, Corrugated Sheets,
Sash
Abs Resin (ABS) Oa Equipment, Auto Parts (Internal
And External Parts), Electrical
Products, Game Consoles
As Resin (SAN) Tableware, Disposable Lighters,
Electrical Products
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Pet Bottle, Container, Insulation
Material, Functional Film for Optics,
Magnetic Tape
Methacrylic Resin (PMMA) Car Tail Lamp Lens, Contact Lens,
Dining Table, Light Plate, Water Tank
Plate

Engineering plastic
“Engineering Plastic” as compared to General Purpose Resin is a resin (plastic) that has
higher heat resistance and mechanical strength and is highly reliable as a material, so it is
also used for high value-added products such as industrial parts and automobile parts.
247
 Main types of Engineering Plastics and application examples
<General Purpose Engineering Plastic>
Polyamide (PA) Automotive Parts (Intake Pipe, Radiator Tank, Cooling
Fan, Etc.), Food Film
Poly Carbonate (PC) DVD · CD Disc, Electronic Parts Housing (Mobile
Phones and Others)
Polyacetal（POM） Various Gears (DVD Etc.), Auto Parts (Fuel Pump
Etc.), Various Fasteners and Clips
Polybutylene Terephthalate Electric Products, Electronic Parts, Automobile
(PBT) Electrical Parts
Polyphenylene Ether (PPE) Pumps, Fittings, Hot Water Supply Ports, Auto Parts

<Super Engineering Plastic>

Fluorine Resin Frying Pan Inner Surface Coating, Insulation Material,
Bearing, Gasket, Packing
Polyimide (PI) Semiconductor Parts, Communication Equipment,
Insulation Materials, Adhesives
Polyether Sulfone (PES) Precision Equipment, Auto Parts, Cooking Items
Polyether imide (PEI) Printed circuit boards, IC sockets, automotive parts

(8) Types of Thermosetting Resin ○

Thermosetting resins are materials that cannot be dissolved and used again after
molding once, and they do not melt even at high temperatures (heat resistance).
The thermosetting resin before heating is a low molecular weight compound
(oligomer, prepolymer) either singly or in combination with a curing agent, initiator,
catalyst, etc. When heated, it becomes a substance by crosslinking reaction proceeds
to cure the three-dimensional structure, insoluble or infusible.
Thermosetting resins having high heat resistance as well as high insulation
properties are used for tableware, heat insulation materials, electrical insulation parts,
and semiconductors. Unlike thermoplastic resins, recycling is difficult.

Types of thermosetting resins and application examples

Urea Resin (UF) Button, Cap, Electrical Product (Wiring Equipment)
Plywood Adhesive
Melamine Resin Tableware, Veneer, Plywood Adhesive, Paint
(MF)
Unsaturated Bathtub, Corrugated Sheet, Fishing Boat, Button, Helmet,
Polyester (UP) Fishing Rod, Paint
Epoxy Resin (EP) IC Sealing Materials, Printed Wiring Boards, Paints, Adhesives,
Various Laminates
Silicone Resin (SI) Food Appliances, Heat And Cold Resistant Containers, Seals
And Joints, Coating Materials, Medical Parts
Polyurethane (PUR) Foam: Cushion, Car Seat, Insulation
Non-Foam: Industrial Roll, Packing, Belt, Paint,
Waterproof Material, Spandex Fiber

(9) Hydrolysis (important)

Hydrolysis refers to the decomposition reaction that occurs when the resin reacts with water.
Water molecules (H2O) are separated into H and OH on the resin and enter the decomposition
products of the resin, and reactions occur in various cases along the reaction format.

248
 When hydrolysis occurs, plastic and resin decrease in molecular weight and cause
deterioration, which adversely affects the durability, rigidity and strength. Plastics and resins
having ester bonds are susceptible to hydrolysis, and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
polycarbonate (PC) is a resin that is susceptible to hydrolysis.
For example, in the flow where PC hydrolyses, the ester bond of PC is blocked by water
molecule (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) is generated, low molecular weight and bisphenol A are
formed, and hydrolysis occurs. It becomes a flow. It is necessary to take sufficient counter
measures in the case of automobile exterior functional parts (door handles, door mirrors, etc.)
for the hydrolysis of resin, and it is necessary to dry the material, coat it and carry out surface
treatment to prevent water content and moisture absorption after use.

Forming Method
(1) Injection Molding
Heated melted resin (plastic) is poured or filled with an injection type system and it takes
the shape, mainly used for molding of thermoplastic resin but It is also rarely used as a
thermosetting resin. It is suitable for mass production because it can rapidly mold various resin
products such as thin-walled products and complex shapes.
Injection molding is used for molding and mass production of a wide variety of resin products,
ranging from small and medium-sized products such as casings and plastic models of electric
products, toilet seats, for bath chairs and toilets, to large parts such as automobile bumpers It
can be said that this is a typical resin molding method.
1) Injection molding types
Injection molding includes "insert molding" in which resin is integrally molded with
metal parts and there are, "multicolor molding" and "different material molding" in
which resins with different colors and materials are integrally molded, and these are
called "composite molding”.
Moreover, there are "film insert molding" or "film-in mold molding" as a method of
"decorative molding" for giving a print or a high-class feeling on the surface of the
injection molded item.

2) General injection molding machine structure

A. Motor, B. Injection mechanism, C. Screw, D. Hopper, E. Heater, F. Plasticization

mechanism, G. cylinder, H. tie bar, I. clamping mechanism, J. ejection mechanism, (1)
injection device

a) Injection molding Process

Plasticization The molding material is heated and melted (plasticized) in a
mechanism cylinder
Injection mechanism The molten resin is extruded with a screw, weighed, and poured
into a clamped closed mold. Control the screw speed and push
out a fixed quantity of molten resin.
b) Clamp, Eject
249
 Clamping mechanism Close the mold (clamping). After injecting the material, it is
cooled and solidified with cooling water from outside. At that
time, since the resin shrinks and the volume decreases, the
material is further supplied to maintain the pressure in the mold
(hold pressure).
Ejection mechanism After filling the material, open the mold and take out the
molded product

3) Mold (Example of mold for injection molding)

Dividing
Cavity Side Core Side

plane
○

A. Ejector pin, B. Ejector plate, C. Female mold, D. Cavity, E. Sprue F. Gate, G. Male mold,
H. Nozzle, I. Ejector
a) Molding process in mold
i. The molding process “female mold” in the mold is attached to the injection device
side (Core side) and the “male mold” is mounted on the mold clamping mechanism
side (movable side) and molten resin is injected in Cavity.
ii. The injected molten resin flows from the "sprue" in the mold through the "gate" into
the "cavity".
iii. After the resin filled in the mold is cooled and solidified, the “ejector pin” fixed to
the movable side “ejector plate” releases the molded product in the mold by releasing
it.
b)"Multiple cavities" molds and injection molded parts

A. sprue, B. runner, C. gate, D. cavity, E. injection device, F. molded article

i. In case of "multi-cavities" where two or more molded products are made

simultaneously, the injected molten resin first enters the mold from "sprue",
passes through the "runner" and passes through the "gate" to each "cavity"
Melted resin flows into cavity. By cooling and solidifying this, it becomes an
injection molded product.
A part called sprue runner gate is also formed on the molded product side, and
by cutting the gate, a large number of molded products can be obtained.
4) Defects and deficiencies caused by injection molding
250
 In injection molding, it is necessary to be careful of following defects and errors.
【Surface】
a) Burr
The resin projects out from the parting line of
the molded product.
［Root Cause］
・ The injection pressure is high
・ Insufficient clamping force
・ A large amount of resin
・ Mold distortion

b) Sink Marks
The surface of the molded product is recessed.

② ［Root Cause /Counter Measure］

-When molten resin shrinks, cools or solidies
in the mold and the absolute amount of resin in the
mold is insufficient. The phenomenon in which
"sink marks" appear inside a molded article is called
"air bubbles (voids)" or "inner mark". Cooling the
material in the mold as a countermeasure
adjustment of speed (cooling inside first)
Optimization of cooling water pipe, adjustment of
material quantity, etc.

c) Short Molding
A part of the molded article is missing forming
an incomplete shape.

［Root Cause /Counter Measure］

・ The resin reaches the end of the mold cavity
It was cooled and solidified before it was completed.
The cause is
Insufficient amount of resin, injection pressure,
inside of resin mold
Inflow into the water is not smooth. Measures
Increase injection pressure
Mold maintenance (shine),
Optimization of mold temperature

d) Deflection
The molded product is distorted in one
direction.

［Root Cause /Counter Measure］

• Excessive force applied when removing molded part
from molds, etc. Deformation due to external force applied during mold release. The
difference in the shrinkage of the molten resin depending on the flow direction can be
another cause for this.
Countermeasure： adjustment of mold temperature (change temperature balance on Sink
Mark side and change the temperature balance and control contraction speed, correction of
ejector etc.
251
e) Gate remaining
After cutting, solidified resin remains in the gate part of
the molded product

［Root Cause /Counter Measure］

When the gate portion is not solidified, the cut position of the
gate becomes unstable, and the solidified resin remains in the
gate portion of the molded article after cutting. As a
countermeasure, adjust the injection time and mold opening
speed.

f)Silver streak black streak

Silver white glittering in the flow direction of the resin
After streaks (striations) remain.
"Black streaks" are on the surface
There are black streaks.

