Chemistry For Engineers Learning Modules

CHEMISTRY FOR
ENGINEERS
L EARN IN G MODUL ES
BY: JAN ALEXIS B. MONSALUD

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit 1 – Fuels and Combustion ............................................................................................... 2
LESSON 1 Introduction to Fuels ................................................................................................... 3
LESSON 2 Solid Fuels and Coal ................................................................................................... 6
LESSON 3 Liquid Fuels ...............................................................................................................11
LESSON 4 Gaseous Fuels ...........................................................................................................17
LESSON 5 Combustion................................................................................................................20
Unit 2 – Electro-chemistry ......................................................................................................26
LESSON 6 Concepts of Electrochemistry.....................................................................................27
LESSON 7 Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells ...................................................................................33
LESSON 8 Battery Chemistry and Solved Problems in Electrochemistry .....................................39
Unit 3 - Metals and Corrosion ................................................................................................46
LESSON 9 Corrosion and It’s Types ............................................................................................47
LESSON 10 Control and Prevention of Corrosion ..........................................................................55
LESSON 11 Organic Coatings .......................................................................................................62
Unit 4 – Chemistry of Materials ..............................................................................................69
LESSON 12 Cement ......................................................................................................................70
LESSON 13 Ceramics ...................................................................................................................73
LESSON 14 Lubricants ..................................................................................................................76
LESSON 15 Adhesives ..................................................................................................................80
Unit 5 - Polymers.....................................................................................................................85
LESSON 16 Plastics ......................................................................................................................86
LESSON 17 Rubber .......................................................................................................................93
LESSON 18 Composite Materials ..................................................................................................98
Unit 6 – Environmental Chemistry .......................................................................................101
LESSON 19 Air Pollution..............................................................................................................102
LESSON 20 Water Pollution ........................................................................................................109
LESSON 21 Solid Waste Management ........................................................................................115
ii
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Columban College, Inc.
Olongapo City
PRELIM COVERAGE
(Module 1 & 2)
Chemistry for Engineers

CHE101
Prepared by:
Engr. Jan Alexis B. Monsalud

General Engineering and Applied Sciences
1st Semester
A.Y.2022-2023
Unit 1 – Fuels and
Combustion
Learning Module
By
Copyright © 2020, Columban College, Inc.

All rights Reserved
(No part of this module may be reproduced or copied without the permission from the author.)
CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO FUELS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After this lesson, you will be able to:
1. Define and classify fuels.
2. Give example of different types of fuels.
3. Enumerate the characteristics of solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels.
4. Define what properties a good fuel has.
Fuels are the main energy sources for industry and domestic purposes.
“A fuel is a substance containing carbon as the major substituent which

provides energy on combustion for industry and domestic purposes”.
Combustion is the process of oxidation that provides heat energy. Every combustion is an
oxidation, but not all oxidation is combustion.
Examples - Combustion of wood, Petrol and kerosene gives heat energy.
CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
Classification of fuels is based on two factors.

1. Occurrence (and preparation)
2. The state of aggregation
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON OCCURRENCE

Based on occurrence, the fuels are further divided into two types:
1. natural or primary fuels: - These are found in nature such as Wood, peat, coal,
petroleum, natural gas etc.
2. artificial or secondary fuels: - These are prepared artificially from the primary fuels. For
example, charcoal, coke, kerosene, diesel, petrol, coal gas, oil gas, producer gas, blast
Furnace gas etc.
3
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STATE OF AGGREGATION
The second classification is based upon their state of aggregation like:
1. Solid fuels
2. Liquid fuels
3. Gaseous fuels.
Table 1 - Examples of Fuels
Artificial or Secondary
Type of Fuel Natural or Primary Fuel
Fuel
Wood, peat, lignite, dung,

Solid Fuels bituminous coal, and Charcoal, coke
anthracite coal
Petrol, diesel and various

Liquid Fuels Crude oil
fractions of petroleum
Gaseous Fuels Natural Gas Coal gas, oil gas, LPG
PROPERTIES OF SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS FUELS

Table 2 - Different Properties of Fuels
Property Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels
Costlier than solid

Cost Cheap Costly
fuels
Closed containers Storage space

Storage Easy to store should be used for required is huge and
storage should be leak proof
Very high since

Risk towards fire
Less More these fuels are
hazards
highly flammable
Very rapid and

Combustion rate It is a slow process Fast process
efficient
Cannot be controlled Controlled by

Combustion control Cannot be controlled or stopped when regulating the supply
necessary of air
4
High since labor is Low, similar to liquid

Low, since the fuel
required in their fuels, these can be
Handling cost can be transported
storage and transported through
through pipes
transport pipes
Ash is produced and

Ash its disposal also No problem of ash No problem of ash
possess problems
Clean, but liquids

Produce smoke associated with high Smoke is not
Smoke
invariably carbon and aromatic produced
fuels produce smoke
Calorific value Least High Highest
Heat efficiency Least High Highest
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL
1. The fuel should be easily available.

2. It should be dry and should have less moisture content. Dry fuel increases its calorific
value.
3. It should be cheap, easily transportable and has high calorific value.
4. It must have moderate ignition temperature and should leave less ash after combustion.
5. The combustion speed of a good fuel should be moderate.
6. It should not burn spontaneously to avoid fire hazards.
7. Its handling should be easy and should not give poisonous gases after combustion.
8. The combustion of a good fuel should not be explosive.
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LESSON 2
SOLID FUELS AND COAL
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List some examples of solid fuels.
2. Describe the process of how coal evolves.
3. Analyze coals using proximate and ultimate analysis.
SOLID FUELS
The main solid fuels are wood, peat, lignite, coal and charcoal.
COAL
Coal is a fossil fuel which occurs in layers in the earth’s crust. It is formed by the partial decay of
plant materials accumulated millions of years ago and further altered by action of heat and
pressure. The process of conversion of wood into coal can be represented as
Wood → Peat → Lignite → Bituminous Coal → Anthracite
1. Peat - is a brown-fibrous jelly like mass.
2. Lignite - these are soft, brown colored, lowest rank coals
3. Bituminous coals - These are pitch black to dark grey coal
4. Anthracite - It is a class of highest rank coal
Table 3 - Characteristics of Solid Fuels
Calorific Value
Fuel Percentage Carbon Application
(k.cal/kg)
Wood 50 4000 – 4500 Domestic Fuel
Used if deficiency of
Peat 50 – 60 4125 – 5400 high rank coal is
prevailing
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For steam
Lignite 60 – 70 6500 – 7100 generation in
thermal power plants
In making coal gas

Bituminous Coal 80 – 90 8000 – 8500 and metallurgical
coke
In households and
Anthracite 90 – 98 8650 – 8700
for steam raising
The analysis of coal is helpful in its ranking. The assessment of the quality of coal is carried out
by these two types of analyses:
1. Proximate Analysis
2. Ultimate Analysis
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL
In this analysis, the percentage of carbon is indirectly determined. It is a quantitative analysis of

the following parameters:
1. Moisture Content - coal evaporates during the burning of coal and it takes some of the
liberated heat in the form of latent heat of evaporation. Therefore, moisture lowers the
effective calorific value of coal. Moreover over, it quenches the fire in the furnace, hence,
lesser, the moisture content, better the quality of coal as a fuel. However, presence of
moisture, up to 10%, produces a more uniform fuel-bed and less of “fly-ash”.
2. Volatile Matter - a high volatile matter content means that a high proportion of fuel will
distil over as gas or vapor, a large proportion of which escapes un-burnt, So, higher
volatile content in coal s undesirable. A high volatile matter containing coal burns with a
long flame, high smoke and has low calorific value. Hence, lesser the volatile matter,
better the rank of the coal.
3. Ash - useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of coal.
Moreover, ash causes the hindrance to the flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the
temperature. Also, it often causes trouble during firing by forming clinkers, which block
the interspaces of the grate, on which coal is being burnt. This in-turn causes obstruction
to air supply; thereby the burning of coal becomes irregular. Hence, lower the ash
content, better the quality of coal. The presence of ash also increases transporting,
handling, and storage costs. It also involves additional cost in ash disposal. The
presence of ash also causes early wear of furnace walls, burning of apparatus and
feeding mechanism.
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4. Fixed Carbon - Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater is it’s calorific and betters
the quality coal. Greater the percentage of fixed carbon, smaller is the percentage of
volatile matter. This also represents the quantity of carbon that can be burnt by a primary
current of air drawn through the hot bed of a fuel. Hence, high percentage of fixed
carbon is desirable. The percentage of fixed carbon helps in designing the furnace and
the shape of the fire-box, because it is the fixed carbon that burns in the solid state.
STEPS IN CONDUCTING THE PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL

1. Determination of Moisture Content
About 1 gram of finely powdered air-dried coal sample is weighed in a crucible. The
crucible is placed inside an electric hot air-oven, maintained at 105 °𝐶 to 110 °𝐶 for one
hour. The crucible is allowed to remain in oven for 1 hour and then taken out, cooled in
desiccators, and weighed. Loss in weight is reported as moisture.
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
% 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = × 100%
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
2. Determination of Percentage of Volatile Matter

The dried sample taken in a crucible and then covered with a lid and placed in an
electric furnace or muffle furnace, maintained at 925 °𝐶 ± 20 °𝐶. The crucible is taken
out of the oven after 7 minutes of heating. The crucible is cooled first in air, then inside
desiccators and weighed again. Loss in weight is reported as volatile matter on
percentage-basis.
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
% 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 = × 100%
3. Determination of Percentage of Ash

The residual coal sample taken in a crucible and then heated without lid in a muffle
furnace at 700 °𝐶 + 50 °𝐶 for ½ hour. The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air,
then in desiccators and weighed. Hearing, cooling, and weighing are repeated, till a
constant weight is obtained. The residue is reported as ash on percentage-basis.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑠ℎ 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡

% 𝐴𝑠ℎ = × 100%
4. Determination of Percentage of Fixed Carbon
% 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 = 100% − % 𝑜𝑓 (𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐴𝑠ℎ)
8
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL
This is the elemental analysis and often called as qualitative analysis of coal. This analysis
involves the determination of carbon and hydrogen, nitrogen, Sulphur, and oxygen.
1. Carbon and Hydrogen - Greater the percentage of carbon and hydrogen better is the
coal in quality and calorific value. However, hydrogen is mostly associated with the
volatile mater and hence, it affects the use to which the coal is put.
2. Nitrogen - Nitrogen has no calorific value and hence, its presence in coal is undesirable.
Thus, a good quality coal should have very little Nitrogen content.
3. Sulphur - Sulphur, although contributes to the heating value of coal, yet on combustion
produces acids like SO2, SO3, which have harmful effects of corroding the equipment
and also cause atmospheric pollution. Sulphur is, usually, present to the extent of 0.5 to
0.3% and derived from ores like iron, pyrites, gypsum, etc., mines along with the coal.
Presence of Sulphur is highly undesirable in coal to be used for making coke for iron
industry. Since it is transferred to the iron metal and badly affects the quality and
properties of steel. Moreover, oxides of Sulphur pollute the atmosphere and leads to
corrosion.
4. Ash - a useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of coal.
Moreover, ash causes the hindrance to the flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the
temperature. Hence, lower the ash content, better the quality of coal. The presence of
ash also increases transporting, handling and storage costs. It also involves additional
cost in ash disposal. The presence of ash also causes early wear of furnace walls,
burning of apparatus and feeding mechanism.
5. Oxygen - Oxygen content decreases the calorific value of coal. High oxygen-content
coals are characterized by high inherent moisture, low calorific value, and low coking
power. Moreover, oxygen is a combined form with hydrogen in coal and thus, hydrogen
available for combustion is lesser than actual one. An increase in 1% oxygen content
decreases the calorific value by about 1.7% and hence, oxygen is undesirable. Thus, a
good quality coal should have low percentage of oxygen.
STEPS IN THE ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL

1. Determination of Carbon and Hydrogen Content
About 1 to 2 gram of accurately weighed coal sample is burnt in a current of oxygen in a
combustion apparatus. C and H of the coal are converted into CO2 and H2O
respectively. The gaseous products of combustion are absorbed respectively in KOH
and CaCl2 tubes of known weights. The increase in weights of these are then
determined.
𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
2𝐾𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝐾2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
1
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
2
9
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 7𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 ⋅ 7𝐻2 𝑂
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × 12 × 100%

%𝐶 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 × 44
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × 2 × 100%
%𝐻 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 × 18
2. Determination of Nitrogen Content

About 1 gram of accurately weighed powdered coal is heated with concentrated H2SO4
along with K2SO4 (catalyst) in a long-necked Kjeldahl’s flask. After the solution becomes
clear, it is treated with excess of KOH and the liberated ammonia is distilled over and
absorbed in a known volume of standard acid solution. The unused acid is then
determined by back titration with standard NaOH solution. From the volume of acid used
by ammonia liberated, the percentage of N in coal is calculated as follows:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 × 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 × 1.3

%𝑁 =
3. Determination of Sulphur Content

Sulphur is determined from the washings obtained from the known mass of coal, used in
bomb calorimeter for determination of a calorific value. During this determination, S is
converted into Sulphate. The washings are treated with Barium chloride solution then
Barium- sulphate is precipitated. This precipitate is filtered, washed, and heated to
constant weight.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 × 32 × 100%

%𝑆 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 × 233
4. Determination of Ash Content

The residual coal taken in the crucible and then heated without lid in a muffle furnace at
700 °𝐶 + 50 °𝐶 for ½ hour. The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air, then in
desiccators and weighed. Hearing, cooling, and weighing are repeated, till a constant
weight is obtained. The residue is reported as ash on percentage-basis.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡

% 𝐴𝑠ℎ = × 100%
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
5. Determination of Oxygen Content
% 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 100% − % 𝑜𝑓 (𝐶 + 𝐻 + 𝑆 + 𝑁 + 𝐴𝑠ℎ)
10
LESSON 3
LIQUID FUELS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After this lesson, you will be able to :
1. Enumerate the different stages of petroleum refining process.
2. Identify the factors affecting cracking and knocking of liquid fuels.
3. Describe fuels based on their octane and cetane number/rating.
Liquid fuels are the important commercial and domestic fuels used these days. Most of these
fuels are obtained from the naturally occurring petroleum or crude oil.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum or crude oil is a dark greenish brown, viscous oil found deep in the earth crust. Crude
oil is a source of many liquid fuels that are in current use. The composition of crude petroleum
approximately is C = 80-85%, H= 10-14%, S= 0.1-3.5% and N=0.1-0.5%.
REFINING PETROLEUM
Crude oil obtained from the mine is not fit to be marked. It contains a lot of soluble and insoluble
impurities which must be removed. Previously the purification of crude oil is done by simple
fractional distillation. Further treatment of the products is done by refining. Refining can be
defined as the process by which petroleum is made free of impurities, division of petroleum into
different fractions having different boiling points and their further treatment to impart specific
properties.
Refining of petroleum is done in different stages:
1. Removal of solid impurities: The crude oil is a mixture of solid, liquid and
gaseous substances. This is allowed to stand undisturbed for some time, when
the heavy solid particles settle down and gases evaporate. The supernatant liquid is
then centrifuged where in the solids get removed.
2. Removal of water (Cottrell’s process): The crude oil obtained from the earth’s crust is in
the form of stable emulsion of oil and brine. This mixture when passed between two
highly charged electrodes will destroy the emulsion films and the colloidal water droplets
coalesce into bigger drops and get separated out from the oil.
11
3. Removal of harmful impurities: In order to remove sulfur compounds in the crude oil. It is
treated with copper oxide. The sulfur compounds get converted to insoluble
copper sulfide, which can be removed by filtration. Substances like NaCl and MgCl2 it
present will corrode the refining equipment and result in scale formation. These can be
removed by techniques like electrical desalting and dehydration.
4. Fractional distillation: Heating of crude oil around 400 °𝐶 in an iron retort, produces hot
vapor which is allowed to pass through fractionating column. It is a tall cylindrical tower
containing a number of horizontal stainless trays at short distances and is provided with
small chimney covered with loose cap. As the vapors go up, they get cooled
gradually and fractional condensation takes place. Higher boiling fraction condenses
first later the lower boiling fractions.
Figure 1 - Refining of Petroleum
12
CRACKING
The decomposition of larger hydrocarbon molecules to smaller molecules is called

cracking. For example
𝐶10 𝐻22 → 𝐶5 𝐻12 + 𝐶5 𝐻10
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑒 → 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 + 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒
TYPES OF CRACKING
Cracking is mainly of Two Types:
1. Thermal Cracking - If the cracking takes place at high temperature then it is thermal
cracking. It may take place by two ways.
a. Liquid-phase Thermal cracking - takes place at 475 °𝐶 to 530 °𝐶 at a pressure
100kg/cm2
b. Vapor-phase Thermal cracking - occurs at 600 to 650 °𝐶 at a low pressure of
10 to 20 kg/cm2
2. Catalytic Cracking - If the cracking takes place due to the presence of catalyst than it is
named as catalytic cracking. Catalytic cracking may be fixed bed type or moving bed
type.
Figure 2 - Fixed-bed Catalytic Cracking
For the fixed bed catalytic cracking, the oil vapors are heated in a pre-heater to cracking
temperatures (420 – 450 °𝐶) and then forced through a catalytic chamber maintained at 425
– 450 °𝐶 and 1.5 kg/cm2 pressure. During their passage through the tower, about 40% of
the charge is converted into gasoline and about 2 – 4% carbon is formed. The latter
adsorbed on the catalyst bed. The vapor produced is then passed through a fractionating
column, where heavy oil fractions condense. The vapors are then led through a cooler,
where some of the gases are condensed along – with gasoline and uncondensed gases
13
move on. The gasoline containing some dissolved gases is then sent to a ‘stabilizer’, where
the dissolved gases are removed, and pure gasoline is obtained.
The catalyst, after 8 to 10 hours, stops functioning, due to the deposition of black layer of
carbon, formed during cracking. This is re-activated by burning off the deposited carbon.
During the re-activated interval, the vapors are diverted through another catalyst chamber.
KNOCKING
Premature and instantaneous ignition of petrol – air (fuel-air) mixture in a petrol engine, leading
to production of an explosive violence is known as knocking.
In an internal combustion engine, a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is used as a fuel. After the
initiation of the combustion reaction, by spark in the cylinder, the flame should spread rapidly
and smoothly through the gaseous mixture; thereby the expanding gas drives the piston down
the cylinder.
The ratio of the gaseous volume in the cylinder at the end of the suction-stroke to the volume at
the end is called the compression ratio. The efficiency of an internal combustion engine
increases with the compression ratio, which is dependent on the nature of the constituents
present in the gasoline used. In certain circumstances (due to the presence of some
constituents in the gasoline used), the rate of oxidation becomes so great that the last portion of
the fuel air mixture gets ignited instantaneously, producing an explosive violence, known as
knocking. The knocking results in loss of efficiency.
EFFECTS OF KNOCKING/DETONATION
1. Carbon deposits on liners and combustion chamber
2. Mechanical damage
3. increase in heat transfer
4. Noise and roughness
5. decrease in power output and efficiency
6. preignition
METHODS TO STOP/CONTROL KNOCKING

