Reviewer in Science 8 1st PT Sonic Boom

Lights and Sound When the speed of any object surpasses the speed of
sound waves, the speed of respective object is known
as SUPERSONIC speed.

For example, the speed of bullets, jet aircrafts, etc.

Light travels much faster than sound. For example:
When a sound producing source itself moves with a
1) Thunder and lightning start at the same time, speed higher than that of the sound, it produces the
but we will see the lightning first. shock waves in air.

2) When a starting pistol is fired we see the smoke The shock waves carry a large amount of energy, which
first and then hear the bang. causes air pressure variation in its immediate
environment.
Sound
Reflection of Sound
SOUND- A longitudinal wave that needs a medium in
order to propagate. When sound waves strike with a solid wall or even
liquid, it gets reflected back.
The medium can be solid, liquid or gas
Echo
ELASTICITY- is the ability of a material to undergo
temporary change in its size, shape or volume when a If you shout or clap in a (especially) mountains region,
force is applied. after a while, you will hear the same sound, it is known
as echo.
DENSITY- is a mass of material per unit volume. The
denser the materials, the slower the sound wave The sensation of sound continues in our brain for about
propagate. 0.1 s; therefore, to hear a distinct echo sound, the time
interval between the original sound and the reflected
Introduction of Sound sound must be at least 0.1s.
The speed of sound depends on the type and properties To hear the distinct echo sound, the minimum distance
of the medium through which it is traveling. of the obstacle from the source of sound must be 17.2
The speed of sound in a particular medium depends on m. However, this distance is variable, as depends on
temperature and pressure of that medium. temperature.

The speed of sound decreases when it passes from solid Reverberation

to gaseous state of a given medium. The repeated reflection that results in the persistence
In any medium, if the temperature increases, the speed of sound waves is known as reverberation. E.g. in a big
of sound also increases and vice versa. hall (especially, an auditorium), the excessive
reverberation can be heard.
The following table illustrates the speed of sound in
different media at 250 C − Usually, the ceilings of concert or movie halls are given
curved shape so that the sound waves after reflection
reach all the corners of the hall

Range of Audible Sound

The audible range of sound for the human beings varies

between 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.

However, as people grow older their ears gradually

become less sensitive to higher the sound frequencies.

The sounds of frequencies less than 20 Hz are known as

INFRASONIC SOUND OR INFRASOUND.

Whales, rhinoceroses, and elephants produce sound in

the infrasound range.

The sound of frequencies higher than 20 kHz are known

as ULTRASONIC SOUND OR ULTRASOUND.

Ultrasound technology is used extensively in different

industries and for the medical purposes.
Dolphins, bats, and porpoises produce ultrasound • Acoustic neuroma. This is an example of a
sound. tumor that causes hearing loss. It can also cause
ringing in your ear and feeling like your ears are
A hearing aid is a battery operated device that receives
full.
sound through a microphone.
• Physical head injury. A traumatic brain injury
Sonar
(TBI), hole in the eardrum, and damage to the
The term SONAR stands for Sound Navigation And middle ear can cause hearing loss.
Ranging.
• Presbycusis. This is a sensorineural hearing loss
Sonar is an advanced device that uses ultrasonic waves that happens as you get older. Speech may start
to measure the direction, distance, and speed of to sound muffled or unclear. You may have to
underwater objects (submarines); depth of sea; under ask people to repeat themselves or turn the TV
water hills; valleys; sunken ships; etc. louder to hear it.

Mach number Protect your ears

the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound • Use ear plugs around loud noises
in the surrounding medium. It is often used with a
• Turn the volume down
numeral (as Mach 1, Mach 2, etc.) to indicate the speed
of sound, twice the speed of sound, etc. • Give ears time to recover

Subsonic and Supersonic speed • Stop using cotton swabs for cleaning

If the Mach Number is below 1, the flow velocity is • Keep your ears dry
lower than the speed of sound - and the speed is
To get an idea of how loud this is:
subsonic.
• whispering – 30dB
If the Mach Number is 1 - the speed is transonic.
• conversation – 60dB
If the Mach Number is above 1, the flow velocity is
higher than the speed of sound - and the speed is • busy traffic – 70 to 85dB
supersonic. Subsonic and Supersonic speed
• motorbike – 90dB
Ernst Mach
• listening to music on full volume through
Ernst Waldfried Josef Wenzel Mach was an Austrian headphones – 100 to 110dB
physicist and philosopher, noted for his contributions to
physics such as study of shock waves. The ratio of one's • plane taking off – 120dB
speed to that of sound is named the Mach number in LIGHT
his honor
Light travels in straight lines:
Hearing problems
Light travels VERY FAST – around 300,000 kilometres
• Otosclerosis. This is a middle ear disease. It per second.
makes it harder for the tiny bones in the middle
ear to move. It causes a conductive hearing loss. At this speed it can go around the world 8 times in one
second.
• Ménière's disease. This is an inner ear problem.
The cause of Ménière's disease is not known. It We see things because they reflect light into our eyes:
usually starts in people between 30 and 50 Luminous and non-luminous objects
years old. A person with this disease will often
have sensorineural hearing loss. Dizziness and A luminous object is one that produces light.
ringing in the ear are common.
A non-luminous object is one that reflects light
• Autoimmune inner ear disease. An
Shadows
autoimmune disorder is one where your body
attacks itself. This type of hearing loss happens Shadows are places where light is “blocked”:
fast.
Reflection of Light Waves
• Very loud noise. Loud noise can cause
All waves are known to undergo reflection or the
permanent hearing loss. Noise-induced hearing
bouncing off of an obstacle. Most people are very
loss is painless and usually happens over time.
accustomed to the fact that light waves also undergo
Hearing an extremely loud sound, like an
reflection.
explosion, can cause a sudden hearing loss.
Refraction of Light Waves Common eye problems