［Root Cause /Counter Measure］

• "Silver streak" is caused by insufficient drying of molding
material (pellet) and water droplets generated by
temperature difference between mold and material.
• "Black streaks" are produced by mixing the carbonized resin heated in the cylinder at
the time of injection. Measures include equipment maintenance (contamination
removal in piping) mold and injection material temperature adjustment.

g)Weld Line or Parting Line

Welds in the mold appear on the surface as grooves or patterns. ○

［Root Cause /Counter Measure］

This occurs when the temperature or flowability of the molten resin is low, or the injection
pressure and speed are insufficient, in "multi-cavity" or insert molding where there are
multiple gates. Measures vary depending on parts and materials, and individual measures
due to causes such as injection conditions, temperature conditions and mold structure are
necessary.

h) Jetting
Marks like a butterfly remains on the surface.
［Root Cause /Counter Measure］
・Temperature of molten resin to be
injected is low
・It occurs when the injection speed is too fast.
・The temperature was lowered in the mold
early in the injection
Viscosity increases without melting the resin, and
fusion with subsequently injected high temperature
resin did not occur. As a countermeasure, lower the
injection speed. Increase material temperature.

252
i) Flow Marks
Tree-ring-like wave pattern is generated in the center of
the gate.
［Root Cause /Counter Measure］
・The temperature of injected resin is low
・It occurs when the injection speed is too slow.
・Cooled and cooled in the middle of flowing in the mold
The cause is resin of the tip with high viscosity and the
resin extruded later overlap. As a countermeasure, increase
the injection speed. Review gate shape

j) Crack Crazing
Sinks marks and thin cracks occur
A.Crack
B.Crazing
［Root Cause /Counter Measure］
It is caused by external force and internal stress of
molded parts. ⇒ When the molten resin is applied in
the process of resin molding, the internal stress remains
in the molded product due to the difference in molecular
orientation and solidification ratio, which causes defects
and issues such as “deflection” and “chipping”. Mold
temperature adjustment and control as a
countermeasure, review of injection parameters.

・Blow Molding
"Blow molding" is a technology that applies the old glass bottle manufacturing process,
and is suitable for manufacturing hollow resin (plastic) moldings.
It is also called "blow molding" or "hollow molding" because gas is blown from the
inside of the molten resin, expanded and molded.
Also, "multi-layer blow molding" has been developed, in which a plurality of molding
materials containing different types of resins are molded in layers, and gasoline tanks
and intake manifolds of automobiles are now made of Plastic.

1. Type of blow molding

There has been great demand as a method for molding hollow-structured resin
products such as containers, and with the evolution of plastic molded materials, the
application range of blow molding has been expanded, and it has become possible to
manufacture a wide variety of resin products.
Representative Blow Molding: The following two examples are described.

a) Extrusion blow molding (direct blow molding) The

resin that has been heated and plasticized is extruded, a
cylindrical "Parison (hot parison)" is molded with a die,
and it is put into the mold directly without cooling and
solidifying it, blow air into it and form the shape.）
A. Parison (hot parison),
B. Mold
b) Injection blow molding (injection stretch / 2 axis
stretch blow molding)

253
 A thermoplastic resin is injection molded in
advance as a test tubular “preform (cold
parison)”. It is reheated in the next process,
stretched into the mold with a "stretching rod"
and blown with high pressure air to form. As
typical products, plastic bottles made of
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) can be
given as examples.

A. Stretching rod, B. Mold, C. Preform (cold

parison), D. Heater
In blow molding, temperature control of the
material is particularly important.
When extruding "parison (hot parison)", if the
temperature is too high, "draw down" will lead to uneven thickness of the molded article.
Even with "pre-foam (cold parison)", if it is not maintained at an appropriate temperature
after reheating until it becomes soft, the thickness will be uneven and the blow process is
performed to prevent such defects and problems, maintain precise control of resin
temperature unique to blow molding.
【Draw Down】
In blow molding, when the viscosity of the molten resin is low, a phenomenon in which
the preformed parison sags in the direction of gravity under its own weight. In the case of
uneven thickness, the thickness of the upper and lower parts of molded articles such as
containers will be uneven. On the other hand, in extrusion lamination etc., drawdown
property of the resin will be higher in proportion with higher the productivity because high-
speed take-up is possible.

c) Multilayer Blow Molding

Used in the manufacture of multi-
layered resin containers. Two or
more material resins are "jointly
extruded" to form a multilayer "pre-
foam (cold parison)". It is heated, air
is blown into the resin in a mold and
blow molded. This molding method
using joint-extruded parisons is
suitable for molding plastic
containers such as gasoline tanks.
A. Polyethylene (pe), b. Adhesive
layer, c. Ethylene / Vinyl Alcohol
Copolymer (EVA)
d)3 Dimension blow molding
Using a computer control, the
cylindrical parison is guided to lie
down along with the complex mold
shape.
Unlike "extrusion (direct) blow
molding" where parisons are inserted
in the longitudinal direction, it is
possible to avoid material drawdown
and flashes formation.
This molding method can produce
high quality products of complicated
shapes having curved portions and
bellows, such as cooler hoses and
heater hoses.
254
1) Blow Molding Machine
The blow molding machine mainly includes three mechanisms of (1) An Extruder (2)
Parison Molding (3) Mold Clamping, Air Blow (Blow Process) and Cooling.
Structure of extrusion blow (direct blow) molding machine
A. Hopper, B. Extrusion screw, C. Heating cylinder, D. Die, E. Parison,
F. Mold, G. Air blow device, H. Cooling water hole

2) Plastic Press Machine

In the "extruder or plastic press
machine", heated-mollt en resin
(plastic) is extruded from a ring-
shaped die. In some cases, the
production efficiency is enhanced
by continuously extruding the
resin using a plurality of dies.

3) Parison Molding
"Parisons" that are preformed
before the blowing step can be
widely classified in 2 types.

Parison (Hot Parison)

In the case of "extrusion blow molding (direct blow molding)" shown in the figure,
extrusion and blow processes of "parison (hot parison)" are performed continuously.
At first, it is also called "hot parison" because it is performed by extrusion molding a
cylindrical (paronless) "parison", put into a mold with remaining heat, and blow molded.

Prefoam (cold parison)

In the case of “injection blow molding (injection stretch / double-axis stretch blow
molding)”, injection molding of the “preform (cold parison)” as a material and blow
molding are performed separately.
It is also called "cold parison" because it is injection molded in advance as a test tube
(bottom) "preform" and allowed to cool and solidify a thermoplastic resin.
In the next process, it is reheated and blow molded. Because "preform (cold parison)" is
small and highly portable, it may be purchased as an intermediate product from material
producers.

(1) Clamping, Air Blow (Blowing Process), Cooling

When the container is formed by "extrusion blow molding (direct blow molding)"
shown in the figure, the bottom portion of the cylindrical "parison (hot parison)" is
formed by clamping.
By blowing compressed air into the parison, the resin is pressed against the inner
wall of the cooled mold to cool and solidify the resin inside the mold, and then the
mold is opened and the molded article is taken out.

(2) Defect, Failure Caused By Blow Molding

Various phenomena occurring in the blow molding process affect the quality of the
molded article. For example, the drawdown that occurs in extrusion blow molding (direct
blow molding) causes uneven thickness shape defect.
Moreover, “melt fracture” is a phenomenon in which the flow of molten resin is
disturbed at the time of extrusion of a parison (hot parison), resulting in surface defects
such as surface roughening of a molded product, and it occurs in all plastic moldings having
an extrusion process.
Shape
Uneven thickness, flashes, dents, sink marks, bubbles in molded products, etc.

255
Vacuum Molding
A sheet / film of resin (plastic) extruded in advance is used as a molding material. The
heated and plasticized resin is placed on a mold, and the space between the plastic and the
mold is vacuumed, and then plastic is molded by suction into the mold. Vacuum suction
and compressed air may be used in combination.
The mold is suitable for small lot production at relatively low cost since it can be molded
on either side of the male or female mold.
Vacuum forming has various applications from thin-walled resin containers such as egg
packs and food trays to big-size products such as automobile instrument panels and
bumpers.
Small products can be molded continuously, but for large products such as automotive
bumpers, one molded part is produced per molding.

(1) Product example using vacuum forming

(2) Vacuum Forming Mechanism

In vacuum forming, there are the mainly following three processes.
Equipment and process of vacuum forming

1) Material Heating And Plasticization 2) Forming & Cooling

A. Heater, B. Mold, C. Vacuum suction

3) Release after solidification

The plastic sheet or plastic film of molding material
is heated by a heater and plasticized.
Place the plasticized molding material on the mold
and "vacuum suction" from inside the mold to mold and
cool. After the resin solidifies, it is ejected.

4) Air Pressure Forming

A molding method in which resin (plastic) is
pressurized with compressed air and the shape of the mold is copied. A plastic sheet or a
plastic film is used as the material same as in case of vacuum molding.
Since the material can be brought into close contact with the mold at a pressure higher

256
than vacuum forming therefore, a sharp shape is possible to be formed. This molding
method is applied to the manufacture of automobile interiors and front covers for medical
devices.
Pressure Molding Mechanism
In air pressure forming, there are the following three major processes.
Equipment and process of pressure forming

1) Material Heating And Plasticization 2) Forming & Cooling

3) Demold after solidification

A. sheet, B. heater, C. clamp frame, D. vacuum valve

The plastic sheet or plasticn film of molding

material is heated by a heater to be plasticized. Place
the plasticized molding material on the mold, press it
with "compressed air" and shape and cool. After the
resin has solidified, it is ejected.
Defects and defects caused by vacuum forming
and pressure forming In “vacuum forming” and
“pressure forming”, it is necessary to be careful about
following defects and failures.
Shape: uneven thickness, flashes, etc.