1. Increase engine rpm
2. Reducing pressure in the inlet manifold by throttling
3. Retarding spark
4. Making the ratio too lean or rich, preferable the latter
5. Water injection increases the delay period as well as reduces the flame temperature
14
6. Use of high octane fuel can eliminate detonation. High octane fuels are obtained by
adding additives known as dopes like tetraethyl lead, benzol, xylene to petrol.
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE AND KNOCKING

The tendency of fuel constituents to knock in the following order:
Straight-chain paraffins → Branched-chain paraffins (i.e., iso paraffins) → Olefins →
Cycloparaffins (i.e., naphthalene) → aromatics.
Thus, olefins of the same carbon chain length possess better anti knock properties than the
corresponding paraffin and so on.
OCTANE NUMBER
The knocking characteristic of a fuel can be easily expressed by octane number. The anti-
knocking value of n-heptane is taken as 0 (zero) because n-heptane knocks very badly.
Whereas the anti-knock value of iso-octane is approximately taken as 100 because iso-octane
knocks very little. Actually, the octane number is the percentage of iso-octane in a mixture of n-
heptane in order to matches the knocking characteristics of the fuel. In this way, an “80-octane”
fuel is one which has the same combustion characteristics as an 80:20 mixture in iso-octane
and n-heptanes. Gasoline with octane rating as high as 135 are used for aviation purposes. The
octane number of poor fuels can be raised by the addition of extremely poisonous materials as
tetra ethylene lead (C2H4)4Pb and diethyl-telluride (C2H4)2Te
Figure 4 - n-heptane Figure 3 - 2,2,4 trimethylpentane

(iso-octane)
Figure 5 - tetra ethyl lead (TEL). Added to

petrol to create leaded petrol.
15
OCTANE RATING
It has been found that n-heptane knocks very badly and hence, its anti-knock value has
arbitrarily been given zero. On the other hand, isooctane (2: 2: 4 – trimethyl pentane) gives very
little knocking, so its anti-knock value has been given as ‘100’. Thus, octane number (or rating)
of a gasoline (or any other internal combustion engine fuel) is the percentage of isooctane in a
mixture of isooctane and n-heptane, which matches the fuel under test in knocking
characteristics. In this way, an “80-octane” fuel is one which has the same combustion
characteristics as an 80:20 mixture of isooctane and n-heptane.
ADVANTAGES
Usually petrol with low octane number is not good quality petrol. It often knocks (i.e., produces
huge noise due to improper combustion). As a result of knocking, petrol is wasted; the energy
produced cannot be used in a proper way.
When tetra ethyl lead is added, it prevents knocking, there by saves money and energy. Usually
1 to 1.5 ml of TEL is added per 1lit of petrol.
The mechanism of action is as follows:
First TEL will be transformed into finely divided particles of PbO which looks like a cloud. This
takes place in the cylinder. Then the PbO particles react with hydrocarbon peroxide molecules
formed, thus slowing down the oxidation process and prevent early detonation. Thus, either
knocking may be stopped or greatly reduced
DISADVANTAGES
Deposits of PbO are harmful to engine. So PbO must be eliminated from the engine. For this
purpose, little amount of ethylene dibromide is added to petrol. It converts the harmful PbO to
volatile PbBr2 and eliminated through exhaust. Presence of any sulfur compounds reduces the
efficiency of TEL.
CETANE NUMBER
Cetane number is defined as the percentage of hexadecane (n-cetane) present in a mixture of

hexadecane and 2-methyl naphthalene, which has the same ignition characteristic of diesel fuel
in test. Generally, diesel fuels with cetane numbers of 70-80 are used.
The knocking tendency of diesel fuel is expressed in terms of cetane number. Diesel engines
works on the principle of compression ignition. Cetane (n-cetane) or hexadecane [CH3 –
(CH2)14-CH3] is a saturated hydrocarbon, its cetane number is arbitrarily fixed as 100. A methyl
naphthalene is an aromatic hydrocarbon, its cetane number is arbitrarily fixed as zero.
16
LESSON 4
GASEOUS FUELS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After this lesson, you will be able to :
1. Describe and enumerate the different characteristics of natural gas.
2. Describe and enumerate the different characteristics of liquefied petroleum gas.
3. Describe and enumerate the different characteristics of compressed natural gas.
The gaseous fuels are most preferred because of their ease of storage, transport, handling and
ignition. These are classified into two types.
1. Primary fuels - Natural gas
2. Secondary fuels ex - Coal gas, producer gas, water gas.
NATURAL GAS
The natural gas is obtained from the wells dug in the earth during mining of petroleum. It is
mainly composed of methane and small quantities of ethane along with other hydrocarbons.
If the lower hydrocarbons are present, the gas is called dry gas or lean gas but if the
hydrocarbons having the higher molecules are present, the gas is known as rich or wet gas.
The average composition of natural gas is as follows. Methane – 88.5%, Ethane – 5.5%,
Propane – 3.7% Butane – 1.8%,
Pentane, hydrogen, and higher hydrocarbons – 0.5%
The calorific value of natural gas varies from 8000-14000 K.cal/m3.
APPLICATIONS
• It is an excellent domestic fuel and industrial fuel.
• It is also used as raw material for the manufacture of carbon-black, methanol,

formaldehyde etc.
• Methane on microbiological fermentation gives synthetic proteins which are used as

animal feed.
17
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)
The gas is obtained from natural gas or as a byproduct in refineries during cracking of heavy
petroleum products. Nowadays LPG has been a common fuel for domestic work and in most of
the industries. The main components of LPG are n-butane, isobutane, butylene and propane
(traces of propene and ethane). The hydrocarbons are in gaseous state at room temperature
and 1 atmospheric pressure but can be liquefied under higher pressure.
LPG is kept in metallic cylinder attached with burner through pipe. It has two stoppers, one at
the cylinder and other at burner. LPG has special odor due to the presence of organic sulphides
which are added specially for safety measure.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LPG
1. It has high calorific value (27,800 kcal/m3)
2. It gives less CO and least unburnt hydrocarbons. So, it causes least pollution.
3. It gives moderate heat which is very good for cooking
4. Its storage is simple. It is colorless
5. It has tendency to mix with air easily
6. Its burning gives no toxic gases though it is highly toxic
7. It neither gives smoke nor ash content
8. It is cheaper than gasoline and used as fuel in auto vehicles also
9. It is dangerous when leakage is there
APPLICATIONS
1. In Food industry: LPG is widely used in the food industry like hotels, restaurants,
bakeries, Canteens etc. Low Sulphur content and controllable temperature makes LPG
the most Preferred fuel in the food industry.
2. In Glass & Ceramic: The use of a clean fuel like LPG enhances the product quality
thereby reducing technical problems related to the manufacturing activity of glass and
ceramic products.
3. In Building Industry: LPG being a premium gaseous fuel makes it ideal for usage in the
Cement manufacturing process.
4. In Automotive Industry: The main advantage of using automotive LPG is, it is free of
lead, Very low in sulphur, other metals, aromatics, and other contaminants.
5. In Farming industry: LPG in the farming industry can be used for the following:
a. Drying of crops
18
b. Cereal drying
c. Curing of tobacco and rubber
d. Soil conditioning
e. Horticulture etc.
6. LPG is used in metal industry, aerosol industry, textile industry and it can also be used in
Steam rising.
COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)
Natural gas contains mainly CH4. When natural gas is compressed at high pressure (1000atm)
or cooled to -160°𝐶, it is converted to CNG. It is stored in cylinder made of steel. It is now
replacing gasoline as it releases less pollutant during its combustion. In some of the metro
cities, CNG vehicles are used to reduce pollution.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CNG
1. Natural Gas being lead/sulphur free, its use substantially reduces harmful engine
emissions.
2. Natural gas being lighter than air, will rise above ground level and disperse in the
atmosphere, in the case of a leakage.
3. Natural Gas in the gaseous state and is colorless.
4. Predominantly Methane is available in the lean gas, hence CNG contains mostly
methane
APPLICATIONS
1. It was used to generate electricity, heat buildings, fuel vehicles, power industrial
furnaces and Air conditioners.
2. Natural gas is also consumed in homes for space heating and for water heating
3. It is used in stoves, ovens, clothes dryers and other appliances.
4. In some of the metro cities, CNG vehicles are used to reduce pollution.
19
LESSON 5
COMBUSTION
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define calorific value.
2. Use and convert between different units of heat.
3. Differentiate and calculate between gross and net calorific value.
4. Solve problems involving combustion.
Combustion may be defined as the exothermic chemical reaction, which is accompanied by
heat and light. It is the union of an element or a compound with oxygen.
Example: 𝐶(𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 97 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
In common fuels it involves the burning of carbon and hydrogen in air and also to a much
smaller extent of sulphur.
The presence of moisture in coal is undesirable because it causes waste of heat; moisture may
be present in coal naturally or by adding i.e. moistening the coal before use. The presence3 of
some sort of moisture in coal helps to keep the temperature of the fire bars low and prevents the
formation of clinkers. The excess presence of moisture leads to heavy smoking and leads to
slow starting of combustion process. Optimum free moisture content is 7 to 9% when coal has
minimum density. The presence of moisture in combustion makes the combustion process
successful.
CALORIFIC VALUE
The prime property of a fuel is its capacity to supply heat. Fuels essentially consist of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and some hydrocarbons and the heat that a fuel can give is due to the
oxidation of carbon and hydrogen. Normally when a combustible substance burns the total heat
depends upon the quantity of fuel burnt, its nature, air supplied for combustion and certain other
conditions governing the combustion. Further the heat produced is different for different fuels
and is termed as its calorific value.
Here are some definitions of calorific value:
1. Calorific value of a fuel may be defined as the total quantity of heat liberated when a unit
mass (or volume) of a fuel is burnt completely.
2. Calorific value is the amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit
weight of the fuel and in usually expressed as cal gm-1 or kcal gm-1 or B.Th.U..
20
3. The calorific value of a fuel can be defined as “the total quantity of heat liberated when a
unit mass of the fuel is completely burnt in air or oxygen”.
UNITS FOR MEASURING HEAT
1. Calorie - It is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water
through one degree centigrade.
2. Kilocalorie - This is the unit of heat in metric system, and is defined as the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water through one degree
centigrade.
1 k.cal = 1000 cal
1 k.cal = 3.968 B.Th.U
3. British thermal unit (B.Th.U): This is the unit of heat in English system, it is defined as
“the quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of one pound of water through
of one degree of Fahrenheit.
1 B.Th.U = 252 cal = 0.252 k.cal
4. Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U): It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
of one pound of water through one degree centigrade.
1 k.cal = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U
CONVERION OF VARIOUS UNITS OF HEAT

On the basis that 1 kg = 2.2 lb and 1 0C = 1.8 0F we have
1 k.cal = 1000 cals = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U
1 B.Th.U = 252 cals
Units of calorific value:
For solid or liquid fuels: cal/g or k.cal/kg, B.Th.U/lb
For gaseous fuels: k.cal/cubic meter or k.cal/m3
B.Th.U/ft3 or B.Th.U/cubic feet
Relation between various units:
1 k.cal/kg = 1.8 B.Th.U/lb = 1 cal/g
1 k.cal/m3 = 0.1077 B.Th.U/ft3
1 B.Th.U/ft3 = 9.3 k.cal/m3
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GROSS AND NET CALORIFIC VALUE
Gross calorific value is the heat liberated when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt, and
the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature. This heat includes the latest heat
of condensation of water. Because when a fuel containing hydrogen is burnt, the hydrogen
present is converted to steam. As the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature,
the steam gets condensed into water and the latent heat is evolved. Thus, the latent heat of
condensation of steam, so liberated, is included in the gross calorific value.
Higher calorific value (HCV) or gross calorific value is defined as the total amount of heat
liberated, when unit mass or unit volume of the fuel has been burnt completely and the products
of combustion are cooled down to 60°𝐹 or 15°𝐶.
Net calorific value or lower calorific value (LCV): lower calorific value is defined as “the net heat
produced, when unit mass or unit volume of the fuel is burnt completely, and the combustion
products are allowed to escape.
Net calorific value is the gross calorific value excluding the latent heat of condensation of water
(the weight of water formed is nine times the weight of hydrogen in the fuel). Therefore, LCV or
NCV = HCV – Latent heat of water vapor formed
Net calorific value = Gross calorific value – (Mass of hydrogen per weight of fuel burnt x 9 x
latent heat of vaporization of water).
Latent heat of steam is 587 kcal/g.
Net calorific value = Gross calorific value – 52.83 x %H Where % H = percentage of hydrogen.
The gross and net calorific values of coal can be calculated by bomb calorimeter.
Calorific value of a fuel may be defined as “the total quantity of heat liberated, when a unit mass
(or volume) of a fuel is burnt completely”.
AIR QUANTITY REQUIRED FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION OF FUEL

The amount of volume of air required theoretically for combustion of 1Kg of fuel is give as
100/21[32/12×C+8[H-O/8]+S]Kg
Or
[32/12C+16/2H2+32/12S]-O2x
22
COMBUSTION PROBLEM EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
The following data are obtained in a Bomb Calorimeter experiment.
Weight of coal burnt = 0.95g
Weight of water taken = 700g
Water equivalent of calorimeter = 2000g
Increase in temperature = 2.48 OC
Acid correction = 60.0cal
Cooling correction = 0.02 OC
Fuse wire correction = 10.0cal
Latent heat of condensation = 587 cal/g
Calculate the GCV and NCV of the fuel if the fuel contains 92% of C. 5% of H and 3% of ash.
Solution:
(𝑊 + 𝑤)(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑐 ) − (𝑇𝐴 + 𝑇𝑓 + 𝑇𝑡 )
𝐺𝐶𝑉 =
𝑋
(2200 + 700)(2.48 + 0.02) − (60 + 100)
=
0.95
= 7031.6 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 𝐺𝐶𝑉 − 0.09𝐻 × 587
= 7031.6 − 0.09 × 5 × 587
= 6767.45 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔
EXAMPLE 2
On burning 0.72g of a solid fuel in a Bomb calorimeter, the temperature of 250g of water is
increased from 27.3 OC to 29.1 OC. If the water equivalent is 150g, calculate the HCV of the fuel.
Solution:
𝑥 = 0.72 𝑔
𝑊 = 250 𝑔
𝑇1 = 27.3 °𝐶
𝑇2 = 29.1 °𝐶
𝑤 = 150 𝑔
(𝑊 + 𝑤)(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐻𝐶𝑉 =
𝑥
23
(250 + 150)(29.1 − 27.3)
=
0.72
= 1000 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔
EXAMPLE 3
A sample of coal was found to have the following percentage composition. C= 75%, H= 5.2%,
O= 12%, N= 3.2% and ash =4.5%. Calculate the minimum air required for complete combustion
of 1 kg of coal.
Sol:
Combustion reactions are
𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
1
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
2
Weight of 𝑂2 required for combustion of 12g of 𝐶 = 32.
Hence, weight of 𝑂2 required by 1 kg of carbon
32
= ×1
12
Weight of 𝑂2 required for combustion of 2g of 𝐻 = 16
Hence, weight of 𝑂2 required by 1 kg of carbon
16
= ×1
2
1 kg of the sample coal contains:
75% 𝐶 = 750 𝑔
5.2% 𝐻 = 52 𝑔
12% 𝑂 = 120 𝑔
3.2% 𝑁 = 32 𝑔
4.5% 𝑎𝑠ℎ = 45 𝑔
The net weight of 𝑂2 required for complete combustion
32 16
= 750 × + × 52 − 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
12 2
= 2000 + 416 − 120
= 2296 𝑔
Since air contains 23% oxygen, the weight of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of
coal
100
= 2296 ×
23
= 9983 𝑔
24
EXAMPLE 4
In an experiment in a Bomb calorimeter, a solid fuel of 0.90g is burnt. It is observed that
increase of temperature is 3.8 OC of 4000g of water. The fuel contains 1% of H. calculate the
HCV and LCV value (equivalent weight of water = 385g and latent heat of steam = 587 cal/g).
Solution:
Weight of fuel (x) = 0.90g
Weight of water (W) = 4000 g
Equivalent weight of water (w) = 385 g
Rise in temperature (T2-T1) = 3.8 OC
Percentage of carbon = 1%
Latent heat of steam = 587 cal/g
(𝑊 + 𝑤)(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐻𝐶𝑉 =
𝑋
(400 + 385)(3.8)
=
0.90
𝑐𝑎𝑙
= 18514.5
𝑔
𝐿𝐶𝑉 = 𝐻𝐶𝑉 − 0.09𝐻 × 587
= 18514.5 − 0.90 × 1 × 587
= 18461.6 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔
25
Unit 2 – Electro-chemistry
Learning Module
By

