RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

“Method” plainly means a particular procedure for accomplishing or approaching

something, especially a systematic or established one. Thus methodology can be understood as a
set of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information
about a topic. It is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study.
It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a
branch of knowledge.
Researchers’ most important methodological choice is based on the distinction between
qualitative and quantitative data, i.e., whether it would collect descriptive or quantifiable data.
Before the research begins, it is important to decide whether data collection methods
would be qualitative or quantitative. Verifying existing theories or hypotheses, questioning them,
or measuring variables conveys that quantitative methods are adopted. In contrast, any attempt to
collect statistical data, numbers, or relative data means that one has to adopt quantitative
methods.
The research process addresses two major questions, i.e., what is to be found and how it
is to be found. It is like planning a journey where we first decide where we are going and then
decide how we will be traveling. We have to identify important stopovers and routes,
checkpoints, and modes available to reach the destination.
The steps involved in finding responses to the research questions comprise research
methodology. At each operational step in the research process, one must choose from a variety of
methods, procedures, and models of research methodology that help you best achieve the
objectives.

The following aspects need to be considered to determine the appropriate research process:
o Whether the research being conducted to address a function within or an external one?
o What sorts of method/s are to be used to collect data?
o What method of analysis should be used?
o What are the objectives?
o Whether the methods used appropriately for the research?

FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

According to Bryman (2007), in “The Research Question in Social Research: What is its
Role?” a research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern,
a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists
in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation.
A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad
proposition, or present a value question. It is not always easy to formulate the research problem
simply and clearly. It may take years to decide for some and just a few minutes for others to
decide on the research problem to be studied. The social issues may provide a broader prospect,
but they may not suggest a specific one.

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 For example, understanding the economic background of a society may not address the
issues of unemployment in the same society; therefore, unemployment needs to be studied
differently and individually to assess the underlying problems. The availability of resources like
money, time, manpower, etc., also affects the selection of research problems.

Some sources of Research Problems may be identified as follows:

o Personal Experiences
o Media: Documentation on various issues, live coverage, panel discussions, etc.
o Resources: Literature such as books, journals, news articles, periodicals, etc., may
facilitate the researcher in identifying a relevant problem based on the area of interest.
o Government/Official Records: The orders passed by the government. The decisions
given in various cases by the courts, the petitions, and surveys conducted become
important sources to shortlist fingerprints in abrader problems.
o People: A group of individuals may be studied to understand how they behave, how
they respond to a particular situation, or what responses are generated when they are
influenced from within or outside the group.
o Discussions: A researcher may be able to conclude to identify a research problem by
discussing the perspectives with peers, colleagues, seniors in the field, guides, etc.
o Problems: It may be decided to examine the existence of certain issues or problems
relating to society, science, or any subject in reference.
o Programs: These may be used to evaluate the effectiveness of an interference,
involvement, or intrusion.
o Phenomena: To establish the existence of regularity and to understand if a procedure
would yield similar results over time when used repetitively. This includes causes and
effects and relationships between variables.
o Ideas from external sources
o Interdisciplinary Perspectives

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which your research
is centered, gradually leading the reader to the more specific issues you are investigating. The
statement need not be lengthy, but a good research problem should incorporate the following
features:
1. Persuasive Topic: The problem that is taken up for research should be of ample
interest to the researcher and the one that is continuously motivating to ensure
consistent efforts to find a solution. The significance is greatly reduced if the idea is
just to get some superficial knowledge about the problem and not lead the researcher
to resolve it.
2. Viability: A problem that has been identified to be studied should be decided based on
whether it is possible to be resolved or has some previous know-how to guide the
researcher to move ahead. A problem that has not been foreseen earlier may be
selected, but then the resources available should be considered.

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 3. The So What Test: A research problem should be able to pass the “So What” test, as
in social research, to ascertain the meaningfulness and relevance of studying a
particular problem. If the problem does not result, that may lead to further study or
analysis; it has to be avoided.