4) Insert Molding
A method in which metal screws and terminals (inserts) are placed in a mold before
molding and resin (plastic) is injected around it, and it is integrally molded (composite
molding). This molding method is often used in the manufacture of electronic parts such as
connectors and switches utilizing the insulating property of resin, and tools such as drivers
and pliers.
Example of Insert Molding

A. Molded resin (plastic), B. Metal rod, C. Metal screw, D. Metal Terminal

5) Multicolor Molding / Different Material Molding

A technology for combining and integrally molding plastics of different colors and
257
materials.
In case of "2-color molding", resins of respective colors are sequentially injected and
heat-fused using two types of molds.
There is also a method of simultaneously injecting resin of different colors and materials
for each part at the same time to the same mold, and integrally molding it.
It is widely used because molding with added design and functionality is possible.
2-color molding example

6) Decoration Molding (Film Insert Molding / Film in Mold Molding)

In film insert molding, characters, woodgrain, hairline tone, film for decoration with a
carbon-like pattern, gloss, matte, etc. printed on the surface is set in the mold before
molding, and plastic film in the mold are bonded together by heat and pressure at the time
of injection molding, by forming in a single product.
In "film in-mold molding", a decorative film is set in a mold and "transfer" the film
decoration to plastic during injection molding.
These "decorative molding" are used for logos and characters of resin products,
membrane switches of electric products, and surface textures of automobile interior parts
(plastic parts such as shift panels).

258
① 【Examples in Pakistan】
Spring
Flashes

Crack
Flashes

Removal is difficult when flashes come out, and cracks cannot be repaired (rejected).
Reduced by mold repair and mold temperature control (5 => 3%). Considering a hot runner
for further reduction.

Door trim
Swell

Hite shade

Flow mark

259
④Plating
No Contents A B C
① (1) Types of plating ○
Plating is a method of reducing metal ions dissolved in the solution to the parts to be
plated. There are two methods. One is (a) Electroplating method using a DC power source,
and the other is (b) Electroless plating method (chemical plating method) use the reaction
of metal ion and reducing agent (hypophosphorous acid, formalin, etc.) which presents in
the solution.

(a) Electroplating (b) Electroless plating

Power
Anode

Anode
cathode

substrate
cathode substrate

Anode

1) Metal electroplating
Electroplating is an electrolytic plating method performed with a direct current. The
material to be plated (steel, resin, etc.) is immersed in a solution containing the metal
cations to plate (Cr +, Ni +, Zn2 +, etc.). By applying voltage, the cations in the
solution are adhered on the surface of the conductive object. The cations adhering to the
metal surface are reduced to metal atoms to form a plating film.
Auto parts are used for decorative purposes, the improvement of corrosion resistance
and surface hardness.

Plastic parts plating Hard Cr. plating

Super Hard Cr. plating

260
 ○
(2) Electroplating process and features
When manufacturing galvanized steel sheets and the like, generally, a continuous
process of “steel strip → de_oiling → pickling → plating → chemical conversion
treatment” is performed.

1) Degreasing process
Degreasing is an important process performed for the purpose of removing surface oil
for the purpose of uniform adhesion of the plating solution.
1. Solvent cleaning method (Degreasing with organic solvent, immersion method, spray
method and steam method)
2. Alkali cleaning method (Degreasing by chemical reaction with alkali, dipping method,
spray method, electrolytic method, ultrasonic method)
3. Emulsion solvent cleaning method (Degreasing, immersing method,
immersing / stirring method, spraying method with solvent dispersed in water)

2) Pickling process
The purpose is to remove adhered oxide film, rust, and inorganic dirt that cannot be
removed in the degreasing process. A combination of an inorganic acid and a corrosion
inhibitor is used for chemical removal.
Sometimes physical methods such as ultrasonic irradiation are combined.

3)Plating process
Cyanide bath has been widely used as a plating bath. Cyanide bath is aqueous solution
containing ZnCN2 +, sodium cyanide and sodium hydroxide, also called a blue bath.
In recent years, examples of using baths that do not use cyanide (zincate bath, acid
bath) are increasing due to the issue of wastewater treatment. The zincate bath is a bath
mainly composed of zinc oxide and sodium hydroxide. The acidic bath is a bath mainly
composed of zinc chloride, ammonium chloride or potassium chloride.
In these baths, brighteners and additives are used to adjust the finish. In general electro
galvanizing, conditions are 20 to 35° C, DC voltage of 3 to 10V, and current density of
50 to 800A / m2 are adopted.

4) Post-process
To prevent discoloration and rust, perform treatment with chromate and discoloration
prevention liquid (organic) as necessary. In Cr plating, baking is performed to prevent
hydrogen embrittlement.

261
 Metal plating (Electroplating) process

Prepara Plating Cu,Ni,Cr,Zn,Au,

tion Surface finishing Ag,etc.
(Buffing, Horning)

Water rinsing

Neutralization
Fixture

Water rinsing Water rinsing

Pre- After- Chromate

treatme
Electrolysis treatme
washing treatment
nt nt

Water rinsing
Water rinsing
Discoloration
De greasing prevention
(on requirement)

Water rinsing

Acid washing Drying

Electrolysis Finishi baking ,paint

washing ng (on requirement)

Inspection,
Acid activation Dispatching

(3) Resin plating

1) Difference from metal plating
Since resin is a nonconductor, it is necessary to make the plated surface conductive.
For this reason, etching, catalyzer, accelerator, and electroless Ni plating that are not
found in metal plating are required. In addition, a strike nickel plating process for ensuring
adhesion and a copper sulfate plating process are required for surface modification.
Compared to metal plating, there are many processes, and it is difficult to manage
because it mainly consists of decorative parts and the appearance quality is severe. (In
automobiles, Radiator grille, garnish, etc. have increased in size in recent years, and the
suppliers that can be manufactured are limited.)

262
(4) Resin plating process (indicates example conditions)
a) De-Greasing
Ensure wettability (adhesion) in the
next process
(Etching). Does not come into contact with liquid due to repelling.

The wetness is good and the whole comes into contact

b) Etching with the liquid.
The butadiene in the resin is
Holes are formed by dissolving the butadiene part.
scientifically dissolved with Cr acid-
sulfuric acid to form a micro crater on
the surface to ensure adhesion.

Colloid of palladium and tin.

c) Catalyzer (addition of catalyst)
When immersed in a solution, Pd and
Sn colloids are adsorbed on the resin
surface.

Catalyzer / Activator
PD Activator: 100ml/L, HCl: 200ml /L
Time: 4~5min, Room Temp.

d) Accelerator
By the reaction, Pd ions are metallized
and become a catalyst for chemical Palladium
plating.

Accelerating
Sulfuric Acid: 10% of Volume
Room Temp.,
Time: 4~5min.
e) Chemical nickel
(Electroless Ni plating) Formation of chemical nickel film
The resin surface is made conductive for
electroplating.

Electroless Nickel
Nickel sulphate: 29g/l, Sodium Hypophosphate: 29g/l
Sodium Citrate:-29g/, Room Temp. Time: 8~12min
f) Strike plating
Strengthening the film thickness at the
Since the film thickness is
contact point between the hanger and the thin, when a high current is
product applied, the contact portion
(Can be omitted depending on the product sparks and the plating film
shape) disappears.

263
 Copper sulfate plating
g) Copper sulfate plating
Copper plating is thickened to meet the
product's weather resistance (heat
resistance, cold resistance) and surface
accuracy.

Acid Copper Acid Dip

CuSo4:160g/L, H2SO4: 55g/L H2SO4:5% of volume
NaCl: 93mg/L, Room Temp.
Time: 40~50min 2~5dip
Room temp. 2~3Amps/dm2

Semi-bright Ni
h) Semi-bright Ni plating (S-Ni)
Protection of the base (Copper)
Improve rust prevention by adding a
potential difference from the next process
(Glossy Ni).

Semi-Bright Nickel
Nickel sulphate:-300g/L, Nickel Chloride:-35g/L
Boric Acid:-45g/L, Temp: 50~60C, Time: 18~24min
3~4Amps/dm2

i) Glossy nickel plating (B-Ni) Glossy nickel plating

Prevents rust by creating a potential
difference from the previous process.

High Sulphur Nickel

Nickel sulphate: 300g/L, Nickel Chloride: 60g/L
Boric Acid: 45g/L,
Temp: 50~60C, Time: 3~5min., 3~4Amps/dm2,
Temp: 50~60C, Time:10~15min.

Non-conductive
j) Microporous plating (MP-Ni) fine particles
To ensure high corrosion resistance, non- A hole in the chrome film opens
conductive fine particles are co-deposited in
the plated layer with fine holes.

Microporous Nickel
Nickel Sulphate: 300g/L, Nickel Chloride:
75g/L
Boric Acid: 45g/L
Temp: 50~60C, Time: 3~5min, 3~4Amps/dm2
k) Chromate treatment
Immerse the plating surface in a thin chromic acid solution to prevent Ni oxidation.
Improve Cr adhesion in the final process.