All waves are known to undergo refraction when they • color blindness is not actually blindness in the
pass from one medium to another medium. That is, true sense but rather is a color vision deficiency
when a wave front crosses the boundary between two —people who are affected by it simply do not
media, the direction that the wave front is moving agree with most other people about color
undergoes a sudden change; the path is "bent." This matching.
behaviour of wave refraction can be described by both
• Dichromacy- color vision involving the absence
conceptual and mathematical principles.
of one pigment.
A TRANSPARENT BODY- allows light to pass through it.
• Protanopia- absence of color red
TRANSLUCENT BODY- scatters the light passing through
• Deuteranopia- absence of color green
it so that object behind it are not clearly seen.
• Tritanopia- absence of color blue
OPAQUE BODY- does not transmit light at all, so it is
impossible to see what is on the other side. Deficiency in one pigment is called ANOMALOUS
TRICHROMACY
They neither reflect or absorb light. Clear water, air and
a clear glass are transparent. Frosted glass is • Protanomaly- weakness of red
translucent. A human body, stone and wood are
opaque. • Deutranomaly- weakness of green

DISPERSION OF LIGHT • Tritanomaly- weakness of blue

DISPERSION- Splitting of white light into its constituent • ACHROMATOPSIA- literally means “NO COLOR”
color. • Crossed eyes (or strabismus) occur when a
SPECTRUM-ROYGBIV person's eyes are not able to align on the same
point at the same time, and appear to be
Red is the longest wave length and violet has the misaligned or pointed in different directions.
shortest wave length.
• Cataracts are a degenerative form of eye
st
Isaac Newton the 1 discovered that ordinary white disease in which the lens gradually becomes
light is combination of color. opaque and vision mists over.
PRISM- passes sunlight through triangular piece of Protect your Eyes
glass.
• Eat at least 5 servings daily of fruits and
Diffraction of Light Waves vegetables.
Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when • Don’t smoke.
they bounce off a barrier. Refraction of waves involves a
change in the direction of waves as they pass from one • Take regular breaks while doing computer work
medium to another. And diffraction involves a change and other tasks that mostly involve your eyes.
in direction of waves as they pass through an opening • Wear your glasses. This sounds obvious, but
or around an obstacle in their path. many people with low to moderate vision loss
Colour leave them at home or tucked in a pocket or
purse because of vanity or forgetfulness.
White light is not a single colour; it is made up of a
mixture of the seven colours of the rainbow. • Wear sunglasses when out of doors. Wear
sunglasses that protect your eyes from UVA and
We can demonstrate this by splitting white light with a UVB rays. Wear them even on cloudy days.
prism:
• Closely follow the recommended schedule for
This is how rainbows are formed: sunlight is “split up” cleaning and wearing contact lenses.
by raindrops.
• Know your family's eye history and share this
The colours of the rainbow: information with your healthcare providers.
Red Blue • If you have high blood pressure, high
cholesterol, or diabetes, make sure these
Orange Indigo
conditions are under control
Yellow Violet

Green
HEAT ENERGY Following formulas used to convert temperature
between these scales.
What is HEAT?

• Form of energy and measured in JOULES

• Particles move about more and take up more room if

heated – this is why things expand if heated

It is also why substances change from:

solids liquids gases
when heated

Heat and Temperature

Heating and Cooling
 The temperature of an object tells us how HOT it is
 If an object has become hotter,
 Measured in degrees Celsius - °C
it means that it has gained heat energy.
 It is NOT the same as heat energy although the two
 If an object cools down, it means it has
quantities are related.
lost energy
e.g. a beaker of water at 60 °C is hotter than a
bath of water at 40 °C BUT the bath contains more  Heat energy always moves from:
joules of heat energy
HOT object COOLER object
How to measure temperature?
e.g.Cup of water at 20 °C in a room at 30°C - gains heat
 Celsius scale named after a Swedish astronomer
energy and heats up – its temperature rises
Anders Celsius he proposed that the scale has the 0ᵒ
for the melting point of ice and 100ᵒ for boiling Cup of water at 20 °C in a room at 10°C loses heat
point of water. The Celsius is divided into 100 equal energy and cools down – its temperature will fall.
parts called degree. Each part may be further
divided into fraction of a degree. Energy transfer
Conduction
 United states measure in Fahrenheit scale. The Convection
Fahrenheit thermometer was developed by a Radiation
German physicist named Gabriel Fahrenheit in this
thermometer the freezing point of water is 32ᵒF and Conduction
boiling point is 212ᵒF.  Heat is transferred through a material by being
 In addition to Celsius and Fahrenheit scales, it is passed from one particle to the next
called Kelvin Scale and named after a british  Particles at the warm end move faster and this
physicist named Lord Kelvin. This is called the then causes the next particles to move faster
Absolute scale because its zero reading indicates the and so on.
possible lowest temperature, water freezes at 273
kelvin and boils 373K  In this way heat in an object travels from:

Temperature scale comparison the HOT end the cold end

 Occurs by the particles hitting each other and so

energy is transferred.

 Can happen in solids, liquids and gases,

 Happens best in solids-particles very close

together

 Conduction does not occur very quickly in

liquids or gases

Conductors

 Materials that conduct heat quickly are called

conductors

 All metals are good conductors of heat

 Copper is a very good conductor of heat

  Pans for cooking are usually made with a Radiation
copper or aluminium bottom and plastic
 Transfer of heat directly form the source to the
handles
object by a wave, travelling as rays.
poor conductors
 Heat radiation is also known as infra-red
 Materials that conduct heat slowly or poorly are radiation
called insulators
 All objects that are hotter than their
 Glass, wood, plastic and rubber are poor surroundings give out heat as infra-red
conductors (good insulators) radiation

 Nearly all liquids including water are poor  Heat transfer by radiation does not need
conductors (good insulators) particles to occur and is the only way energy
can be transferred across empty space
 Gases, including air are poor conductors,e.g.,
wool feels warm because it traps a lot of air Emitters

 A fridge has insulation material round it to keep  Hotter objects emit (give out) heat
it cold – reduces amount of heat conducted to
 Different surfaces emit heat at different speeds
inside from the warmer room
 A dull black surfaces lose energy more quickly –
Convection
it is a good radiator
 Takes place in material where particles can
 A bright shiny or white surface is a poor
move around inside the material, i.e. liquid or
radiator
gas
 Marathon runners need to keep warm at the
 The heat is carried by the particles themselves
end of races, covering in shiny blankets reduces
moving Convection currents
radiation and therefore heat loss.
 Occur because an area with warm particles
expands and becomes less dense than the
cooler areas nearby. The warm area rises.
Cooler particles fall into the space left by the
warm particles and convection current is set up

Convection Currents

Absorbers

Cooler objects absorb (take in) heat

Substances absorb heat at different speeds

Dull, black surfaces absorb heat quickly

 The sun can cause large convection currents - Bright, shiny surfaces absorb heat slowly
WINDS In hot countries, people wear bright white clothes and
 During daytime the land warms up more than paint their houses white to reduce absorption of energy
the sea. The warm air rises over the land and from the sun.
cool air falls over the sea. So we feel a sea Petrol storage tanks sprayed silver to reflect sun’s rays
breeze.

 Rising convection currents can be used by glider

pilots to keep their planes in the air and by birds
to stay aloft.
Electricity Closed circuit:

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS A complete path for electric current

The atom

An atom is a fundamental unit of matter

made up of

protons (with a positive charge)

How Do You Make Electricity Do What You Want?
neutrons (neutral – no charge)
Insulator: a substance through which
electrons (with a negative charge) electricity cannot flow readily
What is electricity? Examples…
wood plastic rubber
Everything is made of atoms which contain POSITIVE
sulfur glass
particles called PROTONS and NEGATIVE particles called
Conductor: a material through which electrons can
ELECTRONS.
move easily
Ohm’s Law
Examples…
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) brass aluminum copper
graphite water
I=V/R
What’s the Best Pathway for Electrons?
I = Current (Amperes) (amps)
Parallel circuits are circuits with more than one
V = Voltage (Volts) pathway through which electrons can flow.

R = Resistance (ohms) Series circuits are circuits with only one pathway
through which electrons can flow.
Voltage: a force that pushes the current through the
circuit (in this picture it would be equivalent to gravity) Simple Circuits

Resistance: friction that impedes flow of current Series circuit

through the circuit (rocks in the river) – All in a row
– 1 path for electricity
Current: the actual “substance” that is flowing through – 1 light goes out and the circuit is broken
the wires of the circuit (electrons!) Parallel circuit
– Many paths for electricity
What Gives Matter a Charge? – 1 light goes out and the others stay on
 Objects with opposite charges (one negative, How to prevent electric hazard at home
one positive) will attract each other.

 Objects with like charges (both negative or

both positive) will repel each other.

 You also learned that the build-up of electrical

charges in one place is called STATIC
ELECTRICITY.

What is the difference between open and closed

circuits?

Circuit:

A closed-loop path of conduction through which an

electric current flows

Open circuit:

An incomplete path that will not permit an electric

current to flow