According to Kumar (2011) in “Research Methodology: A Step-by-step Guide for

Beginners,” a few more considerations that assist a researcher in ensuring that the study will
remain manageable and that you will remain motivated are:
a. Interest: a research endeavor is usually time-consuming and involves hard work and
possibly unforeseen problems. One should select a topic of great interest to sustain the
required motivation.
b. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the
time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable,
specific, and clear.
c. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
d. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have an adequate level of expertise for the task
you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
e. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges
current gaps, and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain your
interest in the study.
f. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
g. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical
problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating
stage.

A research problem needs a closer look into the following aspects:

1. Study population: The People, i.e., individuals, organizations, groups, and
communities as they, either provide the information required or help in collecting the
information about them.
2. Subject area:
a. Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles, etc.
b. Program: content, structure, outcomes, attributes satisfaction, consumers, Service
providers, etc.
c. Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself, i.e.,
the information you need to collect to find answers to your research questions and
anything that looks noteworthy.

Statement of Research Problem: A research problem statement must be adequate as

different people may interpret it in many ways and draw inferences that the researcher has not
even thought of. It has to be established that this statement leads only in a single direction and
leads to where one wants to reach. This would also avoid new generalized issues arising out of
work.
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 For a problem statement to be effective, it should have the characteristics listed below
(Andrew & Hildebrand, 1982):
1. The problem reflects felt needs.
2. The problem is non-hypothetical, i.e., it must be based on factual evidence.
3. It should suggest meaningful and testable hypotheses - to avoid answers that are of
little or no use to alleviate the problem.
4. The problems should be relevant and manageable.
5. Therefore, the problem statement is a very important device for keeping you on track
with your research. It is also one means by which your research will be evaluated -
does the research address the problem as stated.

PROCESS OF FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

An appropriate statement of the research problem would need the researcher to follow
certain steps to arrive at the expected outcome with the addition of reasonable new knowledge.
1. Developing a Conceptual Framework
2. Referring to the Available Literature on the Problem
3. The Formulation of Objectives

1. DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: The researcher has to

conceptualize, identify and select a broad discipline before shortlisting the final aspects to be
studied. Then it is to find out which of these aspects generate the maximum interest and lead one
to work with enthusiasm and perseverance. Assimilate the questions that would address the
problem adequately and formulate objectives that correspond to these questions.
For example, an upcoming hotel‘s project report would include feasibility studies, market
and competitor evaluation, budgetary and human resources requirements, approvals, and
licensing needed.

2. REFERRING TO THE AVAILABLE LITERATURE ON THE PROBLEM: An

extensive literature reference is necessary to find the available information about the identified
problem. It assists in understanding the earlier work done in a similar area and prevents the
chances of doing repetitive work. It is the study of available knowledge in the field, especially
from the perspective of the problem stated by the researcher. It provides a description, summary,
and critical evaluation of these works related to the investigated research problem.
To carry out a review of literature, you need to locate, read, and evaluate research
documents, reports, theses, and other sources of academic materials. Review done for one
particular research process must be extensive and thorough because it is aimed at obtaining a
detailed account of the problem being studied.
For example, when it comes to resolving customer issues in a hotel, the individuals come
up with and resolve them in different ways as per the situation; thus, someone who is new to the
field may discuss and understand the nitty-gritty of developing his ideas to handle such issue
coping up in future. The reservation manager studies the historical occupancy patterns for the
last two to three years to forecast the business volumes for the coming seasons.

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The reference to the available literature and the reviewing it has the following advantages:
a. Brings clarity and focus to the research problem: Available literature review also
helps you to clearly understand the problem stated and issues that may need extra attention
during the actual process. It brings clarity and objectivity to the research problem and enables the
researcher to understand the relationship between the research problem & the body of knowledge
in the area. Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting, and frustrating but rewarding.
b. Improves the methodology: A review of literature enlightens us if others have used
procedures and methods similar to the ones that are being proposed, which procedures and
methods have yielded better results, and what problems they have come across in the process.
This assures that the researcher would be in an advantageous position to pick a methodology
capable of providing valid answers to the research questions.
c. Expands knowledge base in the research area: This is a step in the direction of the
researcher becoming more aware and having in-depth knowledge in the area of research as
expected once the study is completed. It prompts the researcher to read extensively about the
subject area in which the research study is being conducted. It develops the individual’s expertise
to effectively contribute at later stages when an opportunity is available. It also helps to
understand how the study’s findings fit into the on-hand body of knowledge.
d. Contextualizes your findings: It gives a base to add contexts to the question being
raised and the problem being addressed. This clears the air around whatever is presented in the
form of findings by giving notations and references on how it has progressed from there, what
contribution the researcher made and how the findings differ from what has already been done.