264
 l) Cr plating
Hard Cr plating film. Disperse the rust
Chrome plating film.
If the film thickness is too large, it by micro pores.
will cause cracking.

Bright Chrome
Chromic Acid: 250g/L, Sulfuric Acid: 2.5ml/L
Time: 4~7min., Temp.35~45C, 8 ~10Amps/dm2

m) Water washing, pure water washing, drying

3) Galvanizing
Galvanizing to protect iron from rust
Corrosion Protection Plating → Zinc Plating is frequently used.
Since Zn has higher ionization tendency than Fe (Base Metals) therefore it easily
gets rusted. Therefore by galvanized iron metal Zinc corrosion starts first in order to
delay iron rust. (Sacrificial Anticorrosive Effect)
Mechanism of Sacrificial Anticorrosive Effect Dip in hexavalent chromium
Zinc has high tendency of ionization than Iron solution to form chromate film
Corrosion generated Zinc Item

(Easy to get rusty) Zinc

Iron has low tendency of
ionization than Zinc (Difficult
Sheet to get rusty)
Metal

In order to protect Zn from corrosion after plating → Chromate Treatment

In this case when pinholes are generated and rain droplets cover the surface, Zinc
become ⊕ electrode of local battery and iron becomes Θ electrode and current flows
from + to - whereas Zinc dissolves first. Moreover, corrosive particles of rusted Zinc
cover the surface of iron and work to protect the iron.
MFZn8C
8 μ (Zinc plating film thickness) up to grade in indoor environment with high
humidity (Cellar, Chamber)

Plating Process
Pre-Treatment Process ___ Remove the dirt of the base material surface and
prepare the raw skin. (Degreasing, Acid treatment)
(Water Rinse)

Plating Process
(Water Rinse)
Prevent corrosion of Zinc plating by
Chromate Treatment, in order to
Post Processing prevent easy discoloration, Anti-
Discoloration, Pin Holes repair
sealing and Drying.

265
 Hydrogen Brittleness Elimination
(By Baking Treatment)

Appearance & Quality Inspection

Importance of Pre-Treatment: In order to achieve good adhesion, a surface
which has many metal bonds at the outer surface between
plating metal and the base material is produced.
70 to 80% of Plating defects are due to in adequate pre-treatment….
Plating adhesion interfering substances removal.
★ Prepare raw skin (Base Metal) before dipping in Plating solution
Interfering Substances:
1. Oil/fats and Oxides on the base material surface
2. Chemical compounds such as Oxides & Sulfides, etc., and inert
substances
3. Re-formed compounds film on the surface.

Zinc sacrifices itself and get rusty first and delays the rust process of iron.
(Sacrificial Anticorrosive Effect)
After plating protect zinc to get rusty by Chromate Treatment (Hexavalent
Chrome, Trivalent Chrome).
4 Types of Plating Bath Procedures:
Application: Bolts, Nuts and
Screws, etc., after Heat Treatment

▫ Zinc Ammonium Chloride Bath

Acidic Plating
▫ Zinc Potassium Chloride Bath
▫ Cyanide Bath
▫ Zincate Bath (Without Cyanide) Alkaline Plating

Zinc Plating temperature parameters are…… .

If the temperature is high, then plating reaction is accelerated and causing
coarse plating.

Water Water Water Water Water

Bath Bath Bath Bath Bath
Drying
Treatment
(Zinc Plating)

Chromate
Acid Wash

Inspection
Galvanizing

Nitric Acid Bath

Degreasing

No heating in Zinc Plating (Galvanizing)!!

Zinc Plating Baths Properties and Application
・Acidic Bath - Ideal Electric Current ratio Heat Treated Parts
- Hydrogen Brittleness hardly Bolts, Nuts, Hardware,
・Cyanide Bath occurs during Plating Process. etc.
Press small parts,
Complex Shape items
266
 - Most common plating bath
- Good for secondary Processing -
Excellent uniform electro
depositivity

・Zincate Batch - CN- extracted from Cyanide Press parts, Bolts, Nuts,
- Alkaline Bath Excellent uniform Hardware, etc.
electro depositivity

Type and chemical composition of zinc plating solution

Solution Chemical Component Concentration
Zinc Oxide 19 ~ 28 g/l
Cyanide Bath Sodium Cyanide 30 ~ 45 g/l
Sodium Hydroxide 75 ~90 g/l
Zinc Oxide 9 ~ 19 g/l
Zincate Bath
Sodium Hydroxide 70 ~ 150 g/l
Ammonium Zinc Chloride 31 ~ 104 g/l
② Chloride Bath Ammonium Chloride 150 ~ 200 g/l
Zinc Chloride 31 ~ 104 g/l
Potassium
Potassium Chloride 210 ~280 g/l30g/l
Chloride Bath
Boric Acid g/l
Chromate treatment to protect zinc from corrosion
Chromate treatment …. Immerse the plated object in a hexavalent chromium
solution to form a chromate film.
- Glossy Chromate
- Colored Chromate
- Black Chromate
- Green Chromate
Chromate Film Layer = Chromic acid Chromium (Conductive)
Heat resistance, corrosion resistance gets weaker at a temperature above 80 °C.
Major chemical components of Chromate solution used for Chromate Treatment.
Chromic Anhydride → Generates Hexavalent Chrome Ions
Sodium Dichromate Hexavalent Chrome Film forming
Dilute Nitric Acid / Sulfuric Acid Components
Excellent self-repairing and improves
corrosion resistance Galvanizing

Hence, Hexavalent Chrome is Harmful

Therefore,
Self-Repairing of Chromate
Film
Chromate Layer Trivalent chromium
conversion treatment is good.
- Solution control range is
Zinc Plating When there is a scratch comparatively strict.
on the coated film, Concentration, Solution PH,
hexavalent chrome Temperature Control is
(water soluble) important.
dissolves and repairs
Sheet Metal
the coated fil.

267
 Composition of chromate treatment solution and treatment conditions

Chemical Glossy Chromate

Colored Chromate Black Chromate
Components g/l

Chromic Anhydride 0.1 ~ 2 4 ~ 10 10 ~ 40

Sulfuric Acid 0.3 ~ 5 0.5 ~ 5 2 ~ 30
Nitric Acid 0.5 ~ 10 1~5 --
Phosphoric Acid 0~2 -- 0 ~ 20
Hydrofluoric Acid 0~2 - --
Acetic Acid -- - 0 ~ 100
Silver - -- 0.2 ~ 0.4
Room Temperature Room
Bath Temperature Room Temperature
Temperature
Soaking Time 0 ~ 30 sec. 10 ~ 30 sec. 30 ~ 120 sec.

4) Problems and countermeasures

1. Plating peeling (Material: SPCD, t = 1.0)
When Ni plating is divided into two layers according to OEM requirements, peeling
occurs after Cr plating in the subsequent process. As a temporary measure, the
conventional single layer plating was restored.
[Possible cause: Japanese supplier view]
It is considered that the conductivity is lowered due to insufficient pretreatment or
the control of chromate treatment is insufficient. In the case of one layer, the adhesion
can be ensured barely, but in the case of two layers, the electrical resistance increases
and causes adhesion failure.

Cr plating

Ni plating

2. Pitting (ABS)

・Poor appearance（Pitting）
It is presumed to be caused by poor liquid control in the copper sulfate plating
process (dirt of the processing liquid) and contamination after pickling and washing
after plating. Currently, the chemical solution for copper sulfate plating has been
improved by replacing it with a German one.

268
⑤ Heat treatment
No Contents A B C
① 1. Heat treatment and Steel 〇
1) Classification of Steel
Mainly classified into “Normal Steel” and “Special Steel” according to the JIS steel
standard.
Necessary heat treatment and usage is explained below:
(1) Steel for Ordinary Structure:
This material is manufactured as a product by cutting or welding and is not normally heat
treated, it is a steel material with 0.3% or low C such as SS and SPC.
(2) Carbon steel
Manufactured by forging and rolling etc. C0.1%-0.6% steel (SC material), and its heat
treatment is possible (It may be used as it is forged)
(2) Cast iron
Iron material with C2-4.5% Carbon and Si added. By heat treatment it is possible to do
Quenching to form Martensite by heating and quick cooling like Steel but Chilled type
using high carbon and Austemper treatment (both mentioned in detail later) is normally
implemented. ○
(3) Special Steel：
Elements such as Cr and Ni, Mo, V etc., are added and heat treatment implemented.
It is also called alloy steel because of the addition of multiple elements.
⇒ Classification of JIS steels is expressed in Table 1.