All rights Reserved
LESSON 6
CONCEPTS OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List the properties of materials that allow them to conduct electricity.
2. Differentiate between resistance and conductance.
3. Compute for the specific resistance of different materials.
4. Compute for the specific conductance of different materials.
5. Discuss the steps in determining the conductance of an electrolytic cell.
Chemistry is the Study of matter, its properties, and the changes it may undergo. All matter is
electrical in nature. An atom is made up of sub-atomic particles like electors, protons, and
neutrons etc.
Electro chemistry is a branch of chemistry which deals with the transformation of electrical
energy into chemical energy or chemical into electrical energy.
ELECTRIC CONDUCTION
Materials are divided into 3 types depending upon their capability of flow of electrons.
1. Conductors - allows electricity to pass through them
Examples: Metals, metal sulphides, acids, alkalis, salt solution, and fused salts
2. Non-conductors - do not allow electricity to pass through
Examples: Pure water, dry wood, rubber, paper, non-metals

3. Semi-conductors - partially conduct electricity. The conducting properties of semi-
conducting materials are increased by the addition of certain impurities called
“dopping”.
Examples: Si and addition of V group elements like P, Si produces n-type semi-
conductor. On addition of III group element like B, Al, Si produces p-type of
semi-conductor.
27
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN METALLIC AND ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTORS
Metallic Conductors Electrolytic Conductors
Conductance is due to the movement of ions

Conductance is due to the flow of electrons.
in a solution.
Chemical reaction take place at the

It does not result in any chemical change.
electrodes.
Metallic conduction decreases with increase Electrolytic conduction increases with

in temperature. increase in temperature.
It does not involve any transfer of matter. It involves transfer of matter.
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
OHM’S LAW
The current strength flowing through a conductor at uniform temperature is directly proportional
to the potential difference applied across to conductor.
𝑉∝𝐼
𝐼 → 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑉 → 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅 → 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 resistance
𝑅 = 𝑉/𝐼
The unit for resistance is called the Ohm or Ω.
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OR RESISTIVITY

Ohm found that the solution of electrolyte also resists flow of current in a solution.
The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional
to its cross-sectional area (a).
𝑙
𝑅∝
𝑎
𝑙
𝑅 =𝜌×
𝑎
𝜌 → 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
28
The specific resistance is also defined as the resistance offered by a material of unit length (𝑙 =
1 𝑐𝑚) and unit cross-sectional area (𝑎 = 1 𝑐𝑚2 ).
𝑅×𝑎
𝜌=
𝑙
Units: Ω × 𝑐𝑚
CONDUCTANCE
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.
𝐿 = 1/𝑅
Units: 𝑂ℎ𝑚−1 or Mho (C.G.S)
Siemens (M.K.S.)
SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE OF CONDUCTIVITY

Reciprocal of specific resistance is known as specific conductance.
1 1 𝑎
= ×
𝑅 𝜌 𝑙
𝑎
𝐿=𝑘×
𝑙
𝐿 → 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑘 → 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
EQUIVALENT CONDUCTANCE (OR) EQUIVALENT CONDUCTIVITY

It is defined as the conductance of all ions produced by the dissociation of 1 g equivalent of an
electrolyte dissolved in certain volume V of the solvent at constant temperature.
𝑘 × 1000
Λ=
𝑁
𝑂ℎ𝑚−1 𝑐𝑚−1 × 𝑐𝑚3
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = = 𝑂ℎ𝑚−1 ⋅ 𝑐𝑚2 ⋅ 𝐸𝑞.−1
𝐸𝑞.
29
MOLAR CONDUCTANCE OR MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY
It is defined as the conductance of all ions produced by the dissociation of 1 g mol. Weight of
electrolyte dissolved in certain volume V of the solvent at constant temperature.
𝑘 × 1000
𝜇=
𝑀
𝑂ℎ𝑚−1 𝑐𝑚−1 × 𝑐𝑚3
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = = 𝑂ℎ𝑚−1 ⋅ 𝑐𝑚2 ⋅ 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 −1
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
VARIATION OF CONDUCTANCE WITH DILUTION

The conductance increases with increase in the concentration of the electrolyte to a certain
maximum level and decreases on further increase in the concentration. This is because, on
increase in the concentration, the population of free ions increases, and these cons get closer
and the electrostatic force of attractions and the viscosity of the electrolyte increases. These
factors tend to reduce the conductance of the solution. But equivalent conductance is inversely
proportional to the conc. Of electrolyte and hence increases with increase in dilution.
Figure 6 - Variation of conductance with concentration of electrolyte
In case of strong electrolyte, a gradual and linear change in µ with square root of concentration
is observed. But in case of weak electrolytes, there is a significant change of 𝜇 with √𝑐.
At higher concentrations, they show low µ and at higher dilutions (low cons). They show higher
µ.
30
Figure 7 - Variation of molar conductivity with concentration for strong and weak electrolytes
MEASUREMENT OF CONDUCTANCE OF ELECTROLYTE

The measurement of Conductance (L) of an electrolyte solution involves the
estimation of resistance (R) of the electrolytic solution. This is usually done by ‘wheat
stone bridge circuit’ which involves a comparison of unknown resistance with standard
resistance.
Figure 8 - Wheatstone bride circuit
1. The electrolyte of known concentration is taken in a container called conductivity cell.

2. It consists of two platinum plates of area of cross section ‘a’ cm2 and separated by a
distance1cm.
3. These plates are generally canted with platinum black to decrease the polarization
effect.
4. This forms one arm of the circuit.
5. The other arm of the circuit is fitted with a variable standard resistance.
6. These two arms are attached to both ends of a meter bridge.
7. A source of alternating current is also attached to both ends of Meter Bridge.
31
8. The current balance detector D1 fixed between Rc and Rv.
9. Now the sliding contact jockey is moved over the meter bridge wire MN.
10. The point of least current passing (X) is find out by detector (D).
11. According to wheat stone bridge principle, the ratio of resistances in the meter bridge
arms i.e. Mx to Nx is equal to the ratio of LM to LN.
𝑀𝑥 𝐿𝑀
=
𝑁𝑥 𝐿𝑁
But
𝐿𝑀 = 𝑅𝑐
𝐿𝑁 = 𝑅𝑣
Therefore
𝑀𝑥 𝑅𝑐
=
𝑁𝑥 𝑅𝑣
Since Rv is known and Mx, Nx are determined through experiment, the resistance of the cell Rc
can be calculated. The reciprocal of Rc gives the conductance of experimental solution.
To calculate the electrolytic specific conductance, we use
𝑙
𝑘=𝐿×
𝑎
For the experimental determination of equivalent conductance of 0.01 MNaNO3solution

We can determine specific conductance by above method, and we can calculate equivalent
conductance by using:
𝑘 × 1000
Λ=
𝑁
Where
Λ → 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑘 → 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑁 → 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
32
LESSON 7
GALVANIC AND ELECTROLYTIC CELLS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the process in which galvanic cells produces electricity.
2. Enumerate the differences between galvanic and electrolytic cells.
3. Apply the Nernst equation to compute for the EMF.
4. List some kinds of electrodes used to produce galvanic and electrolytic cells.
ELECTROCHEMICAL OR GALVANIC CELLS
Galvanic cell is a device in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. These
cells are called Electrochemical cells or voltaic cells. Daniel cell is an example for galvanic cell.
Figure 9 – Example of a Galvanic Cell
This cell (Figure above) is made up of two half cells. One is oxidation or anodic half-cell. The
other is reduction or catholic half-cell. The first half cell consists of ‘Zn’ electrode dipped in
ZnSO4 solution and second half cell consists of ‘Cu” electrode dipped in CuSo4 solution. Both
the half cells are connected externally by metallic conductor. And internally by salt bridge (a U-
tube containing concentrated solution of KCl or NH4 NO3) in agar-agar gel contained porous pot.
It provides electrical contact between two solutions.
33
The following reactions take place in the cell:
At anode:
𝑍𝑛 → 𝑍𝑛+2 + 2𝑒 −1 (𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒 − 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

At cathode:
𝐶𝑢+2 + 2𝑒 −1 → 𝐶𝑢 (𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
The passage of electrons from one electrode to other causes the potential difference between
them which is called Electro-Motive Force.
ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

The difference of potential which causes flow of electrons from an electrode of higher potential
to an electrode of lower potential is called Electro motive force (EMF) of the cell.
The E.M.F of galvanic cell is calculated by the reduction half – cell potentials using to following
ex.
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 → 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐸𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 → 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 → 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑒
APPLICATIONS OF EMF MEASUREMENT

1. Potentiometric titrations can be carried out.
2. Transport number of ions can be determined.
3. pH can be measured.
4. Hydrolysis constant can be determined.
5. Solubility of sparingly soluble salts can be found.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GALVANIC CELL AND ELECTROLYTIC CELL
Galvanic/Electrochemical Cell Electrolytic Cell
In this cell, chemical energy is converted into In this cell, electrical energy is converted into
electrical energy. chemical energy.
34
The anode is -ve electrode and cathode is Anode is +ve electrode and cathod is -ve
+ve electrode electrode
Salt bridge is required Salt bridge is not required
This process is irreversible and not

This process is reversible and spontaneous
spontaneous
EMF of cell is +ve EMF of cell is -ve
SINGLE ELECTRODE POTENTIAL, E

When a metal rod dipped in its salt solution, the metal atom tends either to lose electrons
(oxidation) or to accept electrons (reduction). The process of oxidation or reduction depends on
the nature of metal. In this process, there develops a potential between the metal atom and it’s
corresponding ion called the electrode potential. There is a dynamic equilibrium between the
metal and metal ion and the potential diff. between the two is called electrode potential. It is
measured in volts.
STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIAL, E0

The potential exhibited by single at unit concentration of its metal ion at 25 OC is called standard
electrode potential (E0)
Example: E of cu+2 / cu = E0 when concentration of cu+2 is 1 M. E0 value of single electrode is
determined experimentally by combining the single electrode with standard hydrogen electrode.
NERNST EQUATION
Nernst studied the theoretical relationship between electrode reaction and the corresponding
cell EMF. This relationship generally known as Nernst equation. Consider a galvanic cell for
example:
𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐵 → 𝑐𝐶 + 𝑑𝐷
Where a, b, c, and d represent the number of moles respectively at equilibrium.

The Nernst equation for the cell is written as
0
𝑅𝑇 [𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 − ln
𝑛𝑓 [𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏
35
0
2.303𝑅𝑇 [𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑
= 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 − log
𝑛𝑓 [𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏
𝐽
𝑅 = 8.314
𝐾
𝑇 = 298 𝐾
𝑓 = 96,500 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
By substituting the values in the equation we get
0
0.059 [𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 − log 𝑎 𝑏
𝑛 [𝐴] [𝐵]
QUINHYDRONE ELECTRODE
Because of the inconveniences in the usage of Hydrogen electrode like maintenance of

accurate pressure and inconvenience in handling gas, secondary electrodes were developed.
ELECTRODE REACTION
It is a type of redox electrode which can be used to measure H+ concentration of a solution.
Quinhydrone is an equimolar (1:1) mixture of quinine and hydroquinone. The electrode consists
of Pt electrode dipped in an acid or base test solution which is saturated with quinhydrone.
Figure 10 - Electrode Reaction, Hydroquinone (H2Q) and Quinone (Q)
Each one of the substances can be easily get oxidized or reduced to the other. The electrode
reaction may be represented as
𝐻2 𝑄 ⟷ 𝑄 + 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 −
The electrode potential at 25 OC is
36
2.303𝑅𝑇 [𝑄][𝐻 + ]2
𝐸𝑄 = 𝐸𝑄0 − log
2𝑓 [𝐻2 𝑄]
[𝑄] = [𝐻2 𝑄], because the concentration of quinine and hydroquinone are equal.
2.303𝑅𝑇
𝐸𝑄 = 𝐸𝑄0 − log[𝐻 + ]2
2𝑓
2.303𝑅𝑇
= 𝐸𝑄0 − log[𝐻 + ]
𝐹
By substituting the values of 𝑅, 𝑇, and 𝐹
𝐸𝑄 = 𝐸𝑄0 − 0.0591 log[𝐻 + ]

= 𝐸𝑄0 + 0.0591 ⋅ 𝑝𝐻
This equation is used to calculate the 𝑝𝐻 if 𝐸𝑄 and 𝐸𝑄0 values are known
ADVANTAGES
1. This electrode is simple to set up and needs no removal of air.
2. We can measure pH value quicker than hydrogen gas electrode
DISADVANTAGES
1. This electrode cannot be used at PH values greater than 8.
2. This electrode fails in presence of strong oxidizing and reducing agents.
STANDARD CALOMEL ELECTRODE (SCE)
The calomel electrode consists of a glass tube having two

side tubes. A small quantity of pure mercury is placed at
the bottom of the vessel and is covered with a paste of Hg
and Hg2Cl2. KCl solution of known concentration is filled
through side tube, shown on the right side of the vessel.
The KCl solution is filled in the left side tube which helps
to make a connection through a salt bridge with the other
electrode, which potential must be determined.
A Pt wire is sealed into a glass tube as shown in the fig
which is in contact with Hg.
When the cell is set up it is immersed in the given solution.
The concentration of KCl. The electrode potentials of Figure 11 - Standard Calomel Electrode
calomel electrode of different concentrations at 25 OC are
37
0.1 M KCl / Hg2Cl2 (s) / Hg, Pt → 0.33 v

1 M KCl / Hg2Cl2 (s) / Hg, Pt → 0.28 v
Saturated KCl / Hg2Cl2 (s) / Hg, Pt → 0.24 v
The corresponding electrode reaction is:
𝐻𝑔2 𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝐻𝑔 + 2𝐶𝑙 −
Nernst’s expression is
0
2.303𝑅𝑇 [𝐶𝑙 − ]2
𝐸𝐻𝑔2 𝐶𝑙2 ,𝐶𝑙 − = 𝐸𝐻𝑔2 𝐶𝑙2 ,𝐶𝑙
− − log
𝑛𝑓 {𝐻𝑔]2
0
2.303𝑅𝑇
= 𝐸𝐻𝑔2 𝐶𝑙2 ,𝐶𝑙
− − log 𝑎𝐶𝑙−
𝐹
38
LESSON 8
BATTERY CHEMISTRY AND SOLVED

PROBLEMS IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Differentiate between primary and secondary batteries
2. Solve numerical problems in electrochemistry
BATTERIES
When two or more electrochemical cells are electrically interconnected, each of which
containing two electrodes and an electrolyte is called a Battery.
Batteries are classified into two categories depending on their recharging capabilities.
1. Primary Batteries - These are non-rechargeable and are meant for single use and to be
discarded after use. These are non-reversed and are less expensive and are offer used
in ordinary gadgets like torch lights, watches and toys. Example are the Lelanche Cell,
and Dry Cells.
2. Secondary Batteries - These are rechargeable and are meant for multi cycle use. After
every use the electrochemical reaction could be reversed by external application fades
or lost due to leakage or internal short circuit. Examples are Lead-Acid Cells and Ni-Cd
Cells.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BATTERIES
Primary Cells Secondary Cells
Non-rechargeable and meant for single use

Rechargeable and meant for multi-cycle use
and to be discarded after use
Cell reaction is not reversible Cell reaction can be reversed
Cannot be rechargeable Can be recharged
Less Expensive Expensive
39
Can be used as long as the materials are Can be used again and again by recharging
active in their composition the cell
Examples: Lelanche cell, Li cells Lead-acid cell, Ni-Cd cells
PRIMARY BATTERIES
DRY CELL (LELANCHE

CELL)
Anode: Zinc
Cathode: Graphite Rod
Electrolyte: Paste of
𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙 and 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2
Emf: 1.5 V
Dry cell consists of a
cylindrical Zinc container
which acts as an anode. A
graphite rod displaced in
the center. The graphite
rod does not touch the
base and it acts as a cathode. The graphite rod is surrounded by powdered MnO2 and carbon.
The remaining Space in between cathode and anode is filled with a paste of NH4Cl and
ZnCl2.The graphite rod is fitted with a Metal cap and the cylinder is sealed at the top with a
pitch.
The reactions in the cell are:

At anode:
𝑍𝑛 → 𝑍𝑛+2 + 2𝑒 −
At cathode:
2𝑀𝑛𝑂2 + 2𝑁𝐻4+ + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑀𝑛2 𝑂(𝑂𝐻) + 2𝑁𝐻3
40
SECONDARY BATTERIES
LEAD-ACID CELL
Anode: Sponge metallic lead
Cathode: Lead dioxide PbO2
Electrolyte: Aqueous H2SO4
EMF: 2V
Cell Reactions
𝑃𝑏 + 𝑆𝑂4−2 → 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑒 − + 0.356 𝑉