Procedure for reviewing the literature:

a. Explore the existing literature in your area of study;
b. Review the literature selected;
c. Develop a theoretical framework;
d. Develop a conceptual framework.

a. Explore the available literature: To search for literature in the field of inquiry
effectively, there must be at least some idea of the broad subject area and the problem to be
investigated to set parameters for your search. A bibliography compilation follows it for this
broad area via books, periodicals, and journals.
BOOKS: The books encompass the central part of any bibliography.
Advantage: material published generally is of good quality, and the findings are
integrated with other research to form a coherent body of knowledge.
Disadvantage: material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years between
the completion of work and publication in the form of a book.
The researcher has to look for books in the area of interest, prepare a final list, locate
these books in the libraries, borrow from other sources, and examine their content. If the content
is not relevant to the topic, it should be removed from the comprehension list.
JOURNALS: Journals provide the most up-to-date information, even though there may
be a gap of a few years between completing a research project and its publication in a journal.
Like the referred books, you need to prepare a list of journals to identify literature relevant to the
study. This can be done by locating the hard copies of the journals appropriate to the study, using
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the internet, and looking at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and
read the articles.
The journals have to be carefully selected for relevance and appropriation to the field of
study to save time and resources. The content page and the paper’s abstract would give a clear
idea of the article or paper being relevant to the issue. If it is so and it has to be used, get an
online copy, a photocopy, or prepare a summary and record it for reference for later use.

b. Review the literature chosen: The selected literature has to be critically studied and
examined to derive associations between the problem being studied and themes discussed in the
works done earlier.
The researcher can write down the findings separately for each sub-areas or sub-topics
that are relevant to be compiled later. These findings may then be put into a table format based
on these variables or themes for easier comparison and easier analysis. As the reading and
referencing progress further, tabulate the information where it logically belongs under the
premise so far developed.
More themes or variables may be added as per the need for study and relevant
information availability. It also helps identify prior scholarship areas to prevent duplication, give
credit to other researchers, and recognize inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous
studies, and open questions left from other research.

Read critically with particular reference to the following aspects:

o Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed
beyond doubt.
o Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the
methodologies adopted, and their criticisms.
o Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations. Ascertain
the areas in which little or nothing is known- the gaps in the body of knowledge.

c. Develop a theoretical framework: A theoretical framework consists of concepts and

their definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature and existing theory used for a
particular study. This framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts
relevant to the research study and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.
The theoretical framework is generally not found to be an integral part of the literature.
The researcher must review course readings and significant research studies for theories and
logical models that are pertinent to the research problem being investigated. The selection of a
theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

A strong theoretical framework has the following advantages:

1. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge.
2. A clear statement of theoretical assumptions allows the reader to evaluate them
critically.
3. A relevant theory provides a basis for the hypotheses and choice of research methods.
4. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of
interest.
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 5. It highlights the need to inspect how these key variables might be at variance and
under conditions.
6. It addresses the important questions of why and how.
7. It permits the researcher to intellectually switch from simply describing a phenomenon
being observed to generalizing the varied aspects of that phenomenon.
8. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to the generalizations.

As the researcher has limited time, it is important to set parameters by reviewing the
literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your research topic. As one starts reading
the literature, one realizes that it deals with several aspects that directly and indirectly impact the
research topic. These can be used as a base for developing the theoretical framework.
Therefore, we can conclude that the theoretical framework and literature review
complement each other. A theoretical framework cannot be developed if we do not look into the
literature. Conversely, if we do not have a good theoretical framework, it is impossible to do an
effective review of the literature.

Literature significant to your study may deal with two types of information:
o Universal: Generally available and applicable.
o Specific: Applicable to issue/problem.