Table1
Concrete steel SS C0.1-0.2% General structure rolled
Normally no material
heat Treatment SM C0.1-0.3% Rolled metal for welding
structure
SB C0.1-0.3%, Si Boiler Sheet Metal
SPC C0.03-0.25% Cold Rolled Sheet metal
Carbon steel S-C C0.1-0.55% Carbon Steel
With heat H C0.4-0.55% Forged hardened steel
treatment
Cast iron FC C2.5-4.5% Normal cast iron
In case of MB C2.7-3.0% Meehanite cast iron
application of FCMB C2.5-3.2% Black core malleable cast
heat treatment iron
FCMW C2.6-3.4 White core malleable cast
iron
FCD C3.6-3.9, Si, Mn Ductile iron
Special Steel SCM C0.13-0.48%+Ni, Cr, Cr-Mo Steel
With heat Mo
treatment SK, SKS C0.6-1.5% Tool steel
SKH C0.4-0.8%, Cr, Mo, V, High speed steel
W
SUJ C0.95-1.1%, Mn, Si, Cr Bearing Steel
SUP C0.-0.55%, Si, Mn, Cr, Spring Steel
V
SUS C0.1-0.4%, Cr, Ni (Mo) Stainless Steel
SUH C 0.1-0.45%, Si, Cr, Ni, Heat resistant steel
W

269
2) Classification of Heat treatment
Complete Heat Treatment Surface Heat treatment
General Heat Special Heat Surface hardening Surface
Treatment Treatment treatment modification
treatment
Quenching Solution Surface hardening Nitriding
Tempering treatment • Oil, water hardening Surface
Annealing Subzero • Induction lubrication
Normalizing processing hardening Surface
• Carburizing improvement

2. Method for Heat Treatment ○

1)Relationship between Temperature and Treatment

Hypoeutectoid steel Hypereutectoid steel

0.8 %
A1
A3
Acm

(1). Quenching
a. Heating
i) Hypo-eutectoid Steel (Steel below C0.8 %)
It changes from Ferrite(α) + Austenite(α+γ) to Austenite(γ) at the boundary of A3. To
coarse iron, before quenching the iron it is necessary to carry out the heat treatment of A3
at the lowest temperature.

270
ii) Hyper eutectoid Steel (Steel above C0.8%)
Below A1 is Pearlite (α + cement (Fe3C)), Pearlite will become Austenite if it exceeds A1.
All of it will become γ if it exceeds Acm. For this reason, in case of tempering, it is
necessary for the treatment to be above A1 and below Acm.
b. Cooling
Choose a speed that does not touch the Ps curve, where Pearlite and Ferrite start separating.
Instantly cool down to the top of the Ps curve to 550℃, after that slowly cool down such
that the curve is not crossed. By doing this,
Austenite is left over without precipitating, and
after exceeding Ms point, it is pulled up by a
cooling medium such as water or oil, and heat is
removed by air. This is done to avoid sudden
Martensite changes.

(2) Tempering, Annealing, Normalizing

a. Tempering
Steel gets hard and brittle only by
quenching treatment. This is done to
adjust the hardness and increase the
toughness of the structure. The process
includes high temperature tempering and
low temperature tempering.

i) Low temperature tempering

By performing a process at 150-200C,
Martensite structure becomes a toughened
tempered Martensite. Resistance to
abrasion and cracking can be prevented.

ii) High temperature tempering

Gears and tools that require high
toughness are tempered at 550-650C,
residual Austenite is decomposed and high
elastic limit is achieved.

271
b. Annealing ○
This is a heat treatment method in which the metal material is heated to an appropriate
temperature, and after sufficiently holding the steel in the austenite structure, it is gradually
cooled in a furnace. The internal residual distortion (residual stresses) is removed by work
hardening, the structure is softened and improve the ductility. By Annealing process
reduces lattice defects in the metallographic structure, and recrystallization is carried out
to homogenize the structure and to soften due to decrease of residual stresses.
Annealing can be divided into different types with different temperatures and cooling
speeds depending on its purpose.

①Diffusion annealing

③Spheroid annealing

⑤Stress relief annealing

Purpose
① Diffusion Annealing Homogenization
② Complete Annealing Internal Stress Removal
③ Spheroidizing Annealing Workability Improvement
④ Isothermal Transformation A process to change the structure internal
Annealing Carbides into spherical form by quenching
the austenite-structured steel, it will
become difficult to quench and crack,
toughness is achieved, and is implemented
before tools steel processing.
⑤ Stress Relief Annealing Residual Stress Relief

C. Normalizing
Normalizing is the process of heat
treatment which removes internal
deformation, restores structure to
standard state, and refines it. After
holding the steel in the austenitic state,
sufficiently cool in atmospheric air.
There are many steel materials produced
by forging, casting and rolling, etc.,
those are partial aggregation of excessive
heating and abnormal structure and
Carbides, and most of which are coarse
and non-uniform crystal grains. About
such a steel material uniformly refine Normalizing temperature
grains and improve mechanical properties. Moreover, by implementing heat treatment for
the purpose of improving machinability etc., and it is a treatment to restore steel to its
272
standard condition.
i) Heated to a temperature about 50 ° C, A3 or Acm point and above to make austenite
single phase and then leave it in the air (air cool) for cooling. At this time by increasing
and decreasing transformation point fiber structure will disappear and along with refining
of crystal grain will become hard & strong and fine pearlite will be achieved with good
elongation and drawability, residual stresses will also be removed.
This is a heat treatment carried out for the purpose of improving mechanical properties
and improvement of machinability. Moreover, increases strength and ductility, it is also
implemented as pre-treatment of quenching.

3.Quenching Procedures
1) Water Quenching and Oil Quenching
Quench the steel from austenite region (A3, region above A1 transformation point) is used
as the most common quenching procedure. Water has the highest cooling rate and the most
effective transition to martensite but the structure becomes un-uniform and internal stress
become higher causing cracks or distortion therefore to control cooling oil quenching (hot
or cold) is used.

2) Carburizing
(1) Carburizing means
A procedure of permeating and diffusing Carbon on the surface of low carbon steel
(generally called skin hardening steel) and then quenching it to harden the surface. There
are three types of carburizing and quenching such as solid carburizing, liquid carburizing
and gas carburizing, but from the productivity and quality point of view, gas carburizing
and quenching is the mainstream currently. The surface is hard and the inside is soft, so it
is excellent for wear resistance and fatigue resistance. The steel used is generally low
carbon steel (or alloy steel), and it has to qualify the following conditions.
① Do not cause coarsening of crystal grains when heated at carburizing temperature
② Hardened layer with high hardness, wear resistance, fatigue resistance, and high
toughness.
③ As for internal hardened portion also, crystal grains are not coarsened and have high
toughness.
④ There are a few elements that inhibit carburization and does not contain any
elements that make free carbide.

(2) Gas Carburizing

Other methods include vacuum carburizing using a vacuum furnace, plasma carburizing
using plasma (also referred to as ion carburizing), and a dripping carburizing method in
which liquid such as methanol is dropped into the carburizing furnace and carburization
is performed using the decomposition gas.
It should be noted that most important point in Gas Carburizing is to prevent grain
boundary oxidation as much as possible and it is important to suppress the formation of
residual austenite.
In conventional carburization, the carbon concentration on the surface was made to be a
eutectic composition (C 0.8%), and the wear resistance was improved by martensite
obtained by quenching. But in this state temperature increased due to friction heat and
high temperature when used at an atmosphere, etc., a softening phenomenon may occur
and the life may be reduced. For preventing purpose from this problem, carbon
concentration in the vicinity of surface is increased to about 3% carbide dispersion
carburization in which the dispersion is spheroidized is also carried out.
This is used for parts which require high strength and wear resistance, such as automotive
Drive Gears, to perform deep carburization (depth 1.0 mm [MAX]).

3) Surface Hardening Treatment other such as Nitriding

(1) Nitriding Treatment

273
 A method of hardening surfaces by infiltrating activated nitrogen (N) into the surface of
steel. Quenching is not required in this case because very hard N nitride is made on the
surface of steel. Since processing temperature is low in the α-Fe zone (510 to 570 ° C)
below. A1 transformation point therefore there is no risk of seizure crack or seizure
deformation. The nitrogen N penetrating into the steel needs a nascent N formed by
thermal decomposition of ammonia therefore it is important that AL, Cr, Mo, etc., which
have high affinity for this nitrogen has to be present in the steel. Especially Cr and Mo are
essential components and there is a dedicated steel for Nitriding SACM 645 as specified
in JIS.
SCM, SKD, etc. also implement Nitriding treatment.
There are two types of Nitrided hardened layer depth: Total hardened layer depth and
Practically hardened layer depth, and since it is difficult to measure all hardened layers
depth, practically hardened layer depth with high 50 HV than the hardness of the base
material is applied.

a. Gas Nitriding（HNTG） ○
Ammonia decomposition gas heated to 500 to 550℃ and treated for 50 to 150 hours.
Ammonia decomposition ratio in this case is about 30% and depth is 0.2 to 0.3 mm, while
hardness achieved in this treatment is 1000 to 1200 HV.
The disadvantage of this treatment is long processing time, since the properties achieved
are excellent in wear resistance and corrosion resistance.

b. Plasma Nitriding (Ion Nitriding)

It is also called ion nitriding in nitriding developed for the purpose of shortening the
nitriding time.
This process is a type of gas nitriding that is carried out by discharging in reduced pressure
vacuum. The treated material is cathode, and the vessel is anode, and discharge is
conducted by applying a voltage of approx. 500 V in a vacuum of 0.5 to 10 Torr, and
Nitriding is carried out if NH3 is inducted which ends within a few hours and gas can be
saved with no pollution. The processing temperature is 450 to 570 ° C, and a mixed gas of
N 2 and H 2 is often used for the processing atmosphere.