𝑃𝑏𝑂2 + 𝑆𝑂4−2 + 2𝑒 − → 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 1.68 𝑉
Applications
1. Automobile and construction equipment
2. Standby/backup systems
3. Enginer batteries
Advantages
Low cost, long life cycle, ability to withstand mistreatment, perform well in high and low
temperature.
NICKEL-CADMIUM CELLS (NI-CD)

Anode: Cd
Cathode: Nickel oxy hydroxide NiOOH
Electrolyte: Aqueous KOH
EMF: 1.4V
Cell Reaction
At anode:
𝐶𝑑 + 2𝑂𝐻 − → 𝐶𝑑(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2𝑒 −
At cathode
𝑁𝑖𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂𝐻 −
41
Applications - Calculators, digital cameras, pagers, laptops, tape recorders, flashlights medical
devices, electrical vehicles, space applications.
Advantages – Good performance in low temperature and long life.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE 1
The resistance of 0.1 N solution of an electrolyte is 40 Ohms. If the distance between the
electrodes is 1.2 cm and the area of cross-section is 2.4 cm. Calculate the equivalent
conductivity.
Solution:
Distance between electrodes, 𝑙 = 1.2 𝑐𝑚
Area of cross-section, 𝑎 = 2.4 𝑐𝑚2
Cell constant, 𝑙/𝑎 = 1.2/2.4 = 0.5 𝑐𝑚−1

Normality of given solution, 𝑁 = 0.1 𝑁
Resistance, 𝑅 = 40 Ω
Specific Conductance
𝑙 1
𝑘= ×
𝑎 𝑅
1
= 0.5 ×
40
= 0.0125
Equivalent Conductivity
𝑘 × 1000
Λ=
𝑁
0.0125 × 1000
=
0.1
= 125 Ω−1 𝑐𝑚2 𝑒𝑞 −1
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the cell constant of a cell having a solution of concentration N/30 gm eq/li of an
electrolyte which showed the equivalent conductance of 120 Mhos cm2 eq-1, resistance 40
Ohms.
42
Solution:
Resistance, 𝑅 = 40 Ω
Equivalent conductance, Λ = 120 Ω−1 𝑐𝑚2 𝑒𝑞 −1

𝑁 𝑔𝑚 𝑒𝑞
Concentration of solution, 𝑁 = 30 𝑙𝑖
= 0.033 𝑁
Specific Conductance
Λ×𝑁
𝑘=
1000
120 × 0.033
=
1000
= 0.00396
Cell constant
𝑙
=𝑘×𝑅
𝑎
= 0.00396 × 40
= 0.1584 𝑐𝑚−1
EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the EMF of the cell
Zn/Zn+ // Ag+/Ag given E0Zn+/Zn+2/Zn = 0.762 v and E0Ag+/Ag = 0.8 v
Solution:
0 0 0
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
= 0.80 − (−0.762)
= 1.562 𝑣
EXAMPLE 4
0 +2 ]
Calculate the 𝐸𝐶𝑢 +2 /𝐶𝑢 given 𝐸𝐶𝑢+2 /𝐶𝑢 = 0.296 𝑣 and [𝐶𝑢 = 0.015 𝑀.
Solution:
Cell reaction is 𝐶𝑢 → 𝐶𝑢+2 + 2𝑒 −

0.0591
𝐸 = 𝐸0 + log[𝐶𝑢+2 ]
𝑛
0.0591
0.296 = 𝐸 0 + log(0.015)
2
𝐸 0 = 0.3498 𝑣
43
EXAMPLE 5
Write half-cell and net cell reactions for the following cell:
Zn / ZnSO4 (aq) // CuSO4 (aq) / Cu
And calculate the standard EMF of the cell given the following:
E0Zn+2/Zn = 0.76 v and E0Cu+2/Cu = +0.34 v
Solution:
Half-cell reactions
At anode
𝑍𝑛 → 𝑍𝑛+2 + 2𝑒 −
At cathode
𝐶𝑢+2 + 2𝑒 − → 𝐶𝑢
Net cell reaction
𝑍𝑛 + 𝐶𝑢+2 → 𝑍𝑛+2 + 𝐶𝑢
Standard EMF
0 0 0
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 − 𝐸𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
0 0
= 𝐸𝐶𝑢 +2 ,𝐶𝑢 − 𝐸𝑍𝑛+2 ,𝑍𝑛
= 0.34 − (−0.76)
= 1.1 𝑣
44
Olongapo City
MIDTERM COVERAGE
(Module 3 & 4)

CHE101
Prepared by:

1st Semester
A.Y.2022-2023
Unit 3 - Metals and Corrosion
Learning Module
By

All rights Reserved
LESSON 9
CORROSION AND IT’S TYPES
CORROSION
The surface of almost all the metals begin to decay rapidly when exposed to atmospheric
gases, water or other reactive liquid medium. The process of decay metal by environmental
attack is known as corrosion. Metals undergo corrosion and convert to their oxides, hydroxides,
carbonates, sulphides etc. For example, Iron undergoes corrosion to form reddish brown color
rust [Fe2O3⋅nH2O] while Copper undergoes corrosion to form a green film of basic carbonate
[CuCO3 + Cu (OH)2]
CAUSES OF CORROSION
The metals exist in nature in the form of their minerals or ores, in the stable combined forms as
oxides, chlorides, silicates, carbonates, sulphides etc. During the extraction of metals, these
ores are reduced to metallic state by supplying considerable amounts of energy.
Hence the isolated pure metals are regarded as excited states than their corresponding ores.
So, metals have natural tendency to go back to their combined state (minerals/ores).
When metal is exposed to atmospheric gases, moisture, liquids etc., and the metal surface
reacts and forms more thermodynamically stabled compounds.
EFFECTS OF CORROSION
1. Wastage of metal in the form of its compounds.
2. The valuable metallic properties like conductivity, malleability, ductility etc. are lost due
to corrosion.
3. Life span and efficiency of metallic parts of machinery and fabrications is reduced.
TYPES OF CORROSION
There are two main types of corrosion based on the environment:
1. Dry or Chemical Corrosion
2. Wet of Electrochemical Corrosion
47
DRY OR CHEMICAL CORROSION
This type of corrosion occurs mainly through the direct chemical action of atmospheric gasses
like O2, halogens, H2S, SO2, N2 or anhydrous inorganic liquid with the metal surface.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL CORROSION

There are three types of chemical corrosion:
1. Oxidation corrosion
2. Corrosion due to other gases
3. Liquid metal corrosion
OXIDATION CORROSION
This is carried out by the direct action of oxygen low or high temperatures on metals in absence
of moisture. Alkali metals and Alkaline earth metals are rapidly oxidized at low temperatures. At
high temperature all metals are oxidized (except Ag, Au, and Pt).
𝑀 → 𝑀+2 + 2𝑒 − (𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂2− (𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑀 + 𝑂2 → 𝑀+2 + 2𝑂2− (𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒)
Figure 12 - Oxidation Corrosion
Initially the surface of metal undergoes oxidation and the resulting metal oxide scale forms a
barrier which restricts further oxidation. The extent of corrosion depends upon the nature of
metal oxide.
1. If the metal oxide is stable, it behaves has a protective layer which prevents further
corrosion. E.g., the oxide films of Al, Sn, Pb, Cu, Cr, W etc. are stable and therefore
further corrosion is prohibited.
48
2. If the metal oxide unstable, the oxide layer formed decomposes back into metal and
oxygen. Oxidation corrosion is not possible. E.g., Ag, Au and Pt do not undergo
oxidation corrosion.
3. If the metal oxide layer is volatile, then the oxide layer volatilizes after formation and
leaves the underlying metal surface exposed for further attack. This causes continuous
corrosion which is excessive in molybdenum oxide (MoO3).
4. If the metal oxide layer is porous, the oxide layer formed has pores or cracks. In this
case the atmospheric oxygen penetrates through the pores or cracks and corrode the
underlying metal surface. This cause continuous corrosion till conversion of metal into its
oxide is completed. Ex: Alkali and alkaline earth metals (Li, Na, K, Mg etc.)
CORROSION DUE TO OTHER GASES

This type of corrosion is due to gases like SO2, CO2, Cl2, H2S, F2 etc. In this corrosion, the
extent of corrosive effect depends mainly on the chemical affinity between the metal and the
gas involved. The degree of attack depends on the formation of protective or non-protective
films on the metal surface which is explained based on Pilling Bedworth rule.
If the volume of the corrosion film formed is more than the underlying metal, it is strongly
adherent; non-porous does not allow the penetration of corrosive gases.
𝐴𝑔 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 2𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚)
If the volume of the corrosion film formed is less than the underlying metal, it forms pores/cracks
and allow the penetration of corrosive gases leading to corrosion of the underlying metal. Ex. In
petroleum industry, H2S gas at high temperature reacts with steel forming a FeS scale. Fe(steel)
+ H2S FeS (porous).
LIQUID METAL CORROSION

This corrosion is due to chemical action of flowing liquid metal at high temperatures on solid
metal or alloy. The corrosion reaction involves either dissolution of a solid metal by a liquid
metal or internal penetration of the liquid metal into the solid metal. Ex: Coolant (sodium metal)
leads to corrosion of cadmium in nuclear reactors.
WET CORROSION OR ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION
This type of corrosion occurs where a conducting liquid is in contact with the metal. This
corrosion occurs due to the existence of separate anodic and cathodic parts, between which
current flows through the conducting solution.
At anodic area, oxidation reaction occurs there by destroying the anodic metal either by
dissolution or formation of compounds. Hence corrosion always occurs at anodic parts.
49
Electrochemical corrosion involves flow of electrons between anode and cathode. The anodic
reaction involves dissolution of metal liberating free electrons.
𝑀 → 𝑀+𝑛 + 𝑛𝑒 −
The cathodic reaction consumes electrons with either evolution of hydrogen or absorption of
oxygen which depends on the nature of corrosive environment.
EVOLUTION OF HYDROGEN
This type of corrosion occurs in acidic medium. For example, considering the metal Fe, anodic
reaction is dissolution of iron as ferrous ions with liberation of electrons.
Figure 13 - Hydrogen Evolution Corrosion
@ Anode:
𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 − (𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
The electrons released flow through the metal from anode to cathode, whereas H+ ions of
acidic solution are eliminated as hydrogen gas.
@ Cathode:
2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 (𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
This type of corrosion causes displacement of hydrogen ions from the solution by metal ions. All
metals above hydrogen in electrochemical series tend to get dissolved in acidic solution with
simultaneous evolution of H2 gas. The anodes are large areas, whereas cathodes are small
areas.
ABSORPTION OF OXYGEN
For example, rusting of iron in neutral aqueous solution of electrolytes in presence of
atmospheric oxygen. Usually the surface of iron is coated with a thin film of iron oxide. If the film
develops cracks, anodic areas are created on the surface. While the metal parts act as
cathodes. It shows that anodes are small areas, while the rest metallic part forms large
cathodes. The released electrons flow from anode to cathode through iron metal.
50
@ Anode:
𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 − (𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
@ Cathode:
1
𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 − (𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
2 2
Overall Reaction
𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑂𝐻 − → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2
If oxygen is in excess, ferrous hydroxide is easily oxidized to ferric hydroxide.
4𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 4𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3
The product called yellow rust corresponds to 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 ⋅ 3𝐻2 𝑂.
Figure 14 - Oxygen Absorption Corrosion
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RATE OF CORROSION
The factors that affect the rate of corrosion are

1. Nature of metal and its surface
2. Nature of the atmosphere (environment)
3. Nature of the corrosion product
FACTORS BASED ON THE NATURE OF THE METAL

1. The position of the metal in the electrochemical or galvanic series
The type of impurity present in it and its electropositive nature decides the corrosion
of a metal. For example, when iron has impurities like copper, tin, etc. iron corrodes
51
since iron is more electropositive than metals like copper and tin. On the other hand
when iron is coupled with zinc, zinc corrodes since zinc is more electropositive than
iron.
2. Purity of the metal
Generally pure metal does not corrode, as there is no cathode spot available to
induce corrosion.
3. Surface of the metal
A rough surface corrodes readily as it collects more dirt and provides more cathode
spot for corrosion. A polished surface does not corrode easily.
4. Stress corrosion
Stress in a metal surface is produced by mechanical workings such as quenching,

pressing, bending, and riveting improper heat treatment etc. The portion subjected to
more stress acts as anode and other portion act as cathode. This leads to the
formation of stress corrosion. Stress corrosion is noted in fabricated articles of
certain alloys like high zinc brasses and nickel brasses. Caustic embrittlement noted
in boilers is a typical example for stress corrosion, which is due the attack of alkali
present in water on stressed boiler metal.
5. Anode to cathode ratio
When a bigger cathode area covers a smaller anode area, severe corrosion is noted
in the anodes pot. This is called erosion. It is frequently encountered in piping
agitators, condenser tubes etc. where turbulent flow of gases and vapors remove the
coated surfaces resulting in differential cells. Removal of surface coatings can also
be caused by rubbing or striking activities of solids on the coated surfaces.
6. Physical state of the metal
The rate of corrosion is influenced by grain size, orientation of crystals, stress etc.
The smaller the grains size of the metal greater the rate of corrosion.
FACTORS BASED ON THE NATURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. Temperature of the atmosphere (or environment)
The rate of corrosion increases with increase of temperature
2. PH or Acidity
Lower PH -> greater in corrosion.
3. Amount of moisture in the atmosphere
Increase in moisture in the environment increases the rate of corrosion
4. Amount of oxygen
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In some cases, oxygen enhances the corrosion and in others, it passivates (make metal
passive – prevents corrosion) the metal.
5. Amount of chemical fumes
Industrial fumes like 𝐻𝐶𝐿, 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 produces electrolytes which are acidic in nature and
increases the rate of corrosion.
Examples
1. Buried pipelines and cables passing from one type of soil to another suffers corrosion
due to differential aeration.
2. Lead pip line passing through clay get corroded because it is less aerated than sand.
FACTORS BASED ON THE NATURE OF CORROSION PRODUCT
In some cases, the corroded product sticks to the surface and absorbs more
moisture. This induces further corrosion. Examples:
a. In Rusting of iron, as rust formed over iron absorbs more moisture, rate of rusting of iron
increases.
b. In some cases, the corroded product acts as the protective coating which prevents
further corrosion.
c. Aluminum oxide formed over the surface of aluminum prevents further corrosion and act
as a protective coating. This is the basic principle of Anodization.
d. In some other cases the corroded product falls out of position exposing the fresh metal
surface for further corrosion.
Example: Magnesium Oxide formed over the surface of Magnesium falls out of position
exposing a fresh surface for further corrosion.
53
EXERCISES
1. What is corrosion?
2. What is dry corrosion?
3. What is wet corrosion?
4. What type of corrosion takes place in a metal when the anode is small, and the cathode
is large? Why?
5. Research and discuss galvanic cell formation theory.
6. Research and discuss differential aeration theory.
7. What are the factors influencing the rate of corrosion?
8. Explain and give examples of galvanic corrosion.
9. Explain and give examples of differential aeration corrosion.
10. Why corrosion often takes place under metal washers?
11. Welded joints are better that riveted joints in terms of corrosion. Why?
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LESSON 10
CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Corrosion can be prevented by the following methods:

1. Control of environment
2. Alloying
3. Surface coating
4. Cathodic protection
CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENT
The corrosion rate can be reduced by modifying the environment. The environment can be
modified by the following:
1. Deaeration: Removal of dissolved oxygen and other gases in water by mechanical
agitation is called deaeration. The presence of increased amounts of oxygen is harmful
since it increases the corrosion rate. Deaeration aims at the removal of dissolved
oxygen. Dissolved oxygen can be removed by deaeration or by adding some chemical
substance like 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂3 .
2. Dehumidification: Removal of moisture content present in air is called as
dehumidification. This can be achieved by adding silica gel which can absorb moisture
preferentially on its surface.
3. Inhibitors: In this method, some chemical substance known as inhibitors are added to
the corrosive environment in small quantities. These inhibitors substantially reduce the
rate of corrosion.
ALLOYING
Both corrosion resistance and strength of many metals can be improved by alloying.eg.
Stainless steels containing chromium produce a coherent oxide film which protects the steel
from further attack.
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SURFACE COATING
Corrosion of metal surfaces is a common phenomenon. To protect a metal surface from

corrosion, the contact between the metal and the corrosive environment (air, moisture. corrosive
gases, etc.) is to be cut off. This is done by coating the surface of the metal with a continuous,
non-porous material. Such a coating is referred to as surface coating or protective coating. In
addition to protective action, such coatings also give a decorative effect and reduces wear and
tear.
Objectives of Coating Surfaces
1. To prevent corrosion
2. To enhance wear and scratch resistance
3. To increase hardness
4. To insulate electrically
5. To insulate thermally
METAL COATING
Surfacing coatings made up of metals are known as metallic coatings. These coatings separate
the base metal from the corrosive environment and also function as an effective barrier for the
protection of base metals. The metal which is coated upon is known as the base metal. The
metal applied as coating is referred to as coat metal.
The different methods used for metal coating are.
1. Hot-Dipping
In the process of hot dipping, the metal to be coated is dipped in the molten bath of
the coating metal. Such hot dip coatings are generally nonuniform. The common
examples of hot dip coatings are galvanizing and tinning.
a. Galvanization
The process of coating a layer of zinc over iron is called galvanization. The steel
article is first pickled with dilute sulphuric acid to remove traces of rust, dust, etc.
at 60-90OC for about 15 -20 minutes. Then this metal is dipped in a molten zinc
bath maintained at 430 OC.
When zinc is coated over iron, zinc, and iron forms a galvanic cell. The
electropositive zinc forms the anode and undergoes corrosion. Hence iron is
protected from corrosion by sacrificial protection method.
The surface of the bath is covered with ammonium chloride flux to prevent oxide
formation on the surface of molten zinc. The coated base metal is then passed
through rollers to correct the thickness of the film.
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It is used to protect roofing sheets, wires, pipes, tanks, nails, screws, etc.
b. Tinning
The coating of tin over iron is called tin plating or tinning.
Tinning is done to protect iron, steel and copper from corrosion. It is also called
tinplating. Since tin is non-toxic, it is mainly used in food industry for coating food
containers. Tin-coated utensils are used for storing foodstuffs, pickles, oils, etc.
Tin is nobler metal (more cathodic) than iron. It is more resistant to atmospheric
corrosion. Thus, uniform layer of tin protects iron from corrosion.
Tinning the base metal is first pickled with dilute sulphuric acid to remove surface
impurities. Then it is passed through molten tin covered with zinc chloride flux.
The tin coated article is passed through a series of rollers immersed in a palm oil
bath to remove the excess tin. Galvanizing is preferred to tinning because tin is
Cathodic to iron, whereas zinc is anodic to iron. So, if the protective layer of the
tin coating has any cracks, iron will corrode. If the protective layer of the zinc
coating has any cracks, iron being Cathodic and is not corroded. The corrosion
products fill up the cracks, thus preventing corrosion.
2. Metal spraying
3. Cladding
4. Cementation
a. Sherardizing – Cementation with Zinc powder.
b. Chromizing - Cementation with 55% Chromium powder & 45% Alumina is called
Chromizing.
c. Calorizing – Cementation with Aluminum and Alumina powder is called
Calorizing
5. Electroplating or electrodeposition.
Electroplating is process in which the coat metal is deposited on the base metal by
passing a direct current through an electrolytic solution by means of electrolysis.
ELECTROPLATING PROCESS
In electroplating, the cleaned base metal is made as the cathode and the coat metal is taken as
the anode. A solution of the coat metal salt is taken as the electrolyte. The electrodes are
connected to the battery and DC current is passed. Now electrolysis takes place and the coat
metal is deposited over the base metal.
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The nature of coating depends on 1) the current density 2) time 3) temperature and 4) the
concentration of the electrolyte.
For example, to electroplate a spoon made of copper with silver, the copper spoon is taken as
the cathode. A silver plate is taken as the anode. Silver thiocyanate solution is the electrolyte.
When the electrodes are connected to a DC source of electricity, silver is deposited over the
copper spoon.
The following electrolytes are used for coating other metals:

1. Copper sulphate – Copper
2. Nickel sulphate – Nickel
3. Chromic acid - Chromium
FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTROPLATING

1. Cleaning of the article is essential for a strong adherent electroplating.
2. Concentration of the electrolyte is a major factor in electroplating.
3. Low concentration of metal ions will produce uniform coherent metal deposition.
4. Thickness of the deposit should be minimized in order to get a strong adherent coating.
5. Additives such as glue and boric acid should be added to the electrolytic bath to get a
strong adherent and smooth coating.
6. The electrolyte selected should be highly soluble and should not undergo any chemical
reaction.
7. The pH of the electrolytic bath must be properly maintained to get the deposition
effectively.
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ANODE AND CATHODE PROTECTION
ANODIZING
Anodizing is the process of coating aluminum oxide on the surface of aluminum or its alloy.
This type of coating is produced on non ferrous metals like Al, Zn, Mg and their alloys, by anodic
oxidation process, by passing direct electric current though a bath in which the metal is
suspended from anode. Here the base metal behaves as an anode. For anodizing 8% sulphuric
acid is used as the electrolyte. Since it is a good oxidizing agent, it oxides aluminum (at the
anode) into aluminum oxide. The electrolytes are sulphuric, chromic, phosphoric, oxalic or boric
acid.
Anodized coatings have more corrosion resistance due to thicker coating
Aluminum oxide coatings are formed by the oxidation taking place on the aluminum surface at
moderate temperatures (35 to 40 OC) and moderate current densities. The formed oxide film is
initially thin and gain thickness by the continuous oxidation of aluminum anode. The surface of
oxide film contains pores, which may cause corrosion. The pores can be sealed by exposing to
boiling water then the oxide is converted into monohydrate (𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 ⋅ 𝐻2 𝑂). This process is called
sealing process.
The anodized aluminum and its alloy are used in:1.aircrafts 2.window frames 3.machine parts
4.fancy article and 5.Refrigerator, etc.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
The principle involved in cathodic protection is to force the metal behave like a cathode. Since
there will not be any anodic area on the metal, corrosion does not occur. There are two types of
cathodic protection.
1. Sacrificial anodic protection
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In this technique, a more active metal is connected to the metal structure to be
protected so that all the corrosion is concentrated at the more active metal and thus
saving the metal structure from corrosion. This method is used for the protection of
sea going vessels such as ships and boats. Sheets of zinc or magnesium are hung
around the hull of the ship. Zinc and magnesium being anodic to iron get corroded.
Since they are sacrificed in the process of saving iron (anode), they are called
sacrificial anodes. The corroded sacrificial anode is replaced by a fresh one, when
consumed completely.
Important applications of sacrificial anodic protection are as follows:
a. Protection from soil corrosion of underground cables and pipelines.
b. Magnesium sheets are inserted into domestic water boilers to prevent the
formation of rust.
2. Impressed current cathodic protection
In this method, an impresses current is applied in an opposite direction to nullify the

corrosion current and converting the corroding metal from anode to cathode. This
can be accomplished by applying enough direct current from a battery to an anode
buried in the soil and connected to the corroding metal structure which is to be
protected.
The anode is in a backfill (composed of gypsum) so as to increase the electrical contact

with the soil. Since in this method current from an external source is impressed on the
system, this is called impressed current method
This type of protection is given in the case of buried structures such as tanks and
pipelines.
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EXERCISES
1. What is Galvanization?
2. What is anoding?
3. What is base metal?
4. What is coat metal?
5. Galvanizing is preferred to tinning. Why?
6. What is Sherardizing?
7. What is a sacrificial anode? How does it function?

8. Differentiate between galvanizing and tinning.
9. What is anodizing? How it is carried out? what are its applications?
10. What is tinning? What are its merits & demerits?
11. Explain the various methods of prevention of corrosion.

12. Explain briefly about cathodic protection.
13. Explain briefly about electroplating.
14. Why is moderate current density employed during electroplating?

15. Chromium anode is not used in chromium plating. Give Reason.
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LESSON 11
ORGANIC COATINGS
Organic coating includes paints and varnishes. In this lesson, we are going to study about paint
and its components. A little introduction to special paints used is also discussed. Further we are
going to study about varnish its types and their preparation.
PAINTS
Paint is a dispersion of pigment in drying oil.

Paint coating is given to both metallic and wooden articles to protect them from corrosion and to
give better surface appearance. Paint covers the manufacturing defects in the articles.
When paint is applied to a metal surface, the thinner evaporates while the drying oil slowly
oxidizes forming of pigmented film.
Components of paints and their functions
The important constituents of paint are as follows.
1. Pigments
2. Vehicle or drying oils or medium
3. Thinners
4. Driers
5. Fillers or extenders
6. Plasticizers
7. Anti-skinning agents
PIGMENTS
A pigment is a solid and color-producing substance which gives desired color to the paint.
Examples
a. White Pigments – Titanium oxide, Zinc oxide
b. Black pigments – Graphite, carbon black
c. Red pigments – Red lead, Indian red (𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3)
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Functions
The following are the functions of pigments:
1. A pigment gives opacity and color
2. It covers manufacturing defects
3. A pigment gives strength to the film
4. Protects by reflecting destructive ultraviolet rays
VEHICLE OR DRYING OILS OR MEDIUM.

The liquid portion in which the pigment is dispersed is called a medium or vehicle.
Examples
Linseed oil, dehydrated castor oil, soybean oil and fish oil.
Functions
1. Vehicles hold the pigment particles together on the metal surface.
2. They form the protective film by evaporation or by oxidation and polymerization of the
unsaturated constituents of the oil.
3. Vehicles give better adhesion to the metal surface.
4. They impart water repellency, durability, and toughness to the film.
THINNER
Thinners are added to paints to reduce the viscosity of the paints in order to make it easy to
apply on the metal surface.
Examples
Turpentine, kerosene, and petroleum spirit
Functions
1. Thinners reduce the viscosity of the paint to render it easy to handle and apply to the
metal surface.
2. They dissolve the oil, pigments etc. and produce a homogeneous mixture.
3. Thinners evaporate rapidly and help the drying of the film.
4. They increase the elasticity of the film.
DRIERS
Driers are used to speed up the drying process and accelerate the drying of the oil film by
oxidation, polymerization, and condensation.
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Examples
Naphthenates and resins of lead, cobalt, and manganese.
Function
Driers act as oxygen carrier catalysts which help the absorption of oxygen and catalyze the
drying of the oil film by oxidation, polymerization and condensation.
FILLERS OR EXTENDERS
Fillers are used to increase the volume of the paint and to reduce the cost. It increases the
durability of the paint.
Examples
Asbestos, talc, china clay, calcium sulphate and calcium carbonate.
Functions
1. Fillers serve to fill the voids in the film.
2. They reduce the cracking of the paints.
3. Fillers increase the durability of the paints.
4. They reduce the cost of the paint.
PLASTICIZERS
Plasticizers are chemicals added to increase elasticity of the film and to prevent cracking of the
film.
Examples
Tertiary amyl alcohol, triphenyl phosphate, triglyceryl phosphate.
ANTI-SKINNING AGENTS
They are chemicals added to the paint to prevent skinning of the paint.
Examples
Polyhydroxy phenols, guaiacol, etc.
VARNISHES
Varnish is a homogenous colloidal dispersion of natural or synthetic resin in oil or spirit medium.
If the medium is oil it is known as oil varnishes.
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If the medium is spirit it is known as spirit varnishes.
It is used as a protective and decorative coating to the wooden surfaces. It provides a hard,
transparent, glossy appearance and durable film to the coated surface.
There are two main types of varnishes:
1. Oil Varnish
2. Spirit Varnish
OIL VARNISH.
Oil varnishes are more difficult to manufacture. Resins that are used in the preparation of oil
varnishes are high molecular weight substances and are not easily soluble in oil. The resin is
taken in an aluminum vessel and heated over a fire pit or in a small furnace. When resin melts ,
the temperature is slowly increased to about 300 OC. This process is known as gum running.
Some cracking or depolymerization of the resin takes place and about 25 per cent of the resin is
lost in the form of fumes.
The required quantity (about 25 per cent of the weight of the resin) of boiled oil or linseed oil
along with driers is separately heated to 200 to 220 OC and is slowly added to the heated resin
with constant stirring until thorough combination has taken place. This operation is known as
cooking. Overheating must be avoided as it causes discoloration of the varnish.
The kettle is removed from the furnace and allowed to cool, white spirit is then added (which is a
petroleum fraction, boiling between 150 OC and 200 OC). It is the most common thinner. The
varnish is stored in tanks for some days for maturing. Foreign matter and particles of resin,
which have not dissolved, settle during this period. During maturing, the color of the varnish also
improves, and it becomes more homogenous. The varnish is filtered and packed for marketing.
SPIRIT VARNISH
A Spirit varnish is a dispersion of resin in spirit.
The resin and spirit are placed in a cylindrical drum. plasticizer and other components are
added. The resin is dissolved by agitating the mixture or by rotating the drum. It is then filtered
and used. The final product is called spirit varnish.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAINT AND VARNISH

Paint Varnish
1 Paint has pigment There is no pigment in the
varnish
2 It can be applied to both It can be applied only to the
metals and wooden articles wooden articles
3 It is opaque It is transparent
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SPECIAL PAINTS
In addition to the normal ingredients some special chemicals are in corporated to paints for
some specific purposes. They are commonly known as special paints.
LUMINOUS PAINTS
Luminous paints are visible in the dark. Since it contains luminophore pigments (like 𝐶𝑑𝑆, 𝑍𝑛𝑆)
that are used for visibility in the dark .They absorb light radiations and emit them in the dark.
The active components in luminous paint are specially prepared phosphorescent materials like
𝐶𝑑𝑆, 𝑍𝑛𝑆, etc. For color effect in luminous paints, certain chemicals like copper salts (green),
silver salts (blue), cerium and uranium salts (yellow), etc. are added
They find application in inks, advertising signboards, road marks, road traffic signs, number
plates of vehicles, watch dials, map, chart, etc.
FIRE-RETARDANT PAINTS
The paints which retard the fire are called as fire-retardant. This paint contains the chemicals
PVC, Chlorinated rubber, urea formaldehyde and carbonate pigments which are fire-resistant in
nature. These substances at higher temperatures breakdown to give the noninflammable gases
like CO2,NH3,HCl and HBr. These gases are noncombustible and do not support combustion.
Mainly used in defense, industrial, commercial, education and residential complexes The most
frequent source of a fire in any hotel, restaurant or residence. The walls, doors and even kitchen
counters should be protected against the spread of fire.
False ceiling, Lift, Equipment Rooms, Aircraft Safe deposit vaults, lockers, Computer Server
rooms, Power plants Chemical Plants, Storage Tanks, structures in Sugar Mills, Textile Mills
and Floorings.
Aluminum Paint
The base material in aluminum paint is a fine powder of aluminum. The ground fine powder of
aluminum is suspended in either spirit varnish or an oil-varnish depending on the requirement.
When paints are applied, the thinner evaporates and oil, if any, undergoes oxidation and
polymerization. A bright adhering film of aluminum is obtained on the painted surface.
Wooden and metallic article for interior and exterior decoration.
Advantages of aluminum paint:
1. It possesses a good covering power.
2. It imparts very attractive appearance to the surface.
3. It has fairly good heat-resistance.
4. It has very good electrical resistance
5. The painted film is waterproof.
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6. The electrical surface is visible even darkness.
7. Corrosion protection for iron and steel surface is better than all other paints.
DISTEMPERS
Distempers are water paints. They contain chalk powder, glue and pigment dissolved in water.
They are very cheap and can be easily applied on walls. They are durable and give pleasing
finish to walls. The ingredients of distemper are
1. Whiting agent or chalk powder (the base)
2. Glue or casein (the binder)
3. Coloring pigment and
4. Water (the solvent or thinner).
Advantages
1. Distempers are cheaper than paints and varnishes
2. They can be applied easily on plasters and wall surfaces in the interior ofthe buildings.
3. They are durable.
4. They give smooth and pleasing finish to walls.
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EXERCISES
1. Define paint.
2. What is Varnish?
3. What is distemper?
4. Write a short note on luminous paints.

5. Write a note on Aluminum paints.
6. Explain about Fire retardant paint.
7. What are the differences between paint and varnish?
8. What are the components present in the paint? Explain their functions.
9. How is oil varnish preferred?
10. Explain briefly about special paints.
11. What are toners?
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Unit 4 – Chemistry of Materials
Learning Module
By

All rights Reserved
LESSON 12
CEMENT
Cement is a building material. It is applied in the form of a soft paste with sand and water and
later its sets into a hard mass. It is a mixture of calcareous material and argillaceous material. It
is a mixture of silicates of calcium and aluminum.
PORTLAND CEMENT
A paste of cement with water on setting and hardening gave a hard mass whose color and
hardness were similar to those of stones from Portland in England. Thus, it derived the name
Portland cement. Portland cement is a mixture of silicates of calcium and aluminum.
MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT

1. Dicalcium silicates(2𝐶𝑎𝑂 ⋅ 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 )-28%[𝐶𝑎2 𝑆]
2. Tricalcium silicates(3𝐶𝑎𝑂 ⋅ 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 )-46%[𝐶𝑎3 𝑆]
3. Tricalcium aluminates(3𝐶𝑎𝑂 ⋅ 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 )-10%[𝐶𝑎3 𝐴]
4. Tetra calcium aluminoferrite(4𝐶𝑎𝑂 ⋅ 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 ⋅ 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3)-9%[𝐶𝑎4 𝐴𝑙𝐹𝑒]
5. Small quantities of 𝐶𝑎𝑂 and 𝑀𝑔𝑂-7%
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT BY WET PROCESS
RAW MATERIALS REQUIRED

1. Calcareous materials – These materials supply lime
2. Examples: Limestone, chalk, marble
3. Argillaceous materials – These materials supply silica
4. Example: Clay
3. Powdered coal (fuel)
4. Gypsum
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PROCESS
1. The limestone is crushed and powdered well.
2. The clay is intimately mixed with water in wash mill.
3. The powdered limestone and wet clay are mixed and made into a paste in a grinding
mill. This paste is known as slurry. The slurry contains 30 to 40% water.
4. The slurry is fed into the top of the rotary kiln. The rotary kiln is made of steel plates lined
with fire bricks.
5. The kiln is heated by burning powdered coal which is injected at the lower end by an air
blast.
6. In the upper part of the kiln (drying zone) where the temperature is 400°C, the slurry
loses all its water.
7. When the charge enters the middle portion of the kiln (calcinations zone) where the
temperature is about 900 – 1000°C, limestone decomposes to form 𝐶𝑎𝑂 and 𝐶𝑂2 .
8. Then the charge enters lower portion of the kiln (burning zone) where the temperature is
about 1400°C. Lime and clay combines to form calcium silicates and aluminates called
clinker.
9. The hot clinker is cooled and then grinded with 3 – 4% gypsum in a grinding mill.
Gypsum retards the setting of cement. In the absence of gypsum, cement sets rapidly.
10. The cement coming out of the grinding mills is stored in concrete storage tanks and then
packed in bags.
SETTING OF CEMENT
When water is added to cement, sudden setting of cement occurs (flash set). The hardening of
cement by the addition of water is known as setting of cement.
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The setting and hardening of cement are mainly due to hydration and hydrolysis reactions of the
different constituents present in cement. The dicalcium silicate (𝐶𝑎2 𝑆), tricalcium silicate (𝐶𝑎3 𝑆),
tricalcium aluminate (𝐶𝑎3 𝐴𝑙) and tetracalcium aluminoferrite (𝐶𝑎4 𝐴𝑙𝐹𝑒) present in cement
undergoes hydration.
2𝐶𝑎2 𝑆 + 4𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎3 𝑆2 ⋅ 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 58.6 𝑘𝐽
2𝐶𝑎3 𝑆 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎3 𝑆2 ⋅ 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 76.3 𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑎3 𝐴𝑙 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎3 𝐴𝑙 ⋅ 6𝐻2 𝑂
𝐶𝑎4 𝐴𝑙𝐹𝑒 + 7𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎3 𝐴𝑙 ⋅ 6𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑎𝐹𝑒 ⋅ 𝐻2 𝑂
During this process, anhydrous soluble compounds are converted into hydrated insoluble
compounds. The hydrated insoluble gel hardens due to dehydration. Finally, after dehydration,
the insoluble gel sets into hard mass. It surrounds the sand and binds it strongly with
interlocking crystals of 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 . This process is known as setting of cement.
EXERCISES
1. What is cement?
2. What is Portland cement?
3. Why is gypsum added during the manufacture of cement?
4. What are the raw materials required for the manufacture of Portland cement?
5. Write a note on setting of cement.
6. Explain the manufacture of Portland cement by wet process.
7. What are the various types of cement?