Types of Literature:
Primary Literature: Primary sources mean original study, based on direct observation,
statistical records, interviews, or experimental methods, of actual practices or the actual impact
of practices or policies. Researchers authored them, contain original research data, and are
usually published in a peer-reviewed journal. Primary literature may also include conference
papers, pre-prints, or preliminary reports.
Printed Literature Sources:
o Diaries o Autobiographies o Legal cases and treaties
o Letters o Eyewitnesses o Scientific data, transcripts
o Speeches o Oral histories o Theses and dissertations
o Patents o Literary works o Correspondence: email,
o Photographs o Interviews letters
o Newspaper articles o Journal articles o Cartoons, postcards,
posters
o Journal articles o Personal narratives
o Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls)
o Proceedings of meetings, conferences, and symposia
o Original Documents (i.e., birth certificates, wills, marriage licenses, trial transcripts)
o First-hand newspaper and magazine accounts of events
o Statistics, surveys, opinion polls,
o Records of organizations and government agencies
o Original works of literature, art, or music
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 o Records of organizations and government agencies (e.g., annual reports, treaties,
constitutions, government documents)

Electronic Sources of Literature:

o Internet o Audio recordings (e.g., radio
o E-mail communication programs)
o Web sites o Communications through social
networking applications (e.g.,
o Interviews (e.g., telephone, e-mail) Facebook, blogs, RSS, YouTube,
o Video recordings (e.g., television etc.)
programs)

Secondary Literature: Secondary literature consists of interpretations, and an evaluation

derived from or refers to the primary source literature. Examples include review articles (meta-
analysis and systematic reviews) and reference works. Professionals within each discipline take
the primary literature and synthesize, generalize, and integrate new research.
A secondary source of information was created by someone who did not have first-hand
experience or did not participate in the events or conditions being researched. They are generally
accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. Secondary sources describe, analyze,
interpret, evaluate, comment on and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources.

o Bibliographies (also considered o Biographies, encyclopedias,

tertiary) dictionaries, handbooks
o Biographical works o Textbooks & monographs on a topic
o Commentaries o Literary criticism & interpretation
o Criticisms o History & historical criticism
o Dictionaries o Political analyses
o Histories o Reviews of law and legislation
o Journal articles (depending on the o Essays on morals and ethics
discipline, these can be primary) o Analyses of social policy
o Magazine and newspaper articles o Study and teaching material
(this distinction varies by discipline)
o Articles, such as literature reviews,
o Monographs, other than fiction and
autobiography o Commentaries, research articles in
all subject disciplines
o Textbooks (also considered tertiary)
o Criticism of works of literature, art,
o Websites (also considered primary) and music

Tertiary Literature: Tertiary literature consists of the distillation and collecting of

primary and secondary sources such as textbooks, encyclopedia articles, and guidebooks or
handbooks. The purpose of tertiary literature is to provide an overview of key research findings
and introduce principles and practices within the discipline.
In writing about such information, you should start with the general information,
gradually narrowing it down to the specific.
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 o Chronologies o Directories o Bibliographies
o Classifications o Factbooks o Manuals/Guidebooks
o Dictionaries o Abstracts o Population registers
statistics
o Encyclopedias o Indexes

Writing up the literature review: To comply with the first function of literature review,
i.e., to provide a theoretical background to your study:
o Enlist the main themes and give them appropriate headings that are highlighted while
going through the available literature.
o Change the main headings into precise, descriptive subheadings of the theme in
question, and follow a logical progression.
o Record the significant findings under these subheadings regarding the theme in
question, highlight the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identify
gaps and issues.

To conform to the second function of the literature review of contextualizing the study’s
findings, the researcher should systematically compare the findings with those made by others.
Quote from these studies to show how the results contradict, corroborate, or add. It places your
findings in the context of what others have found out. This function is useful when writing about
your findings, i.e., after analyzing your data.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY: The etymology of this term can be semantically traced back to
the New Latin bibliographia. It is a Greek word meaning “copying of books.”
bibli (books) and graphia - graphy (writing)
The concept was in practice by Greek writers in the first three centuries AD and was
referred to as copying books by hand. By the turn of the 12th century, the concept took a literal
form and was referred to as the intellectual practice of compiling books and materials. However,
the modern-day notion of bibliographies only took off in the 17th century.
A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used (whether referenced or not) in
researching your work. In general, a bibliography should include the authors’ names, the titles of
the works, and the names and locations of the companies that published the copies of sources.
The bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the sources used while preparing
the report. It is an alphabetical list as per the author’s surname.

