PCE6-M: Highway and Railroad Engineering

Unit 2| Geometric Design of

Highways 2:
Horizontal Alignment
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
• Review the traverses
• Discuss the horizontal curve fundamentals
- simple curve
- reverse curve
- compound curve
- spiral curve
Highway Alignment

Horizontal and vertical alignment provide

the basis for locating the centerline of the
highway at a defined point: horizontal
alignment in the plan view and vertical
alignment in the profile view.
Cross sections provide the third element,
which then give the highway its volumetric
proportions.
Highway Alignment

Highway Plan Perspective

Highway Alignment
Horizontal alignment is comprised of tangent sections that are smoothly
connected by curves.
Azimuths and Bearings
Angles can be described:
• Azimuth - the direction measured clockwise from a standard direction
(north is the common standard direction). Azimuths must have a positive
value and be less than 360°. Described by a single numerical value.
• Bearing - the direction within a quadrant with reference to a meridian
(north or south) line. The reference is selected based on the closest
meridian; therefore, bearing angles must be less than 90°. Bearings must
reference the leading latitude direction (north or south), the angle turned
from the meridian, and the direction of the turn from the meridian (east or
west).
There are 360 degrees in a circle with 60 minutes in a degree and 60 seconds
in a minute.
Traverses

Initial processes of developing a

highway alignment is through a series
of straight lines, or tangents that form
traverses.
▪ The process of measuring and
assigning stations to a traverse is an
essential component of horizontal
alignment.
A station is equal to 1000 meters and
takes into a form of 1+000 m.
Latitude and Departure

Line segments/tangents can be separated into two

components:
1. Latitude – describes the north/south
components and north is typically assigned a
positive value. North (+), South (-).
2. Departure – describes the east/west
components and east is typically assigned a
positive value. East (+), West (-).
Traverses
For an open traverse, we use the
coordinates of the start of the highway as
the first point and the last point should
coincide with the end of the highway.
For a closed traverse, where the first and
last point coincides, the total sum of
latitudes and the total sum of departures
must be both equal to zero.
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
Horizontal curves provide smooth transition from one tangent to the next.
Proper design of horizontal curve, including elements within a single curve
and consistency of curvature along a highway are keys to the reduction of
road accidents.
Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
Simple Curve PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.

The simple curve is an arc of circle. PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex
T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It is known as
subtangent.
R = Radius of simple curve, or simply radius.
L = Length of chord from PC to PT. Point Q as shown below is the midpoint of
L.
Lc = Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the the figure is the midpoint of
Lc.
E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve.
m = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of
chord.
I = Deflection angle (also called angle of intersection and central angle). It is
the angle of intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended by PC and PT at
O is also equal to I, where O is the center of the circular curve from the above
figure.
x = offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is perpendicular to T.
θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve
D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve
equal to one station. In English system, one station is equal to 100 ft and in SI,
one station is equal to 20 m.
Sub chord = chord distance between two adjacent full stations.
Simple Curve
The degree of curve is commonly used to describe a horizontal curve.

Degree of Curvature
Arc definition – the degree of the curve is defined by
a central angle of the curve that is subtended by an arc
of 20 m in length.
20 × 360°
𝑅=
2𝜋𝐷𝑐

Chord definition – the degree of the curve is defined

by the central angle of the curve that is subtended by
its chord 20 m in length.
10
𝑅=
𝐷
sin 𝑐
2
 Summary of Elements of Simple Curve

Simple Curve Length of Curve (Lc)