8. How the quality of cement is tested?
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LESSON 13
CERAMICS
Ceramics find wide application in engineering, medical and domestic usage. Ceramics are
increasingly used in motor parts (e.g. ceramic disc brakes, ceramic balls, etc.). Ceramic engine
does not require cooling system. They withstand heat up to 3300°C. One of the main
applications of ceramics is white pottery.
CERAMICS
Ceramics are inorganic non-metallic materials that are processed at high temperature and
subsequent cooling.
Examples: Ceramic wash basin, ceramic tiles, etc.
WHITE POTTERY
They are ceramic materials of china clay which is in white color after firing is called white wares.
They consist of a refractory body and glossy coating.
The raw materials used for manufacture of white pottery are given below.
1. China clay(kaolin)[𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)4 𝑆𝑖𝑂5 ]
2. Feldspar [𝐾𝐴𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑂2 ]
3. Flint (𝑆𝑖𝑂2 )/quartz.
MANUFACTURE OF WHITE POTTERY

1. Preparation of Body Ware
The raw materials are made into fine powder and mixed with water to form a paste. The
excess of water is removed by filtration. The article is prepared from the paste either by
hand molding or by using potter’s wheel. It is dried and then fired in a ‘biscuit’ oven to
get porous ware called ‘Bisque’.
2. Glazing
In order to make the porous ware (Bisque) into water-tight article, it is covered with glaze
by melting it over the surface of the body. Slurry of glaze is prepared by mixing Feldspar,
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silica and boric oxide with water. Now the fired articles are dipped in the slurry of glaze
and again fired. Now a smooth, glossy and non-porous surface is formed on the articles.
3. Decoration
To decorate the article, design is made on the article using pigments and fired again. For
example: Iron oxide pigments red color, Cobalt oxides give blue color.
USES OF WHITE WARE

They are used for the preparation of
1. Spark plugs
2. Electrical insulators
3. Laboratory equipment
4. Crucibles, dishes, insulators sanitary wares etc.
GLAZING
Glazing is the process of giving a smooth, glossy, non-porous surface on the articles using
glazes. A glaze is a fine powder consisting of glass forming materials like lead silicates,
borosilicates etc. They are colorless glazing and color glazing mixtures. Colorless glazing is
done with glass forming materials like lead silicate and borosilicate. Color glazing is done by
mixing colored metal pigments with glass forming materials.
Example:
1. Iron oxide for red and brown
2. Copper oxide for green
3. Cobalt oxide for blue
PURPOSE OF GLAZING
1. To get decorative effect.
2. To make the surface impervious (non-porous) to liquids and water.
3. To improve appearance of the article.
4. To increase the durability of ceramic material.
5. To get a smooth glossy appearance.
6. To protect the surface from atmospheric action.
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METHODS OF GLAZING
1. Salt Glazing
In salt glazing, common salt (sodium chloride) is used for getting glossy films over
articles. The process consists of throwing sodium chloride into furnace when the article
is in red-hot condition. At high temperature, sodium chloride vapors react with silica in
the article to form a smooth glossy and impervious film of ‘sodium silicate’. This is known
as salt glazing.
2. Liquid Glazing
Slurry of glaze is prepared by mixing Feldspar, silica and boric oxide with water. Now
the articles are dipped into the slurry of glaze and then fired. Now a smooth, glossy,
and non-porous surface is formed on the articles. This is known as Liquid Glazing.
EXERCISES
1. What are ceramics?

2. Define white pottery.
3. What is called bisque?
4. What is glazing?
5. What are the raw materials required for the manufacture white pottery?
6. List the uses of white pottery.
7. Explain salt glazing.
8. Describe the manufacture of white pottery.

9. What are the purposes of glazing?
10. Write a note on glazing.
11. What are the engineering applications of ceramics?
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LESSON 14
LUBRICANTS
Whenever a machine works, its moving, sliding or rolling parts rub against each other with the
result of that a friction is developed. This friction causes a lot of wear and tear of the concerned
surfaces. Further due to friction, large amount of energy is dissipated in the form of heat and
thus causes loss in the efficiency of a machine. Moreover, the heat produced due to friction
causes damage to the moving parts.
The above ill effects can be minimized by applying a thin layer of certain substances known as
lubricant in between the moving parts.
The process of applying the lubricant in between the two moving or sliding surfaces is called as
lubrication.
Lubricant may be defined as the substance which reduces the friction between the two moving
surfaces or parts of a machine.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LUBRICANTS
1. It should have enough viscosity and oiliness.

2. It should have flash and fire points higher than the operating temperature of the
machine.
3. It should be chemically inert.
4. It should not come out of the surface under pressure.
5. It should not evaporate easily.
6. It should stick on the surface.
7. It should leave low carbon residue.
8. It should not form emulsion with water.
9. It should have cloud and pour points lower than the operating temperature of the
machine.
10. The volatility of the lubricating oil should be low.
11. It should possess a higher resistance towards oxidation and corrosion.
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CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANTS
Lubricants may be broadly classified as follows.

1. Solid lubricants
2. Semi-solid lubricants
3. Liquid lubricants
SOLID LUBRICANTS
The most widely used solid lubricants are graphite and molybdenum sulphide.
Solid lubricants are used in the following areas.
a. For heavy machinery working as a crude job at very high loads.

b. When the operating temperature or load is very high.
c. Where a liquid or semi-solid lubricant film cannot be maintained.
GRAPHITE
Graphite is an allotrope of carbon. Graphite has a layered structure of carbon atoms. The
carbon atoms are joined together by strong covalent bonds. The adjacent layers are held
together by the weak Vanderwall’s force. Thus, they form a network of hexagons. Graphite is
soapy to touch, noninflammable and not oxidized in air below 375°C.It is used as a lubricant in
the form of powder or as suspension in oil or water. It fills the cavities and prevents the friction.
It is used for lubricating the joints or railways tracks.
Graphite can be used as a dry powder or as a colloidal dispersion. A dispersion of graphite in
water is called aquadag and that in oil is called oildag.
It is used as a lubricant in IC engines, air compressors, lathes, foodstuff industry, railway track
joints, general machine job works, etc.
MOLYBDENUM SULPHIDE
Fine powder of molybdenum sulphide is used as lubricant. It has the capacity to withstand very
high temperature. It is stable in air upto 500°C.
It is used as lubricant in high-speed machines.
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SEMI-SOLID LUBRICANT
GREASE
It is a mixture of mineral oil and soap. It is used for heavy load and low speed machines. It is
mainly used in bearing and gears. Grease is a semisolid lubricant obtained by thickening of
lubricating oil by the addition of a metallic soap. The thickener is usually sodium, calcium, and
lithium or aluminum soap.
Greases are manufactured by saponification of fats with alkali followed by adding hot lubricant
oil under severe agitation. Their properties depend on both the base used for saponification and
the fatty acid present in the oil.
LIQUID LUBRICANTS
VEGETABLE OILS
They are commonly used liquid lubricants.
Examples: Castor oil, coconut oil, etc.
They are classified as drying and semi-drying oils. They are easily oxidized by atmosphere.
ANIMAL OILS
They are oils of animal origin. They are mainly animal fats.
Examples: Tallow oil, whale oil, lards oil, coconut oil and olive oil etc.
They are very costly. Hence, they find little use as lubricants. They are also easily oxidized by
atmosphere.
MINERAL OIL
Hydrocarbons with higher molecular mass obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum are
used as lubricants. They are obtained from the paraffin residue.
Examples: Paraffin oil, lubricating oil, etc.
BLENDED OILS
They are mixture of vegetable oils and petroleum products. They show improved properties.
Different oils are suitably mixed depending on the requirement. They are synthetic lubricants.
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EXERCISES
1. What is a lubricant?
2. How are lubricants classified?
3. Mention the uses of graphite.
4. Mention the uses of molybdenum sulphide.
5. How are lubricants classified? Give examples.

6. Write a note on semi-solid lubricant.
7. List the essential characteristics of lubricants.

8. Write a note on solid lubricants.
9. Write a note on liquid lubricants.
10. What types of lubricants are used for transformers?

11. Why does graphite act as a good lubricant on the surface of the motion?
79
LESSON 15
ADHESIVES
Any substance capable of holding materials together by surface attachment is known as

adhesive.
The bodies held together by an adhesive are known as ‘adherends’, while the process of
holding one adherend to another by adhesive is called ‘bonding’. The final assembly of two
adherends and the adhesive is called ‘bond’.
The quality of an adhesive is judged by the following factors.
1. Degree of tackiness (i.e., stickiness)
2. Rapidity of bonding
3. Strength of bond after setting or drying and
4. Durability
Examples: Starch, glue, gum, phenol-formaldehyde, cellulous nitrate, PVC, etc.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD ADHESIVE
1. It should have high tackiness.

2. It should form a strong bond.
3. It should have low viscosity.
4. The bonding should be rapid.
5. It should be highly durable.
6. It should have negligible creep under stress.
7. It should be water repellant.
8. It should be resistant to insects and fungi.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADHESIVES
Adhesives are classified into two types.
a. Natural adhesives
b. Synthetic adhesives
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NATURAL ADHESIVES
STARCH
Starch adhesives are obtained by heating a starch suspension in water at 150oC. The
characteristics of starch adhesives are,
1. They are very cheap.
2. They spread quickly and dry quickly.
3. They do not give any foul smell.
4. They can be applied in cold as well as hot conditions.
5. They have low resistance to moisture and low adhesive strength.
They are used in making envelopes, stamps, notebooks, binding books, etc.
SHELLAC
Shellac is one the oldest adhesive. It has to be applied in hot condition. The bond developed
has good strength, good hardness, and low thermal conductivity.
It is used for making belts, conveyer belts, etc.
ASPHALT
It is the residue obtained during the fractional distillation of petroleum.
Uses
1. It is used for water-proofing of roofs.
2. It is used for road making.
SYNTHETIC ADHESIVES
THERMOPLASTIC SYNTHETIC RESINS

Thermoplastic synthetic resins form soluble, fusible and poor water resistance adhesives. They
get softened on heating.
Examples: Cellulose nitrate, PVC, etc.
1. Cellulose Nitrate
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Cellulose nitrate is used as a raw material for solvent adhesives. Cellulose nitrate
mixed with alcohol is well known as ‘collodion’. The adhesive film developed by
cellulose nitrate is tough. But the adhesive film is inflammable and affected by strong
acids and strong alkalis.
It is used in cloth and foot-wear industry.
2. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)
PVC forms hard adhesive films, resistant to atmospheric conditions and chemicals.
It is used for bonding metals, glass, etc.
It is used in sealing of food materials.
THERMOSETTING SYNTHETIC RESINS

Thermosetting synthetic resins have good adhesive properties by forming a network of
three-dimensional cross-linked structures. The bonding obtained is moisture resistant, heat
resistant and fungi proof.
Examples: Phenol-formaldehyde resins, urea-formaldehyde resins, etc.
1. Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin
This is pressure sensitive type of adhesive. The adherend surfaces after being
coated with this adhesive are subjected to curing by heat and pressure. It is
available as solid or liquid form. The bonded film obtained is hard, highly resistant to
the action of water, fungi, insects, etc.
Uses
a. It is used for making water-proof plywood, laminates, etc.
b. It is used for bonding articles in aircraft and ship building.
c. It is used for bonding wood and metal.
d. It is used for bonding plywood and wooden surfaces.
2. Urea-Formaldehyde Resin
It is a transparent, syrupy compound used in the form of aqueous solution or spray
dried powders. The addition of water to this resin helps in forming continuous film
with cross linkages and rapid setting properties. The bonded film obtained is
resistant to temperature, moisture, etc. It deteriorates by the action of acids and
alkalis. It has the same use as phenol-formaldehyde resin.
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EXERCISES
1. Define adhesive.
2. Name two natural adhesives.
3. Name two synthetic adhesives.
4. Mention the uses of shellac.
5. Mention the uses of asphalt.
6. Mention the uses of cellulose nitrate.
7. Mention the uses of PVC.
8. Mention the uses of phenol-formaldehyde.
9. How are adhesives classified? Give examples.
10. Write a note on shellac.
11. Write a note on starch..
12. Write a note on cellulose nitrate.
13. Write a note on PVC.
14. Write a note on phenol-formaldehyde.
15. Write a note on urea-formaldehyde.
16. What are the requirements of a good adhesive?
17. Write a note on the following natural adhesives.
a. Shellac
b. Starch
c. Asphalt
18. Write a note on the following synthetic adhesives
a. Cellulose nitrate
b. PVC
c. Phenol-formaldehyde
d. Urea-formaldehyde
19. Explain the ways by which adhesives develop strength.
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Olongapo City
FINAL COVERAGE
(Module 5 & 6)

CHE101
Prepared by:

1st Semester
A.Y.2022-2023
Unit 5 - Polymers
Learning Module
By

All rights Reserved
LESSON 16
PLASTICS
Plastics are organic polymer materials of high molecular mass, which can be molded into
different shapes by using heat and pressure.
INTRODUCTION TO PLASCTICS
The name plastics or plastic materials in general is given to organic materials of high molecular
mass, which can be molded into any desired form when subjected to heat and pressure in
presence of catalysts.
Polymer resin is the basic binding material, which forms the major part of plastics. In the recent
years, plastics have attained greater importance in every walk of life due to their unique
properties.
Now, plastics substitute all engineering materials like wood, metal, glass, etc. because of their
special advantages over other conventional materials.
ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS OVER OTHER TRADITIONAL MATERIALS

1. Plastics are available in attractive colors.
2. They do not undergo corrosion.
3. They are not affected by insects.
4. They are light in weight.
5. They are cheap.
6. They can be molded into any shape easily.
7. They are chemically inert.
8. They have good abrasion resistance.
9. They are good insulators of heat and electricity.
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POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization is the process of converting small, low molecular weight organic molecules into
long, high molecular weight organic molecules either by addition reaction or by condensation
reaction. The small molecules are called monomers and the products are called polymers.
There are two types of polymerization:
1. Addition Polymerization
2. Condensation Polymerization
ADDITION POLYMERIZATION
In this type of polymerization, polymers are formed by simple addition reaction between small
molecules containing double or triple bonds.
Example: Formation of polyethylene or polythene.
CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION
In this type of polymerization, polymers are formed by the reaction between small molecules
with elimination of molecules like 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝐻2 𝑆, 𝑁𝐻3 , etc.
Example: Formation of Bakelite
Bakelite is formed by the condensation reaction between phenol and formaldehyde. This
polymer is known as novolac. Water is eliminated as by product.
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TYPES OF PLASTICS
Plastics are classified into two types:

1. Thermoplastics
They are the resins which soften on heating and set on cooling. Thus, they can be
remolded any number of times and used.
Example: Polythene, PVC, nylon, etc.
2. Thermosetting Plastics
They are the resins which set on heating and cannot be re-softened. Hence, their
scrap cannot be reused.
Example: Bakelite (Phenol-formaldehyde resin), urea-formaldehyde resin, etc.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THERMOPLASTICS AND THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