c. Salt Bath Nitriding （HNTT）

A typical treatment of salt bath soft Nitriding is Tuft ride, which is carried out by putting
potassium cyanide or potassium carbonate or in a titanium crucible and melting it, then
processed by blowing air into this. The treatment temperature is about 570 ° C., and time
is about 30 to 240 minutes, and after heating, oil or water cooling is carried out. The steel
used can be applicable to almost all materials, but cyanide pollution risk is possible
however recently, a treatment with zero Cyanide pollution has been developed. The
difference from gas nitriding or plasma nitriding is nitrogen and carbon infiltrate
simultaneously to form carbonitrides.
○
d. Gas Soft Nitriding
There is no pollution in method of carrying out soft Nitriding of c by gas. There are
cases using mixed NH3 gas and carburizing gas and where Urea is decomposed and used.
Soft Nitriding is when NH3 gas and Carburizing gas is mixed with 1:1 ratio is the major
Gas Soft Nitriding procedure. Other methods for Soft Nitriding are CO & N2 gas
generated by N2 Nitrogen gas base and thermal decomposition of Urea. However, process
temperature and time is same as other soft nitriding methods.

e. Carbide Coating Treatment

②
There are 2 types available such as, Dry Coating PVD (Physical Vapor Deposition) &
CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) and wet coating such as TRD (VC carbide coating).
In both cases, there are various methods for PVD and CVD for processing to form hard
carbides or nitrides on the steel surface and hard coatings such as TiN, TiC, TiCN, TiALN,
274
etc., have already been practically in use. TRD generates hard VC carbide on the surface
that is widely used for Dies and Molds. The characteristics of this treatment is high
adhesion strength due to mutual diffusion of matrix and carbide layer and is difficult to
cause peeling off but it requires good knowledge to manage large distortion due to high ○
temperature.

f. Steam Treatment (Homogenized Treatment)

In Iron Oxides there is Iron Monoxide (FeO: white rust), Iron Trioxide (Fe2O3: red rust)
and Iron Tetra oxide (Fe3O4: black rust). Fe3O4 is porous, hard and has high corrosion
resistance therefore it is used for surface improvement and Steam Treatment is used to
make form this coating. In order to prevent Red Rust, compressed steam is heated at 350
to 400 ° C and processing object is passed through 500 ° C superheated water which forms
Fe304 coating Film. It should be noted that if temperature is too high or excessively long
time may cause the change it to Fe203.

4) Induction Hardening
When quenching steel by high frequency induction heating, the current flowing through
coil and object to be heated has a property of being concentrated on each surface as the
frequency becomes higher, and this is called the Skin Effect. The currents flowing in coil
and the object to be heated are opposite in direction to each other, and when the frequency

is high, due to Skin Effect the current in opposite direction flows more close and electric
resistance become lower and heat is generated at only surface of object to be heated.
The relationship between the surface depth (d) and the frequency (f) on which the
current flows is as follow
δ: Current penetration depth(ｍ)
ω：Angular frequency＝2π f (rad/s)
ρ：Resistance of conductor metals（Ωｍ）
μ：magnetic permeability Ratio＝μsμ0（H/m）
ｆ：frequency（Hz）
μs：magnetic relative permeability ratio of conductor metals（－）
μo：vacuum magnetic permeability ratio＝４π×10^(-7)（H/m）
（Magnetic field strength and μｓ are in inverse proportion ）
Frequency and depth of current penetration are inverse proportion
=> The higher the current frequency will be, the smaller will be heating depth. ○

Metal Temp. ρ μs depth of current penetration δ(mm)

×10- (－) f=100H f=1kHz f=10kH f=100k
8
Ωm z z Hz
Cu Normal 1.7 1 6.6 2.1 0.66 0.21
AL Temp 2.7 1 8.3 2.6 0.83 0.26
SUS304 70 1 42.1 13.3 4.21 1.33
Carbon 15 150 1.59 0.5 0.16 0.05
Steel 400℃ 47 150 2.82 0.89 0.28 0.09
700℃ 90 150 3.90 1.23 0.39 0.12
1000℃ 120 1 55.1 17.42 5.51 1.74
Currently frequency range is wider and Thyristor-Inverter type Oscillators are widely
used. The properties of Induction Hardening are,
① Thermal efficiency is better because of direct heating and operation time is shorter.
② Partial Hardening is possible and hardened layer selection is comparatively easy.
③ There is very low oxidation, decarburization, and deformation due to short time heating
275
 and sudden cooling treatment.
④ Easy for operation standardization and automation.
⑤ Not only wear resistance but also improves fatigue resistance due to large compression
residual stresses generated on the surface by rapid heating and quick cooling.
Since Induction Hardening heating is carried out by a coil, therefore it is important to make
a coil suitable for the size and shape of the workpiece. Coil types are available for different
such as outer, inner, or flat surfaces, therefore selection is based on mostly experience
factors.
For Induction Hardening, generally Carbon Steel for mechanical structure and low Alloy
Steel is mostly used but due to quick heating, temperature increases while carbide do not
form a solid solution sufficiently, and it is slightly higher as compared to Ac3
transformation point ferrous carbon type phase diagram and Induction Hardening hardness
is highly effected by base structure before hardening. The hardness of Sorbite structure is
high because Carbides dissolve sufficiently. Here are two indications of hardness: effective
hardened layer depth and total hardened layer depth. Effective hardened layer depth
matches to 50% Martensite (Half Marten) and the hardness limit is determined by C% of
Steel. Moreover, the total hardened layer depth is adopted as hardness depth of base
material.
The coolant is mostly a water-soluble coolant is used and the cooling method is often an
injection type that can achieve high cooling speed, and is applied to parts such as
crankshaft, gear, cam, roll, cylinder liner etc.

4.Examples and Common issues in Pakistan

1)Molds & Dies Heat Treatment
There are some cases occasionally observed where the mold material is not clearly
known therefore proper heat treatment is not implemented.
By implementing following standards improvements have been observed in many
companies. Please implement the process based on principle theory.
(1) Mold & Dies Material and Heat Treatment Parameters
a. Iron material for Cold Forming (Press) and Hot Forming (Forging) [from Catalog
of Sanyo Special Steel]

276
277
 An increase of Hardness is very little by tempering at 500℃. The phenomenon is known
as secondary hardening, when heating for quenching C, Cr, Mo, and V, etc., decompose
from base material in a super saturated state, in tempering due to internal dispersion
strengthening of composite material deposited by tempering. Moreover, decomposition of
remaining Austenite to Martensitic also occurs. In order to maintain strength & hardness
of material, Tempering temperature has to be set a little higher than peak of secondary
hardening.
Especially in case of SKD11 is usually applied high Temp., tempering 500-530℃.
High tempering makes effect to avoid crack by reducing residual stresses. In case of
required hardness, should be treated in low temperature tempering.
The reason for this is because of quenching and tempering in constant temperature kept
in fixed time, prevents deformation of die due to strain caused by low thermo conductive
of special carbide composition (Cr, W, Mo, & V). Heating hold time should be 40min/Φ25.
A slight increase in hardness appears at tempering temperature of 500 ° C. This is called
Secondary Hardening, and is due to dispersion strengthening of composite Carbides
precipitated by tempering and internal distortion generated in base to base solution, in
which C, Cr, Mo & V, etc., are over saturated in solid solution during quenching and
heating and simultaneously decomposition of residual Austenite martensite is
accompanied by secondary hardening. In order to maintain the hardness and strength,
temperature is set slightly higher than secondary hardening peak and in specially it is often
utilized for SKD11 when high temperature hardening at 500～530℃. This is because low
temperature hardening is based on the concept of hardness-based corrosion resistance,
while in induction hardening is effective in preventing damage by reducing residual
stresses. Doing quenching and tempering while maintaining constant temperature is for
handling poor thermal conductivity of special carbides such as Cr, W, Mo & V and to
minimize distortion due to rigidity or deformation of the mold material as much as
possible. The standard time to hold is 40 minutes / φ25.
Achieve appropriate hardness and toughness makes better balance between anti crack
and die life. Hardness standard （Hrc58 ~ 60）
Recommended high temperature tempering (see details in graph).
(It helps to prevent cracks by reducing residual stresses). In case of targeting Hardness
(durability), it is recommended to conduct low temperature tempering.
Achieve hardness (HRC 58 ~ 60) and toughness to achieve both crack and improved
life.
==>Refer to Graph for recommended Parameters. High Temp, tempering is recommended.
(it helps to prevent cracks by reducing residual stresses). In case of Hardness target
(endurance) then low temperature
tempering has to be implemented. Tempering-hardness chart

Quenching
condition

Tempering temperature

278
 SKD11 SKD61
st
1 Tempering 550~650℃
st
(40-60min)/φ25
High Temperature 1 Tempering
tempering High Temperature
nd
tempering
2 Tempering
550~650℃
Low Temperature (40-60min)/φ25
nd
tempering 2 Tempering
High Temperature
rd tempering
3 Tempering
Low 550~650℃: 2 times
Temperature
tempering
HRC 55-62 HRC 40-52

Tempering
Actual Heat Treatment Process
of SKD11/61

Hardening
Hold Time

40minute/Ø25

Hardening

Hardness distribution of all material surfaces (48hours processing)

Vickers length (HV)

Distance from surface (mm)

279
Quenching of SKD11([ ]:SKD61)
Maintain temperature from 400℃ to 500℃ in fixed time to the core of whole material of
Die (Φ25/40min). Then repeat the same process at 800℃ to 850℃, Air cooling when
reaches at 1030℃.
Tempering: High temperature tempering 530℃～570℃, [550~650℃:2times] (To change
decomposition of remaining Austenite to Martensitic), then second low temperature
tempering: 150℃～180℃ 2times tempering (SKD11 only)
SKD11 hardening ([ ]: SKD61)
Hardening is carried out by maintaining same temperature 400 to 500℃ upto the core
(40min=25Φ). Then repeat the same at 800 to 850℃ and start air cooling from 1030℃.
Later when Tempering, residual Austenite is changed to Martensite by tempering at a high
temperature of 530 to 570℃[550～650℃× twice] and after that second time tempering
at low temperature of 150℃～180℃ twice (SKD 11).