Arc definition (SI units, length of arc = 20 m)
20𝐼 2𝜋𝑅𝐼
𝐿𝑐 = =
𝐷𝑐 360°
Tangent Length (T)
𝐼
𝑇 = 𝑅 tan
2
Length of Long Chord (L)
𝐼
𝐿 = 2𝑅 sin
2
External Distance (E)
𝐼
𝐸 = 𝑅 sec − 1
2
Middle Ordinate (M)
𝐼 𝐼
𝑀 = 𝑅 1 − cos = 𝑇 tan
2 4
Simple Curve
Sample Problem
Determine the values for the following, if a 6˚ curve is to be placed on the preliminary traverse course 1A
to AB. The length of line 1A is 807.6 m and line AB is 645.3 m. The beginning station of the project is at
Point 1 and is assigned as 1+000.
Sample Problem
Determine the values for the following, if a 6˚ curve is to be placed on the preliminary traverse course 1A
to AB. The length of line 1A is 807.6 m and line AB is 645.3 m. The beginning station of the project is at
Point 1 and is assigned as 1+000.
Sample Problem
Determine the values for the following, if a 6˚ curve is to be placed on the preliminary traverse course 1A
to AB. The length of line 1A is 807.6 m and line AB is 645.3 m. The beginning station of the project is at
Point 1 and is assigned as 1+000.
Sample Problem
The tangents of a simple curve have bearings of N
20⁰ E. and N 80 ⁰ E. respectively. The radius of the
curve is 200 m.
a) Compute the external distance of the curve
b) Compute the middle ordinate of the curve
c) Compute the stationing of point A on the curve
having a deflection angle of 6⁰ from P.C if the
station of PC is 11+000.
Compound Curve
PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.
PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex
PCC = point of compound curve
T1 = Length of tangent of the first curve
T2 = Length of the second curve
V1 = vertex of the first curve
V2 = vertex of the second curve
I1 = central angle of the first curve
I2 = central angle of the second curve
I = angle of intersection
Lc1 = length of first curve
Lc2 = length of second curve
L1 = length of first chord
L2 = length of second chord
L = length of chord from PC to PT
T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2
Sample Problem
The long chord from P.C. to the P.T. of a compound
curve is 300 meters long and the angle it makes
with the longer and shorter tangents are 12⁰ and 15⁰
respectively. If the common tangent is parallel to
the long chord.
a) Find the radius of the first curve
b) Find the radius of the second curve
c) If stationing of P.C. is 10 + 204.30, find the
stationing of P.T.
Sample Problem
The long chord from P.C. to the P.T. of a compound
curve is 300 meters long and the angle it makes
with the longer and shorter tangents are 12⁰ and 15⁰
respectively. If the common tangent is parallel to
the long chord.
a) Find the radius of the first curve
b) Find the radius of the second curve
c) If stationing of P.C. is 10 + 204.30, find the
stationing of P.T.
Reversed Curve
PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.
PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
PRC = point of reversed curvature
T1 = Length of tangent of the first curve
T2 = Length of the second curve
V1 = vertex of the first curve
V2 = vertex of the second curve
I1 = central angle of the first curve
I2 = central angle of the second curve
I = angle of intersection
Lc1 = length of first curve
Lc2 = length of second curve
L1 = length of first chord
L2 = length of second chord
L = length of chord from PC to PT
T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2
Sample Problem
Two converging tangents have azimuth from south
of 300⁰ and 90⁰ respectively, while that of the
common tangent is 320⁰. The distance from the
point of intersection of tangents to the P.I. of the
2nd curve is 100m, while stationing of the P.I. of the
first curve is 10 + 432.24. If the radius of the first
curve is 285.40.
a) Determine the radius of the 2nd curve
b) Determine the stationing of P.R.C.
c) Determine the stationing of P.T.
Sample Problem
Two converging tangents have azimuth from south
of 300⁰ and 90⁰ respectively, while that of the
common tangent is 320⁰. The distance from the
point of intersection of tangents to the P.I. of the
2nd curve is 100m, while stationing of the P.I. of the
first curve is 10 + 432.24. If the radius of the first
curve is 285.40.
a) Determine the radius of the 2nd curve
b) Determine the stationing of P.R.C.
c) Determine the stationing of P.T.
Spiral Curve
Spiral Curve
Spiral Curve
Spiral Curve PI
I

R R
I
Spiral Curve PI
I

SC CS

TS ST
P R R
I
Spiral Curve PI
I

SC Ic CS
θs θs

Ls
R R
TS Ic ST
P θs θs
I
Spiral Curve
Xc

SC
θs

TS
Sample Problem
A spiral easement curve has a length of 100 m
with a central curve having a radius of 300 m.
Determine the offset distance from the
tangent to the third-quarter point of the spiral.
Sample Problem
The length of the spiral curve is 82 m and the
radius of the central curve of the spiral curve is
260 m. Compute the length of throw.