The differences between the two types of plastics arise mainly due to the difference in their
chemical structure.
Thermosetting
Property Thermoplastics
Plastics
They soften on They set on heating
1 Action of heat heating and set on and cannot be re-
cooling every time softened
The polymer chains
The polymer chains
Type of bonding are held together by
are linked by string
2 between adjacent weak force called the
chemical bonds
polymer chains Vander Waal’s force
(covalent)
of attraction
They are soluble in They are insoluble in
3 Solubility
organic solvents organic solvents
Their expansion is
Expansion due to They expand very
4 only marginal on
heating much on heating
heating
Type of Additional condensation
5
Polymerization polymerization polymerization
6 Type of molding injection molding compression molding
7 Scrap recovery scrap can be reused cannot be reused
polyethene, PVC,
8 Examples Bakelite
nylon
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
CREEP OR COLD FLOW

Creep is a time dependent continuous deformation of plastics under load. Plastics undergo
a change in shape when a load is applied continuously. Creep is due to the displacement of
molecules in a polymer structure. Because of this property, plastics cannot be used as load
bearing materials.
STRENGTH TO WEIGHT RATIO

The stress to strain ratio of a plastic is higher than that of the lightest metals namely Al or Mg.
Plastics have good strength when compared to the lightweight metals like aluminum,
magnesium, etc. Hence, they replace metals like aluminum and magnesium in many fields.
Therefore, plastics are mainly used for rocket and spaceship constructions.
THERMAL STABILITY
Plastics either degrade or soften at high temperatures. Hence, they cannot be used at high
temperatures.
SOFTENING TEMPERATURE
Softening temperature refers to the temperature at which a plastic change from elastic stage to
fluid stage. Temperature below which a polymer is hard and above which it is soft is known as
‘Glass transition temperature (𝑇𝑔 ).
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Some of the plastics are transparent like glass. Hence, they can be substituted for glass in
optical instruments.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Plastics are good insulators as they are poor conductors of electricity. So, they are mainly used
for electrical insulation purposes.
HARDNESS
Hardness is defined as the resistance of the plastics to penetration, scratching etc. Hardness of
plastics can be determined by penetration tests. Thermosetting plastics are hard in nature when
compared to thermoplastics.
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IMPACT STRENGTH
When subjected to suddenly applied load or stress, plastics undergo rupture at a load or stress.
Impact strength of plastics is measured by tests in which a pendulum can attack the specimen.
Plastics have better impact strength when compared to glass. Hence, they are replacing
glasses in many places.
TEAR RESISTANCE
The resistance to tearing is an important property when plastic films are used as packing
material. It is measured by using a falling pendulum with a striking edge. Plastics have poor tear
resistance
REINFORCED OR FILLED PLASTICS
The plastics polymers compounded with filers are called as reinforced or filled plastics.
Physical and mechanical properties of plastics are improved by compounding them with
suitable materials. These materials are called fillers and main types of fillers used are
silicate materials. Such types of plastics which are reinforced with fillers are called
Reinforced plastics or filled plastics.
Most commonly used fillers are Wood flour, saw dust, ground cork, asbestos, marble flour,
china clay, paper pulp, corn husk, mica, pumice powder, carbon, cotton fibers, boron fibers,
graphite, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, alumina, glass fibers, metallic oxides like 𝑍𝑛𝑂, 𝑃𝑏𝑂,
etc. and metallic powders like 𝐴𝑙, 𝐶𝑢, 𝑃𝑏, etc.
ADVANTAGES OF FILLED PLASTICS

Fillers modify properties of basic polymer. They improve thermal stability, mechanical
strength, hardness, desired finish, and water resistance. Specific fillers are added to give
special characters.
1. They have improved hardness.
2. They are resistant to heat and corrosion.
3. They are impervious to X-rays.
4. They are water resistant.
5. They have high opacity.
6. They have high mechanical and tensile strength.
7. The production cost is low.
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APPLICATIONS OF FILLED PLASTICS
1. Addition of china clay increases the electrical insulation property of PVC.
2. In textiles, for making shutters, filled polymer is used with nylon as polymer.
3. In electrical and electronic industries, filled polymers are used for making exhaust fans,
computer tapes, insulators, wire and cable insulation, switch gear parts, etc. (using
polypropylene, PET, nylon and SAN as base polymers).
4. In consumer goods like doors, windows, hinges, chairs, camera housing, etc.
(polypropylene, ABS are used as base polymers).
5. In defense, for making nose cones, pistol grips and ripple bullets, filled polymers like
polystyrene, nylon, etc. are used.
6. They are used in automobiles for making door handles and engine cooling fans.
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EXERCISES
1. What is polymerization?
2. What are the types of polymerization?
3. How polythene is formed?
4. How Bakelite is formed?
5. Define plastic.
6. What are the types of plastics?
7. What are reinforced plastics?
8. Explain addition polymerization with an example

9. Explain condensation polymerization with an example.
10. What are thermoplastics? Give an example.
11. What are thermosetting plastics? Give an example.
12. Mention the advantages of reinforced plastics.
13. Give the applications of reinforced plastics.
14. List the differences between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.

15. Explain the mechanical properties of plastics.
16. What are the advantages of plastics over traditional materials?
17. Write a note on reinforced plastics.
18. What are the various applications of plastics in our day-to-day life?
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LESSON 17
RUBBER
Rubber is a natural elastic polymer of isoprene (𝐶5 𝐻8). It is obtained from the milk of rubber
called ‘Latex’.
NATURAL RUBBER
PREPARATION FROM LATEX

1. Latex is the rubber milk containing about 30% to 45% rubber.
2. The rubber milk is diluted with water and allowed to stand for some time.
3. The clear liquid from the top is treated with acetic acid or formic acid to coagulate the
rubber.
4. The coagulated rubber is thoroughly washed with water and then passed through rollers
to get sheets of rubber.
5. Rubber sheets are finally dried either in air or in smoke. This rubber is called ‘smoked
rubber’.
6. During the coagulation of rubber milk with acetic or formic acid, retardants like sodium
bisulphite (𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂3 ) are added to prevent oxidation of rubber. This is called ‘Creep
rubber’. Thus, natural rubber is obtained from latex.
DEFECTS OF NATURAL RUBBER

The natural rubber obtained from latex cannot be used in industries because it has the following
defects.
1. It becomes soft and sticky during summer.
2. It becomes hard and brittle during winter.
3. It swells up in oils.
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4. It flows plastically due to prolonged stress.
5. Chemicals easily affect natural rubber.
COMPOUNDING OF RUBBER
Natural rubber is compounded with certain substances to increase the quality of rubber.
REINFORCING AGENTS OR HARDENERS

They are compounded with natural rubber to give strength to the rubber.
Example: Carbon powder, zinc oxide, calcium carbonate etc.
SOFTENERS
They are added to make the rubber softer and elastic.
Example: Vegetable oils, stearic acid, paraffin oil, etc.
ANTIOXIDANTS
They are added to prevent destruction of rubber due to aerial oxidation.
Example: β-naphthol, phenol.
VULCANIZATION
Vulcanization is process of heating the natural rubber with sulphur at 140°C in 𝐶𝑂2
atmosphere. By vulcanization, the hardness of rubber is improved.
Example: sulphur.
PIGMENTS (COLOURING MATTER)

They are added to give different colors to rubber.
Example: Metallic oxides, Zinc oxide – White, Lead chromate – Yellow, Chromium oxide –
Green, Carbon black - Black
ACCELERATORS
They are added to speed up the vulcanization reaction of rubber.
Example: Benzothiazole
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FILLERS
Fillers are added to increase the quantity without affecting the quality. The production cost
is reduced.
Example: Textile wastes, asbestos, mica, gypsum, talc, etc.
VULCANIZATION
Vulcanization is compounding of rubber with sulphur. Vulcanization is process of heating the

natural rubber with sulphur at 140°C in CO2 atmosphere. The double bonds present in rubber
chain opened and cross linked through sulphur atoms. Hence the vulcanized rubber becomes
very hard. The hardness of rubber increases as the percentage of sulphur increases. 2 to 4%
sulphur addition gives soft elastic rubber. When sulphur content is more than 30%, hard rubber
called ‘Ebonite’ is obtained.
PROPERTIES OF VULCANIZED RUBBER

1. Vulcanized rubber has very little electrical and thermal conductivity. Hence, it is mainly
used for electrical insulation purposes.
2. It has high elasticity and tensile strength.
3. Corrosive chemicals and oils do not affect it.
4. It is also not affected by atmosphere.
RECLAIMED RUBBER
Rubber prepared from waste rubber articles such as worn out tires, tubes, gaskets, hoses, foot
wears and other rubber wastes is called reclaimed rubber.
The process of reclamation of rubber is carried out as follows.
1. The waste rubber is cut into small pieces and powdered by using a cracker.
2. Then iron impurities, if any present, is removed by using electromagnetic separator.
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3. The purified waste rubber is digested with caustic soda solution at 200°C under pressure
for 8 to 15 hours in steam jacked autoclaves. This process hydrolyses the fibers present
in the waste rubber.
4. After the removal of fibers, reclaiming agents like petroleum or coal tar-based oils and
softeners are added.
5. Sulphur gets removed as sodium sulphide and rubber gets devulcanized.
6. The rubber is thoroughly washed with water spray and dried in hot air driers.
7. Finally, the reclaimed rubber is mixed with small portions of reinforcing agents like clay,
carbon black, etc.
PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED RUBBER

1. Reclaimed rubber has less tensile strength, low elasticity and possesses very low wear
resistance when compared to natural rubber.
2. However, it is much cheaper and has uniform composition.
3. It has better ageing property.
4. It is quite easy for fabrication.
USES OF RECLAIMED RUBBER

1. It is used for the manufacture of tires, tubes, etc.,
2. It is used for the manufacture of shoes, automobile floor mats, etc.,
3. It is used for the manufacture of hoses.
4. It is used for the manufacture of battery containers.
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EXERCISES
1. What is rubber?
2. What is Latex?
3. What is compounding of rubber?
4. What is vulcanization?
5. Define reclaimed rubber.
6. Give any two defects of natural rubber.
7. Give any three defects of natural rubber.

8. Mention the properties of reclaimed rubber.
9. Mention the uses of reclaimed rubber.
10. How natural rubber is obtained from Latex? Explain.

11. What are the defects of natural rubber?
12. What is compounding of rubber? Mention the ingredients and their functions.
13. Explain vulcanization of rubber.
14. What is reclaimed rubber? Explain the process of reclamation of rubber.
15. What are the various applications of rubber in our day-to-day life?
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LESSON 18
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Each class of basic engineering materials like metals, high polymers and ceramics has its own
outstanding and distinct characteristics as well as laminates. However very stringent
requirements of supersonic aircraft, gas turbines and high temperature reactors have forced to
develop a new class of materials called “composites”.
The composite materials are generally made by placing the dissimilar materials together in such
a manner that they work as a single mechanical unit. The properties of new materials so
produced are different in kind and scale from those of any constituents. Thus, it has become
possible to incorporate or alter properties, more than that, introduces a combination of
properties like high strength and stiffness at elevated temperatures.
Metals for instance, lose their strength at elevated temperatures. High polymeric materials in
general can withstand still lower temperatures. Ceramics, due to their brittleness are
unsatisfactory structural materials. This led to the exploration of combination of metals and
polymers with ceramics resulting in composites having required properties which seems to be
the hope for the future.
A multiphase material consisting of a mixture of two (or) more substances with different
properties which are mutually insoluble is called as Composite material.
Concrete is the best example for composite.
Thus, using composites it is possible to have such combination of properties like high strength
and stiffness, corrosion resistance and ability to withstand extreme high temperature conditions.
Examples
1. Wood (A composite of cellulose fibers and lignin cementing materials)
2. Rain proof cloth (A cloth impregnated with water-proof material)
3. Bone (A composite of soft collagen and brittle and hard material apatite)
PHASES OF A COMPOSITE MATERIAL
A composite material contains two phases namely

1. 1.Matrix phase
2. 2.Dispered phase.
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MATRIX PHASE
A continuous body constituent which encloses the composite and gives a bulk form is called
matrix phase. The matrix acts as a medium which protects and binds the dispersed phase. The
matrix phase may be metals, ceramics or polymers.
DISPERSED PHASE:
The substance which is dispersed in the matrix phase is called the dispersed phase. It
constitutes the internal structure of the composite.
ADVANTAGEOUS PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
The important advantages of composite materials over metals and polymers are given below.
1. Higher specific strength.
2. Lower specific gravity.
3. Higher specific stiffness.
4. Lower electrical conductivity.
5. Better corrosion and oxidation resistance.
6. Good impact and thermal shock resistance.
7. Can be fabricated easily.
GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
1. In fabrication of roof and floors.

2. In aeronautical applications like components of rockets, aircrafts, helicopters, etc.
3. In valves, pump parts, spray nozzles, etc.
4. In communication antennae, electronic circuit boards, etc.
5. In marine applications like propellers, shaft, hulls and other ship parts.
6. In automobile industries, turbine engines, etc.
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EXERCISES
1. What are composite materials?

2. Give examples for composite materials.
3. Write any three advantages of composite materials over metals and polymers.
4. Mention any three applications of composite materials.
5. Write a note on advantages of composite materials over metals and polymers.

6. Mention the applications of composite materials.
7. How are composite materials prepared?
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Unit 6 – Environmental
Chemistry
Learning Module
By

All rights Reserved
LESSON 19
AIR POLLUTION
In recent days, everyone speaks about pollution. We are all facing huge risks due to pollution.
The air we breathe the water we drink and the place where we live and work in may be full of
toxic substances. The adverse effects of these pollutants may affect the future generation also.
POLLUTION
Pollution may be defined as the excessive discharge or addition of unwanted and undesirable
foreign matters into the environment that causes huge damage to the life and properties of
human, plants and animal.
Environment includes air, water and land. The harmful substances that cause damage are
called pollutants. They are discharged from various industries, automobiles, microorganism,
volcanic eruptions, forests and strong winds.
CAUSES OF POLLUTION
The following are the main causes of pollution.
1. Huge increase in population.
2. Rapid industrialization.
3. Rapid urbanization.
4. Uncontrolled exploitation of nature.
5. Radioactive substances.
6. Volcanic eruptions, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTION
To understand the magnitude of pollution problems, it may be classified into three types as
follows.
1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Land pollution
102
AIR POLLUTION
Air Pollution may be defined as the excessive discharge or addition of unwanted and
undesirable foreign matters into the atmosphere that causes huge damage to the life and
properties of human, plants and animal.
Gaseous pollutants like sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen fluoride, carbon
monoxide and dust are the most important primary air pollutants.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Air Pollutant Source Harmful Effects
Petroleum industry, Causes respiratory
thermal power diseases, eye
Sulphur Dioxide
1 station, sulphuric acid irritation, throat
(𝑆𝑂2 )
manufacturing plants, troubles, damage to
etc. agriculture, etc.
Petroleum industries, Causes eye irritation,
Hydrogen Sulphide paper industries, severe throat pain,
2
(𝐻2 𝑆) leather industries, headache, corrosion
etc. of metals, etc.
Causes irritation,
Fertilizer industry,
Hydrogen Fluoride respiratory diseases,
3 aluminum industry,
(𝐻𝐹) bone disorders, tooth
etc.
disorders, etc.
Automobile industry, Causes headache,
Carbon Monoxide
4 oil refineries, visual difficulty,
(𝐶𝑂)
cigarette smoke, etc. paralysis, etc.
Cement industry,
Causes respiratory
mines, glass industry,
diseases, affects
5 Dust ceramic industry,
lungs, accelerates
agricultural industry,
corrosion, etc.
etc.
ACID RAIN
The gases like 𝑆𝑂2 and 𝑁𝑂2 emitted from various industries react with moisture present in the
atmosphere to form corresponding acids. It means that rainwater contains more acids. The
rainwater containing the acid is called acid rain. They slowly fall down on the earth as acid rain
during snow fall or normal rainfall. This is called as acid rain.
𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
103
𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3
4𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN

1. Acid rain makes the soil more acidic and thereby reduces the fertility of the soil.
2. It affects the growth of crops, plants, etc.
3. It affects the survival of fishes and reduces the population of aquatic species.
4. It badly makes damage to buildings, vehicles, structural materials, etc.
5. It affects human being’s life system and organs like skin, lungs, and hair.
6. It damages the memorable monuments, buildings, etc. The famous ‘Taj Mahal’ is being
affected severely.
7. It causes corrosion in metal.
8. Acid rain damages automobiles coatings and oil based paints.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
The earth surface gets warmed due to the blanketing effect of pollutants like 𝐶𝑂2 present in the
atmosphere. It is known as greenhouse effect.
Several radiations like UV, visible and infra-red rays from the sunlight reaches the earth surface
and produce heat energy. Some of the heat that is absorbed by the earth’s surface is radiated
back into the space. The pollutants like 𝐶𝑂2 and other gases which form a blanket around the
earth prevent the heat energy to escape from the surface of earth. Hence the earth gets
warmed. It is similar to green glass houses where heat radiation cannot escape from them.
104
Gases that cause greenhouse effect are mainly CO2, methane, water vapor and chloro-fluoro
carbons (CFC). These gases are called greenhouse gases.
IMPACTS OF GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Global warming
The warming up of the earth’s surface due to greenhouse effect is termed as global
warming.𝐶𝑂2 and other greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere trap the infrared radiation
from the sun and do not allow the radiations to escape. Hence the earth’s surface is warming up
more and more.
Harmful effects of global warming caused by Greenhouse effect:
1. Evaporation process of surface water is enhanced very much due the increase in
temperature of earth’s surface which leads to drastic seasonal change. Some regions of
the world would become dry.
2. Sea level is increased due to melting of glaciers. Hence, low lying land areas will be
submerged under sea water.
3. Food production is mainly affected, and it leads to draught.
4. The tropical diseases like malarial fever, dengue fever and cholera will spread to the
other parts of the world.
5. It causes drastic change in seasons. Hence, human beings and animals are mostly
affected by climatic change.
6. Natural calamities like cyclones, hurricane, typhoons, and tsunami may occur frequently
and strongly.
7. Because of global warming, the normal weather pattern is disrupted. Some parts of the
world will face severe water crisis while the other parts will suffer from flooding. Spring
arrives earlier in many parts of the world. An early spring may disturb animal migration.
8. Biological productivity also decreases due to global warming.
THE OZONE LAYER
One of the gifts given by nature is ozone layer. It is present about 20 km above the earth’s
surface. It forms a layer of about 3mm thickness called ozone layer. Oxygen is converted into
ozone by photochemical change as follow:
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3𝑂2(𝑔) → 2𝑂3(𝑔)
The region which is 𝑂3 density high is called ozone layer.
105
IMPORTANCE OF THE OZONE LAYER
1. Ozone layer covers the earth’s surface and prevents the entry of harmful UV radiation. It
saves the lives of human beings and animals. If not so, no life is found on earth.
2. If the ozone layer is not present in the atmosphere, the harmful UV radiations will enter
the earth. This will destroy human and animal life, change the wind pattern, rain fall,
climatic change, and global temperature.
CAUSES FOR DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER

Chlorine plays a vital role in the depletion of ozone layer. Chlorofluorocarbons are released from
the supersonic jets, air crafts and jet engines. They get accumulated at high altitude and
undergo decomposition in the presence of ultraviolet radiations. Chlorine is the main
decomposition product. It reacts with the ozone and converts it into oxygen.
Chlorine converts the ozone molecules into oxygen in the presence of UV radiation as follows.
𝐶𝑙 + 𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑙𝑂 + 𝑂2
𝐶𝑙𝑂 + 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑙 + 𝑂2
It is noteworthy that one atom of chlorine may convert huge number of molecules of ozone into
oxygen. The main source for chlorine is CFC, which is released by aircrafts, jet planes,
refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc. One atom of chlorine can convert about 106 molecules of
ozone into oxygen. The other gases which cause ozone layer depletion are 𝑁𝑂 and 𝑁𝑂2 .
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

1. Due to ozone layer depletion, the harmful UV radiation may enter freely into the earth’s
surface and affect the lives on earth.
2. They affect human beings and cause skin cancer, skin aging, breast cancer, lungs
cancer, eye defects and visual defects.
3. They reduce the population of aquatic species.
4. They affect the growth of plants and vegetables.
5. They affect the eco-system very badly.
6. The sea food production also decreases due to the depletion of ozone layer.
7. Depletion of ozone layer causes the change in earth’s climate, wind pattern, rainfall and
global warming.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
“Prevention is better than cure”. Similarly, it is better to control the air pollutants at its source
itself. The following are the steps to be taken for controlling air pollution.
106
1. The exhaust gases from automobiles and vehicles should be minimized by the use of
catalyst.
2. Tall chimneys may be used to reduce the concentration of pollutants at the ground level.
3. Smoke may be removed by Cottrell’s electrostatic precipitator.
4. Dust particles can be removed by the use of bag filters and dust separators.
5. The use of coal, wood and traditional fuels should be slowly reduced. Solar energy, tidal
power, nuclear power, and electricity should be used for domestic and industrial
purpose.
6. Acid and chemical fumes are absorbed in water, concentrated, and reduced.
7. Growing of trees reduces more pollution as well as the harmful carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere. Plants take carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and
releases oxygen to environment. Hence, more trees should be planted.
107
EXERCISES
1. Define pollution.
2. Define air pollution.
3. Give examples for air pollutants.
4. Mention the harmful effects of SO2.
5. Mention the harmful effects of H2S.
6. Mention the harmful effects of HF.
7. Mention the harmful effects of CO.
8. Mention the harmful effects of dust.
9. Give examples for gases causing acid rain.
10. Give two examples for greenhouse gases.
11. What is global warming?
12. Mention the names of pollutants responsible for depletion of ozone layer.
13. What is acid rain?
14. Mention the harmful effects of acid rain.
15. What is green house effect?
16. Mention the harmful effects of global warming.
17. What is the importance of ozone layer?
18. Mention the harmful effects of ozone layer depletion.
19. What are the major air pollutants? Give their source and harmful effects.
20. What is acid rain? Mention its harmful effects.
21. Write a note on green house effect.
22. What is global warming? List its harmful effects.
23. What are the causes of ozone layer depletion? List the problems caused by ozone layer
depletion.
24. Write a note on control of air pollution.
25. Discuss the various techniques employed for the control of air pollution.
108
LESSON 20
WATER POLLUTION
Water is more important for all the living things. Water is essential for the plants to grow. If the
water is contaminated with any foreign substance, it is harmful to human beings, plants,
animals, etc.
WATER POLLUTION
Water Pollution may be defined as the excessive discharge or addition of unwanted and
undesirable foreign matters into the water that causes huge damage to the life and properties of
human , plants and animal.
CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

The main sources of water pollution are
1. Sewage
2. Effluents
3. Algae and
4. Microorganisms
SEWAGE
Sewage is the liquid waste of the community which includes human wastes, kitchen wastes and
street washings.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF SEWAGE

1. Hydrogen sulphide gas is produced in the sewage due to the decomposition of organic
impurities which gives a bad smell.
2. Due to corrosive nature, it affects the pipelines.
3. It helps for the growth of harmful bacteria and viruses and cause many diseases like
cholera, jaundice, polio etc.
4. Inflammable substances like alcohol and ether may cause severe effects and fire
accident.
109
5. The enrichment of nutrients like nitrates and phosphates in sewage water which causes
the growth of aquatic plants which releases the toxic chemicals .This affects the aquatic
lives.
6. The solids in it reduce the flow of water and become stagnant.
7. The aquatics like fish die due to lack of oxygen in sewage. The biological oxygen
demand is reduced.
8. It also affects the nature and fertility of the soil and affects the food production.
SEWERAGE(TREATMENT OF SEWAGE):
Removal of sewage by some treatment methods is called sewerage. It involves the following
steps.
1. The floating impurities can be removed by mesh screens.
2. The suspended impurities can be removed by filtration and coagulation process using
Alum.
3. Inflammable organic impurities can be removed by oxidation process.
4. By neutralization method, the corrosive acids and bases can be removed.
5. The bacterial impurities can be removed by chlorination.
6. The water left out from the sewage can be treated by suitable purification method and
can be used for other purposes.
7. By passing oxygen the oxidizable matter is removed.
8. It is treated with lime to remove phosphorous as calcium phosphate.
EFFLUENTS
The wastewater from various industries containing harmful chemicals. This Industrial
wastewater is known as effluent.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF EFFLUENTS

1. It may cause severe damage to aquatic animals.
2. The metals present in the effluent may seriously affect the human organs like kidney,
brain, etc.
3. It corrodes the pipelines due to acidic nature of effluents.
4. The effluents of chemical industries and nuclear power stations may affect the health of
human beings and animals.
110
5. The effluents may enrich the acidic nature of the soil and affect the fertility of the land
and growth of plants.
6. The phosphates and nitrates cause Eutrophication.
7. The metallic pollutants like Cu, Pb, Cd present in the effluents affects the health.
8. The organic impurities help the growth of disease causing microorganisms like bacteria,
virus and protozoa and produces diseases like cholera, jaundice and typhoid.
TREATMENT OF EFFLUENTS
1. Toxic nature of effluents may be removed by chemical methods.
2. The acidic nature and basic nature of the effluents may be removed by neutralization.
3. The radioactive effluents are carefully stored and buried under the ground.
4. The heavy metallic impurities may be removed by special methods.
HEAVY METAL IONS PRESENT IN EFFLUENTS
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LEAD

1. Affects liver and kidney
2. Causes nervous disorder
3. Produce mental retardation in children
4. Produce gastro-intestinal damage
5. Causes loss of appetite
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF COPPER

1. Severely affect the digestive system
2. Causes vomiting and diarrhea
3. Affects blood, bone and teeth
4. It is toxic to aquatic life
5. Causes cancer and tuberculosis
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF CADMIUM

1. Causes kidney damage
2. Affects liver
111
3. Produce anemia and hypertension
4. Produce gastro-intestinal damage
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF ZINC

1. Affects skin
3. Causes irritation
4. Causes dizziness and itching
5. Causes nausea
ORGANIC MATTER IN WATER
ALGAE
1. Presence of algae in water produces foul odor and bad taste to water.
2. They block the pipelines and filters.
3. They affect the aquatic animals due to depletion of oxygen.
Treatment of algae
1. The growth of algae can be controlled by using algaecide like copper sulphate.
2. The algae can be destroyed by using chemicals like bleaching powder, activated
carbon and lime.
3. The growth of algae can also be controlled by preventing the sunlight to fall on the
surface of water.
MICROORGANISMS (BACTERIA AND VIRUSES)

1. They cause diseases like cholera, jaundice, typhoid, etc.
2. They are destroyed using disinfectants like bleaching powder and chlorine.
EUTROPHICATION
The ageing of lake and pond by the enrichment of nutrients is called eutrophication.
Eutrophication is due to the mixing of sewage water from agricultural land, domestic detergent
112
wastes, containing nitrogen compounds and phosphates into lake water. It enhances the growth
of algae.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF EUTROPHICATION

1. It enhances the growth of algae in water which leads to depletion of oxygen in water.
Algae release the toxic chemicals. It affects the aquatic animals badly.
2. When the oxygen level falls to zero, the sulphates are reduced to H2S.
3. It produces bad taste and odor after it decays.
4. It blocks the pipelines and filters.
5. It admits the growth of bacteria and viruses. It may spread water borne disease like
dysentery, cholera, Typhoid, yellow fever which affects human beings.
6. It causes an imbalance in eco-system based on water resources.
7. Population of aquatic animals is reduced.
8. Algal toxin accumulated in shellfish are harmful to human system. They produce
paralysis, diarrhea, and stomach disorder.
9. Algae and other rooted weeds clog the water filters. They also cause damage to
hydroelectric engine.
113
EXERCISES
1. Give two examples for water pollutants.

2. What is sewage?
3. What is sewerage?
4. What are industrial effluents?
5. Give the problems of lead in water.
6. Give the problems of copper in water.
7. Give the problems of cadmium in water.
8. Give the problems of zinc in water.
9. What is eutrophication?
10. Mention any three harmful effects of sewage.

11. Write a note on sewage disposal.
12. Mention the harmful effects of effluents.
13. Mention the harmful effects of algae. How it is controlled?
14. Mention the harmful effects of microorganisms. How it is controlled?
15. Mention any three harmful effects of eutrophication.
16. What are the major water pollutants? Give their harmful effects.
17. What is sewage? What are its harmful effects? How it is disposed?
18. What are effluents? Explain the problems and treatment of effluents.
19. Mention the harmful effects of metallic pollutants (lead, copper, cadmium and zinc) in
water.
20. Define eutrophication. Mention its harmful effects.
21. Discuss various methods of wastewater treatment.
114
LESSON 21
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Annual municipal waste in India is about 280 million tons per year and is creating huge
problems for the country. Hence there is an urgent need to tackle this problem.
SOLID WASTE
Any substance that is discarded is called waste. The waste may solid, liquid of gaseous
substances. The solid waste arises from human and animal activities.
Solid waste is a substance which is left of from industries, kitchen or other waste and thus
thrown away. They can cause hazard to human health and environment. Hence, there is an
urgent need for the management of solid waste.
Solid waste management is the collection of wastages, transporting, processing, recycling, and
monitoring of the waste materials to reduce their effect on health and environment.
TYPES OF SOLID WASTE

Types Examples
1 Commercial garbage Bricks, cement, sand, etc.,
Herbicides, pesticides, crop residue, animal, and
2 Agricultural waste
poultry waste, etc.,
3 Rural waste Bagasse, cow dung garbage, rice husk, etc.,
4 Plastic waste Plastic toys, cosmetics, food packaging, etc.,
Cotton containing blood, dressing linen, syringes, waste
5 Medicinal waste
medicines, etc.
Food waste, plastics, computer, TV, broken bottle,
6 Domestic waste & e-waste ceramic materials, metallic containers, kitchen waste,
etc.,
Food waste, plastics, metals, paper, and paper board,
7 Municipal garbage
etc.,
Products of iron, cadmium, tin, lead, arsenic, mercury,
8 Industrial waste
radioactive materials, etc.,
PROBLEMS CAUSED BY SOLID WASTE

1. Air becomes unclean with foul smell.
2. The biomedical waste causes infectious disease and gives bad smell.
115
3. Human health is affected.
4. Pollutes the air, land, and ground water.
5. Contaminate the environment.
6. Affects the climate
Hence, there is an urgent need for the management of solid waste.
Solid waste management is not fully implemented because of
1. Lack of education and awareness
2. Lack of motivation
3. Resistance to change
4. Non co-operation from house holds
5. Lack of knowledge on benefits of segregation
ROLE OF PRIVATE SECTOR ORGANIZATIONS

The private sector can play an important role in construction, operation and maintenance of
treatment and disposal facility. NGO’s can also play an important role in,
1. Organizing rag-pickers/waste collectors for door-to-door collection and segregation of
waste.
2. Creating public awareness for storage of organic and recyclable waste separately at
source and handing over the waste to waste collector.
Rag-pickers could be involved in door-to-door collection of municipal solid waste as well as
recyclable waste, so that they could get a user fee for collecting waste from the doorstep and
derive additional income from sale of recyclables.
METHODS OF DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
The waste management concepts include 1.Reduce 2.Reuse 3.Recyle. The aim of waste
management is to extract maximum benefit from the wastes and to reduce the amount of waste.
The final disposal of solid wastes can be carried out by the following methods.
LANDFILLS
In this method, waste is buried underground and covered with soil. Landfills were often
established in abandoned areas.
Modern land fill contains a series of three dimensional control cells. The wastes dumped in the
appropriate cells can be covered by a layer of soil at the end of each day. Below the wastes
116
dumped in the cell, a double liner system is provided to prevent the leachates from polluting the
soil and ground water beneath the site. The upper liner must be a well flexible membrane lining
made of plastic or rubber.
A properly designed and well managed land fill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive
method of disposing of waste materials.
Poorly designed landfills can create a number of adverse environments impacts such as wind-
blown litter. Harmful gases like methane are given off from land fill sites that cause air pollution
and contribute to global warming.
INCINERATION
Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of solid waste at 1000°C.
Waste materials are converted into ash, flue gas and heat. The ash is mostly formed by the
inorganic constituents of the waste and gases due to organic waste. The heat generated by
incineration can be used to generate electricity. This process reduces the volumes of solid
wastes to 20-30 percent of original volume.
117
EXERCISES
1. What are solid wastes? Give examples.

2. What are the two methods employed for disposal of solid waste?
3. What is landfill?
4. What is incineration?
5. Write a note on land fill.

6. Write a note on incineration.
7. List the different types of solid wastes. Explain their origination.

8. Mention the problems caused by solid waste.
9. Explain the two methods of disposal of solid waste.
10. Think of a project – How can electricity be produced from garbage?
118

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CHEMISTRY FOR

BY: JAN ALEXIS B. MONSALUD

Chemistry for Engineers

Engr. Jan Alexis B. Monsalud

Copyright © 2020, Columban College, Inc.

“A fuel is a substance containing carbon as the major substituent which

Classification of fuels is based on two factors.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON OCCURRENCE

Wood, peat, lignite, dung,

Petrol, diesel and various

Gaseous Fuels Natural Gas Coal gas, oil gas, LPG

PROPERTIES OF SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS FUELS

Property Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels

Costlier than solid

Closed containers Storage space

Very high since

Very rapid and

Cannot be controlled Controlled by

High since labor is Low, similar to liquid

Ash is produced and

Clean, but liquids

Calorific value Least High Highest

Heat efficiency Least High Highest

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL

1. The fuel should be easily available.

Wood 50 4000 – 4500 Domestic Fuel

In making coal gas

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL

In this analysis, the percentage of carbon is indirectly determined. It is a quantitative analysis of

STEPS IN CONDUCTING THE PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL

2. Determination of Percentage of Volatile Matter

3. Determination of Percentage of Ash

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑠ℎ 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡

4. Determination of Percentage of Fixed Carbon

% 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 = 100% − % 𝑜𝑓 (𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐴𝑠ℎ)

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL

STEPS IN THE ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × 12 × 100%

2. Determination of Nitrogen Content

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 × 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 × 1.3

3. Determination of Sulphur Content

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 × 32 × 100%

4. Determination of Ash Content

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡

5. Determination of Oxygen Content

% 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 100% − % 𝑜𝑓 (𝐶 + 𝐻 + 𝑆 + 𝑁 + 𝐴𝑠ℎ)

Figure 1 - Refining of Petroleum

The decomposition of larger hydrocarbon molecules to smaller molecules is called

Figure 2 - Fixed-bed Catalytic Cracking

METHODS TO STOP/CONTROL KNOCKING

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE AND KNOCKING

Figure 4 - n-heptane Figure 3 - 2,2,4 trimethylpentane

Figure 5 - tetra ethyl lead (TEL). Added to

Cetane number is defined as the percentage of hexadecane (n-cetane) present in a mixture of

• It is also used as raw material for the manufacture of carbon-black, methanol,

• Methane on microbiological fermentation gives synthetic proteins which are used as

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)

UNITS FOR MEASURING HEAT