2) Nitriding of FCD
As mentioned above, the nitriding depth can hardly be achieved except by nitriding
steel. In the example, design specification of nitriding depth in FCD400 is 0.3mm, but
theoretically 0.05 is the maximum limit. Under the current circumstances reverse the
appropriate value to 0.05mm and currently to improve depth some other procedure is under
trial => regarding Nitriding there are a lot of hit & trial but it is necessary to learn
manufacturing based on the correct theory.

FCD400

280
① 3)Induction Hardening ○
Since the induction heating to the outer surface is carried out by shaft coil and central
portion where hardness is required is not heated causing hardening defect.

As a result of study with

Japanese suppliers, following coil
shape was proposed. (Actually, it
was not implemented because high
frequency was managed by Chill
Casting.)

Basically, in case of heating to fixed face, needs plane type (*1) as per attached picture,
Proposed design When using current type coil to achieve heating.

281
⑥ Forging
No Contents A B C
① 1. Forging types and features 〇
1) Classification by processing temperature
(1) Hot forging
This refers to forging performed at or above the recrystallization temperature of a steel
material.
Processing of materials that cannot be processed at room temperature and large
deformation at a time are possible, and products with complicated shapes can be
manufactured.
The amount of processing required for material improvement (forging) is expressed as
a forging ratio. The forging ratio is shown in Figure 1. The forging ratio should be at least
4 and should be around 10 for tools and blade materials.

Cross Section: A
Cross Section: a
Extend Forging
(Strech)
Length l
Length L

Forging Ratio: l/L or a/A

Cross Section: A
Cross Section: a
Up-
Height: Height:
Setting
H h

Forging Ratio: l/L or a/A

Fig 1: Forging Ratio

② 〇

(2) Cold Forging

Forged products Machined products Casting products

(Forged flow lines along (The metal flow line is (No metal flow line
the shape are obtained, cut at the processed and not strong against
which is advantageous in part.) repeated stress.)
terms of strength)
Strong against repeated
bending stress.

This refers to a Forging without heating the material.

Compared to the above hot forging, since the deformation resistance is high and the
deformability is small, there is a risk of destruction of the forging die and product
cracking, so the amount of deformation that can be applied at one time is small. The
surface of the resulting product is clean and has good dimensional and shape accuracy, so
there is no need for post finishing.
282
 The application of Cold Forging has been spreading in recent years. Hardness during
molding enhances product increase. The die life is several thousand to several hundred ○
thousand or more, longer than hot forging. Distortion occurs during strengthening by heat
treatment after forging, and the accuracy obtained is deteriorated.
Because of this, low heat treatment strained material and low strain heat treatment are
required.
(3) Warm forging This refers to a forging method performed at a temperature
intermediate between the above for the purpose of combining the advantages of hot
forging and cold forging.
Care should be taken because the selection range of aptitude conditions is narrow. A
③ high temperature is used when the main purpose is to reduce deformation resistance,
and a low temperature is used to improve accuracy.
(4) Compound forging A forging method in which a complicated shape is formed by
hot or warm forging and then accuracy is improved by cold forging is called composite
forging.
In recent years, it has spread rapidly, and the accuracy in the final cold forging is
improved by performing simple intermediate cutting after hot or warm forging.
(5) Constant temperature forging When forging difficult-to-process materials that
require heat resistance, this is a forging method in which the mold is heated to reduce
temperature changes.

2) Classification by tool type or motion type

(1) Free forging This is a method of processing into a desired shape by applying
pressure using a tool with a flat or curved surface called a hammer or an anvil instead
of a forging die, and performing operations such as stretching, upsetting, drilling,
staking, and cutting.
It is suitable for production of large and medium-sized products in a variety of small
quantities, but it depends on the skill of the operator.
(2) Die forging As shown in Fig. 3, a
material having a larger volume than the
product is placed in a forging die with the
shape of the product on the compression
tool surface, heated or at room
temperature (cold forging), and forging
material into shape.
In order to fill the forging die with the
material, a flash land (burr road) and a
gutter (burr pool) are provided to control
the material flowing out from the joints of
the upper and lower dies (shown). The
outflow resistance caused by friction in the flash land increases the internal pressure and
fills the die with all the material, and finally drains the remaining material to the gutter.

283
 (3) Upset forging Forging that compresses
the material in the axial direction. The head-
forming process for screws, bolts, rivets, etc. is
typical.
As shown in Fig. 4, if the material is held for a
length L from the die hole and swung by tapping
its head, it will buckle and fold if L is not less
than about 2.5 times the material diameter D. If
L / D is more than 3 times, double step as shown
in (II). The application limit of multi-stage is as
follows.
2 steps: L / D ≤ 4.5 (maximum 5.5)
3 steps: L / D ≤ 6.5 (Maximum 8.0)

(4) Rotary forging A processing method in

which the entire shape is formed sequentially
while pressing the material locally with a
rotating tool. Although the machining time is
long, it has a feature that it is quiet because there
is little impact of pressurization, and the
machining force and machining surface pressure
can be lowered by sequential machining. It is
disadvantageous in ensuring accuracy.
In addition, "Swing forging" in which the tool
shaft is tilted to partially pressurize the
material and swivel in the circumferential
direction. "Ring Roll rolling", which forms a Fig 4. Head making upsetting
semi-finished ring product between several rolls,
"Cross Rolling", where a wedge-shaped tool is bitten in order while rotating a round
bar to make a stepped shaft by flowing the material in the axial direction.

2. Forging material
1) Required properties of materials
Requirement for material specification of forging
Character of ・Strength：Tensile and fatigue,
Material Anti-wearing, Impact, corrosion and heat resistance
P material
R ・Shape, dimension and tolerance
・Surface quality：Scratch, Decarbonization
0
・Inner defect：non-metal contamination, internal defect
C
forging ・hot forging：heat deformation resistance
E
・cold forging, resistance of cold deformation, lubrication
S
S workability ・machinability, welding performance
Heat treatment ・Hardenability, Surface treatment: Carburizing, Induction
quenching, Nitriding

284
 2) General forging materials and heat treatment
Heat Applicatio
Sym. Chemical contents（％） treatmen n
C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo t
Light duty
0.13- 0.18 0.15～ 0.30～
S15C 0.35 0.60 ＜0.2 ＜0.2 － N parts

0.22～ 0.15～ 0.30～

0.60 ＜0.2 ＜0.2 －
S25C N
0.28 0.35
N or QT Crank arm
0.42～ 0.15～ 0.60～
S45C 0.48 0.35 0.90 ＜0.2 ＜0.2 －

0.50～ 0.15～ 0.60～

S53C ＜0.20 ＜0.20 － N or QT od, Nut
0.56 0.35 0.90
0.18～ 0.15～ 0.60～ 0.90～ Gear
SCr420
0.23 0.35 0.85 1.20 ＜0.25 － C
T/M Part,
0.13～ 0.15～ 0.60～ 0.90～ 0.15～ Piston
SCM415
0.18 0.35 0.85 1.20 ＜0.25 0.30
C

0.18～ 0.15～ 0.60～ 0.90～ 0.15～

SCM420
0.23 0.35 0.85 1.20 ＜0.25 0.30
C
0.17～ 0.15～ 0.40～ 0.40～ 1.60～ 0.15～
SNCM420 C
0.23 0.35 0.70 0.65 2.00 0.30
0.38～ 0.15～ 0.60～ 0.90～ Heavy
SCr440
0.43 0.35 0.85 1.20 ＜0.25 － QT
Duty parts,
0.33～ 0.15～ 0.60～ 0.90～ 0.15～ Knuckle,
SCM435
0.38 0.35 0.85 1.20 ＜0.25 0.30
QT
Arm shaft
0.38～ 0.15～ 0.60～ 0.90～ 0.15～
SCM440
0.43 0.35 0.85 1.20 ＜0.25 0.30
QT
0.36～ 0.15～ 0.60～ 0.60～ 1.60～ 0.15～
SNCM439 QT
0.43 0.35 0.90 1.00 2.00 0.30
0.25～ 0.15～ 0.35～ 2.50～ 2.50～ 0.50～
SNCM630 QT
0.35 0.35 0.60 3.50 3.50 0.70

3. Forging die material

1) Types and heat treatment
Usage Purpose Sym. hardness Heat treatment
(HRC） Quenching Tempering
Hot Hot working SKT4 32～49 820～880℃ OC 400～650℃空冷
forging tool alloy SKD6 33～54 1,000-1,050℃AC 550～650℃空冷
steel SKD6 35～55 1,000-1,050℃ AC 550～650℃空冷
SKD7 40～53 1,000-1,050℃ OC 550～650℃空冷
Cold Cold SKD8 40～56 1,070-1,170℃ OC 600～700℃空冷
forging working tool SKS3 57～61 800-850℃ OC 150～200℃空冷
alloy steel SKD1 58～61 1,000-1,050℃ AC 150～250℃空冷
1 57～60 1,020-1,050℃ AC 500～530℃空冷
High speed SKH5 58～62 1,160-1,220℃ OC 550～570℃空冷
steel SKH5 61～65 1,160-1,230℃ OC 550～580℃空冷
SKH5 62～66 1,160-1,230℃ OC 550～580℃空冷

285
2) Detailed heat treatment conditions for SKD61 and SKD11

3) Required characteristics and countermeasures for die life

(1) Warm and hot forging dies
1. The die surface of the warm / hot forging die is subjected to repeated heat cycles of
heat transferred from high-temperature parts, frictional heat with the die, and cooling by
spraying lubrication / release agent application. As a result, heat cracks occur.
Furthermore, the die surface layer is softened by heating to promote fluid wear. At the
same time, the die is subjected to shock stress due to forging. Therefore, a die material
having both high temperature strength and toughness is required.
Since the wear phenomenon varies depending on the shape of the forged product and the
portion of the forging surface, it is necessary to determine what the wear phenomenon
of the important part is. Table-1 shows each wear phenomenon and list the required
properties of die materials.