Standard Bibliography Format

Bibliography Format for a Book: A standard bibliography for a book typically consists
of the following information:
a. Author(s) c. Publisher
b. Title d. Date of Publication
Example: Surname of author, name or two initials, the title taken from title page-
underlined or in italics, Edition (if more than one), volume if more than one, place of publication,
publishers, the date on the title page or copyright date.

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 E.g., Kothari, C.R., Research Methods - Methods and Techniques, 1989, New Delhi:
Wiley Eastern Limited, 4835/24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 006.

Bibliography Format for a Periodical & Journal Article: An entry for a journal or
periodical article contains the following information:
a. Author(s) c. Journal Title e. Pages
b. Article Title d. Volume Number f. Date of Publication

Bibliography Format for Internet Sources: The format for internet sources usually
includes the following information:
a) Author (Website) d) Version f) Location (Digital
Object Identifier –
b) Article Title e) Date of Publication
DOI or URL)
c) Publication
Information

3. THE FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES: The objectives accurately describe the

specific actions you will take to reach the aim. An objective is measurable and operational. It
tells specific things you will accomplish in your project.
The objective should be as clearly and crisply stated as possible. Usually, only one or at
the most two objectives should be taken up in one study. If there are more than two objectives,
then it may be appropriate to address the additional objectives through a separate study.
Objectives are the goals set out to attain in a study.
o They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.
o It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.

Characteristics of Objectives:
1. Specific: Precisely what you mean to achieve.
2. Important: Indicate the relevance/importance of the study.
3. Measurable: What you would do/measure in terms of studying an issue.
4. Practical: They should offer a solution to a problem.
5. Realistic: Vague objectives should be avoided. Any objective that is not practically
achievable should be ignored.
6. Feasible: The researcher should be able to practice and perform as per the stated
objectives.
7. Evaluable: These objectives set forth for study have to be such that they can be
evaluated in different situations using research tools.

The objectives should be SMART:

o S - specific o R - relevant
o M - measurable o T - time bound
o A - achievable
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Objectives should be listed under two headings:
a. Main objectives: The main objective is an overall statement or the driving force of a
study. It also states the main associations and relationships you search for and discover
or establish the relationships.
b. Sub-objectives/Specific objectives: The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the
problem or the issue to be investigated within the main framework of your study.
o They should be numerically listed.
o Wording should be clear, complete, and specific to communicate the purpose and
intention to the researcher.
o Each objective should contain only one facet of the study.
o Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.

The objectives should start with words such as:

 ‘to determine’  ‘to ascertain’  ‘to explore,’ etc.
 ‘to find out’  ‘to measure’

The wording of objectives also helps understand and identify the type of research
(descriptive, correlational, and experimental) and the type of research design you need to adopt
to achieve them.

For Example:
Descriptive studies:
o To describe the types of incentives provided by Hotel XYZ to employees in
Manila.
o To find out the employees’ opinions about the medical facilities provided by five-
star hotels in Manila.

Correlational studies:
o To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.
o To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programs on repeat clientele.

Hypothesis–testing studies:
o To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of
drug/alcohol abuse.
o To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in
Mumbai hotels will reduce staff turnover.

It is important to ensure that respondents’ variability of understanding of an issue is

reduced to a minimum by being clear about what is being asked and the probable responses. If
the respondents are confused or have too many options to choose from, the study shall become
extensive and, at times, uncontrolled, thus affecting the outcome.
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 When people communicate their views, feelings, or preferences, it is usually based on
certain beliefs and guidelines preset in their minds. The conclusion is based upon indicators that
lead them to develop and express a certain opinion. But all this needs clarity in understanding the
pros and cons, the rights and wrongs, and advantages or disadvantages so that the conclusion
derived may be justified. Thus, variables that may affect a particular decision have to be
measurable with being knowledgeable at the same time.
For example:
o Jet Airways is a perfect example of quality cabin service.
o The food in this restaurant is excellent.
o The young generation in the Philippines is getting more prosperous in a shorter time.

Defining a Variable:
An image, perception, or concept that can be measured; hence capable of taking on
different values- is called a variable. A variable is also defined as anything with a quantity or
quality that varies.

Types of Variables:
o The dependent variable is the variable a researcher is interested in.
o An independent variable is a variable believed to affect the dependent variable.
o Confounding variables are defined as interference caused by another variable.

The difference between a concept and a variable:

Concepts are mental images or perceptions, and therefore everyone may develop a
different view or perception about the same issue. A concept cannot be measured, whereas a
variable can be subjected to measurement by crude/refined or subjective/objective units of
measurement. It is therefore important for the concept to be converted into variables.
Concepts are highly subjective in nature, and that makes it difficult to use them “as they
are” in a research study. These subjective thoughts cannot be measured on a statistical scale.
Kumar (2000) says that concepts are mental images and, therefore, their meanings vary markedly
from individual to individual.
Concepts are subjective impressions, and their understanding will differ from person to
person, which, if measured, would cause problems in comparing responses. Concepts should be
converted into variables to be measured, although, on different scales, the same variable will
have different precision.
If the researcher uses some concepts in their research, they need to find some indicators
that reflect these concepts. The researcher can choose these indicators subjectively, but they
should have a logical link with the concept. The indicators can then be converted into variables.

Concepts, indicators, and variables: If a concept has to be used in a study for inference,
the researchers have to find out how it will be measured, and the indicators used so that the
information can be converted into variables. The choice of indicators for a concept might vary
with researchers, but those selected must have a logical link with the concept.

Measurement Scales: The greater the refinement in the unit of measurement of a

variable, the greater the confidence, other things being equal, one can place in the findings.
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S. S. Stevens has classified the different types into four categories:
o Nominal or classificatory scale o Interval scale
o Ordinal or ranking scale o Ratio scale

The nominal or classificatory scale: A nominal scale enables classifying individuals,

objects, or responses into subgroups based on a common/shared property or characteristic. A
variable measured on a nominal scale may have one, two, or more sub-categories depending
upon the extent of variation.
For example, the variable ‘gender’ can be classified into two sub-categories: male and
female. ‘Hotels’ can be classified into sub-categories like luxury, medium, or economical based
on the service offered by the hotel. The sequence in which subgroups are listed makes no
difference as subgroups have no relationship.

The ordinal or ranking scale: Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a

property into subgroups on the basis of common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a certain
order.
They are arranged either in ascending or descending order according to the extent a sub-
category reflects the magnitude of variation in the variable.
For example, ‘income’ can be measured either quantitatively (in peso and dollar) or
qualitatively using sub-categories ‘above-average,’ ‘average,’ and ‘below average’. The
‘distance’ between these sub-categories is not equal as there is no quantitative unit of
measurement. ‘Socioeconomic status’ and ‘attitude’ are other variables that can be measured on
an ordinal scale.

The interval scale: An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In
addition, it uses a unit of measurement with arbitrary starting and terminating points.
For example: Measuring the temperatures:
Celsius scale: 0°C to 100°C
Fahrenheit scale: 32°F to 212°F
Attitudinal scales: 10-20, 21-30, 31-40 etc

The ratio scale: A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval
scales plus its own property: the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed
starting point. Since the difference between intervals is always measured from a zero point, this
scale can be used for mathematical operations. The measurement of variables like income, age,
height, and weight are examples of this scale. A person who is 40 years old is twice as old as one
who is 20 years old.

References
Kumar, R. (2014). Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners, Sage
Publication.
Kothari, C.R. (2011). Research Methodology, New Age International.
Shajahan, S. (2004). Research Methods for Management.
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Activity 03: CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Define Variable.
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2. How will you ensure accuracy in measuring a variable?

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NOTE:

*Write your answers in a long-sized bond paper with your Name, Course, Year-Section.
* Font Style: Times New Roman; Font Size: 12; Line Spacing: Double; Margins: 1 inch on
all sides.
* Convert the msWord (docx) file to pdf file format.
*Submit your file in a PDF file format as much as possible.
*Name your file using your SURNAME_Activity03, and submit it before the deadline in
our VLE platform.
* GOODLUCK!

SUBMISSION DATE: On or before May 31, 2022 (Tuesday)

Late Submission will have a corresponding point deduction.

TIME: Until 10:00 A.M.

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