When the contact time with the workpiece is long and the thermal effect is large, such
as the tip of a punch that digs into the workpiece, high temperature strength is required.
Hardness is required when the material flow is large but the contact time with the
parts is short and the thermal effect is relatively small, as in a flash land. For setting
the hardness high, the toughness and a large amount of carbide contained in the die
material are required.
For heat cracks, high temperature strength and toughness are required.
The nitride layer peeling requires optimization of the nitriding characteristics of the
die material and the high temperature strength of the base material supporting the
nitride layer. Erosion occurs when forging is performed with the lubricant remaining at
the corner R of the die. Since the lubricant vaporizes in an instant, a crater-like mark is
formed on the die. This is difficult to deal with die materials and heat treatment, and it
is necessary to take measures such as optimization of lubrication conditions and
addition of vent holes in the die.

286
 Fig-1

(D) (B) (C)

(D) (A)
(B)

(E)

(A)
(E)
(Deburring forging die) (Forward / backward
(Punch)
extrusion die)

Die damage Countermeasure Heat treatment Forging condition

(A) Worn out -Increase high - Nitriding, - Die cooling

（Heat damage） temperature strength - High quenching temp. - Lubrication

(B) Worn out - Toughness - Surface treatment, - Die lubrication

(Without heat - Carbon contents - Hardness - High hardness
damage)

(C) Hear crack -High temperature - Increase die cooling - Die lubrication
strength, speed and hardness - Die cooling
- Toughness. - Nitriding condition

(D) Peeling of Nitriding condition - Nitriding condition -Die lubrication

nitriding layer - Die cooling

(E) Erosion － － - Die lubrication

- Gas Purge hole

(F) Die brake Toughness - Increasing cooling - Die pre-heating

speed of quenching - Die surface
- Reduce hardness improvement
- Nitriding condition - Split design of die

2. Selection criteria for mold materials

287
 SKD61 is mainly used for press dies, and SKT4 which is particularly excellent in
toughness is mainly used for hammer dies. In order to prevent wear, a die material with
higher high-temperature strength is required. High temperature strength increases in the
order of SKT4-SKD61, SKD62-SKD7-SKD8. On the other hand, since the toughness
is getting lower with higher temperature strength materials, there is a risk of die
cracking when changing to a die material with higher high-temperature strength.
Improvements to JIS steel grades with improved toughness and minimal high toughness
have been developed and applied (Sanyo Special Steel: QDH materials, etc.).
Measures are vary depending on the degree of thermal effect on the die surface. If
the die has a relatively small heat effect (as a guideline, the temperature rise of the
surface layer is about 650 ° C or less), it is effective to increase the hardness. A die
material having a small decrease in toughness even when the hardness is increased.
For die with a large heat effect (as a guide, the temperature rise is about 650 ° C or
higher), it is effective to use die materials with high high-temperature strength. It is
difficult to measure the temperature rise of the surface layer part. But by measuring the
hardness of the surface layer part of the used die, It can be estimated.
Figure 2 shows examples of die material selection criteria divided into quenching
and tempering materials (supplied in the annealed state) and pre-hardened materials
(supplied by heat treatment). If the die has a relatively small heat effect (as a guideline,
the temperature rise of the surface layer is about 650° C or less), it is effective to
increase the set hardness. Choose a small die material.

288
 Small Heat. Effect - High Toughness Material

Quenching
Matrix high speed steel

Large Heat. Effect - High Hardness Material

Crack prevention Wear prevention

Small Heat. Effect - High Toughness Material

Pre harden

Large Heat. Effect - High Hardness Material

Fig 2. Selection criteria for hot and hot forging materials

(Note: Numbers in parentheses are guidelines for Rockwell C hardness)

Matrix Hi-speed steel is an excellent mold material for wear prevention, and is
suitable for warm forging dies with high deformation resistance of parts and precision
hot forging dies such as gears.
Precipitation hardening type hot work tool steel has the characteristic is pre-
hardened material that only the die surface layer part becomes harder when the
temperature rises during use, and has both machinability, internal toughness and high
temperature strength of the surface layer part.
Quenching and tempering materials require heat treatment in the mold manufacturing
process, but their characteristics change depending on the heat treatment conditions. The
quenching temperature is set high if high temperature strength is important, and is set low
if toughness is important.
The cooling method during quenching also affects the properties.
SKD61 and SKD62 can be cooled by air, but the toughness can be improved by
adopting a cooling method (Salt bath, Gas high pressure vacuum quenching) that is faster
than oil cooling or air cooling.
289
 Over 70% of all hot and hot forging dies are surface treated).
Nitriding is a typical surface treatment. The nitriding characteristics differ depending
on the die material, and the influence of chromium (Cr) contained in the die material is
particularly large. SKD61 and SKD62 (both Cr = 5 wt %) have higher chromium content
than SKD7 (Cr = 3 wt %) and SKD8 (Cr = 4 wt %), high nitriding hardness under the
same nitriding conditions, and nitrided layer depth tend to be shallow. SKT4 (Cr = 1
wt %), which has a low chromium content, has almost no nitriding hardness.

4. Case of forging quality at PAKISTAN

1) Measures against burr（Gear,C1）

Burr occurring after machining.

Need 2-workers for de-burring.

Chamfer adding in counter wise in cutting

direction. Not occurring burr after
machining. 2-workers reduced.

290
2) Die life (Gear, C1)
The heat treatment of the die (SKD61) has been optimized, and the mold life, which
was 2000PC in the past, has been improved to 6000PC. (Refer to Table 3-2 above for
optimization conditions)

Actual Heat Treatment

Process of SKD11/61

Hardening
Hold Time

Hardening
40 minute / Ø25

291
 3) Measures for lack of material 〇
STP Yoke Making location
chamfer of die and set the
parts turning over in
blockage to finisher.

New design of blockage

process
(Decreasing end shape Normally, the flow
resistance is controlled by
of yoke)
the type of Flash land and
Gutter. However, since it
is difficult to control the
outflow resistance due to
the structure of the die, the shape of the die modified and improved.

4) Forging failure due to defective shape of billet (bar material before forging)
(□: failure at Pakistan)

Punch Punch パ ン
Punch
Punch

Flash
Land
Die
Sharp edge

Counter
punch

Bend Up setting

(b) Defect due to

(a) Bend (c) Wrong diameter (d) Wrong eccentricity
flash and slant
& eccentricity of upper pusher
of billet

Fig. 1. Defects that occur in the product due to poor billet geometry

292
6. Reference Materials of Teaching / Coaching

Under-said materials are (1) Selection standards of target factories,(2) Supplier DATA ＆ visiting records of
teaching/coaching by JICA Experts, (3) Improvement Activity Progress control Sheet including picture records etc.

6-1; Selection standards of target factories ･･･････････appendix 1

6-2; Evaluation sheet of target factories･････････････appendix 2

6-3; Selection standards of local consultants･･･････････appendix 3

6-4; Evaluation of local consultants････････････････appendix 4

6-5; Target supplier(factory) data sheet and visiting records by JICA Experts･･････････appendix 5

6-6; Improvement Activities progress Control Sheet････････appendix 6

6-7; Improvement Activities Progress Picture Records･･･････appendix 7

6-8; KPIs Monitoring sheet･･････････････････････appendix 8

6-9; KPIs legend sheet････････････････････････appendix 9

7. Scheduling of Teaching / Coaching

7-1; New product development-case of SOP

7-2; Case on productivity and QA improvement of existing SOP parts

7-3; Case on process planning (process completion and ISQC)

7-4; Case on productivity and QA improvement of CO2 Welding

7-5; Case on improvement of Die and Molds maintenance

7-6; Case on productivity and quality improvement of machining process

7-7; Case on productivity and quality improvement of injection molding

8. Other Measures for Technical Improvement

8-1; Teaching school for vocational skills (Dojyo)

8-2; OJT

8-3; Vocational Skills competition (Olympic)

8-4; Training program in Japan/Third country

8-5; Technical collaboration as managerial option

End:
293