Critical Multiculturalism

10/23/2014 Curriculum & Schooling: Multiculturalism, Critical Multiculturalism and Critical Pedagogy
Category: Vol. 4, 2011
Curriculum & Schooling: Multiculturalism, Critical

Multiculturalism and Critical Pedagogy
Written by Delphina Hopkins-Gillispie, Ph.D
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Schools exist to prepare young people for the future. Throughout that future, students will be exposed
to a multiethnic societal curriculum. How they perceive the curriculum, how it affects their beliefs and
attitudes, and how it influences their interethnic behavior will, to a great extent, be a result of today’s
schools preparing them to be multiethnically literate (Banks & Banks, 2008).
Changing schools to reflect the ethnic diversity within American society provides a tremendous
opportunity to implement the kinds of significant curriculum reforms —including conceptual teaching,
interdisciplinary approaches to the study of social issues, and value inquiry. Such change also provides
opportunities for student involvement in social action and social participation activities. Thus,
multicultural education/critical multiculturalism can serve as a vehicle for general and substantial
educational reform. This is probably its greatest promise. We can best view multicultural
education/critical multiculturalism as a process as well as a reform movement that will result in a new
type of schooling, presenting novel views of the American experience and helping students acquire the
knowledge, skills, and commitments needed to make our nation and our world more responsive to the
human condition. In the following sections of this article, I will provide a definition and overview of
various approaches to multicultural education, describe its potential to reform schools, and illustrate
how these goals may be achieved in the classroom, with a particular focus on the training of preservice
teachers.
An Overview of Multicultural Education
Multicultural education has become the common term used to describe the type of pluralist education
that its advocates are seeking for all children receiving an education. Supporters of multicultural
education (e.g., Banks, 2008; Sleeter & Grant, 2003) claim that, at the societal level, its major goals
are to reduce prejudice and discrimination against oppressed groups, to work toward equal opportunity
and social justice for all groups, and to effect an equitable distribution of power among members of
different cultural groups (Sleeter, 1996). Within the field of education, Banks (1993) views the
primary goal of multicultural education as transforming schools so that “all students will acquire the
knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function in an ethnically and racially diverse nation and
world” (p. 28). In what is perhaps the most comprehensive definition of multicultural education, Sonia
Nieto (2000a) states:
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multicultural education is a process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all
students. It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and
accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, and gender among
others) that students, their communities, and teachers reflect. Multicultural education permeates the
schools’ curriculum and instructional strategies, as well as the interactions among teachers, students
and families, and the very way that schools conceptualize the nature of teaching and learning. Because
it uses critical pedagogy as its underlying philosophy and focuses on knowledge, reflection, and action
as the basis for social change, multicultural education promotes democratic principles of social justice.
(p. 305)
Multicultural education relates to the recognition of values, lifestyles, and symbolic representations.
Bennett’s (1999) definition of multicultural education provides a foundational explanation to an
approach to teaching and learning that, from her point of view, is:
based upon democratic values and beliefs, and affirms cultural pluralism within culturally diverse
societies … It is based on the assumption that the primary goal of public education is to foster the
intellectual, social, and personal development of virtually all students to their highest potential.
Multicultural education . . . [includes] . . . the movement toward equity, curriculum reform, the
process of becoming interculturally competent, and the commitment to combat prejudice and
discrimination, especially racism. (p. 11)
Although the promises of multicultural policies are, for the most part, yet to be realized, multicultural
education continues to focus on adaptation of the schools to the idea of multicultural education
(Ghaffari, 2000). Thus, one of the more effective ways to implement multicultural education in the
schools is by preparing preservice teachers in the theory and practice of multicultural education.
Multiculturalism, an established discipline in the field of education, manifests a body of knowledge,

texts, and curricula (Banks, 1993; Bennett, 1999; Gay, 2004; Giroux, 1983). Despite the debate about
the nature and goals of multicultural education, the discipline has carved out a place in the minds and
hearts of educators. An examination of the literature on critical multiculturalism leads to questions
about multiculturalism and critical pedagogy: How might these constructs contribute to the ways we
think about curriculum and education? And what are the implications for curriculum in general and
teacher education in particular? To better understand the various conceptualizations of multicultural
education, I briefly discuss traditional and liberal multiculturalism, and provide an explanation of
critical multiculturalism, connecting it to critical pedagogy that has been a focus in classrooms.
The Traditional Multicultural Perspective
The traditional perspective is often called conservative multiculturalism in education. Socially, it refers
to an antagonistic tension between the recognition of diversity, with the risk of fragmentation, and the
necessity of defining a common society with the affirmation of a national identity. Traditional
multicultural tenets tend to see culture as fixed, essentialist, and predetermined (Taguieff, 1997).
Traditionalists are concerned primarily with the expeditious transmission of the cultural heritage of the
dominant society through the fixed body of knowledge and the perpetuation of the existing social order
(Banks & Banks, 2007). Individuals such as Franklin Bobbitt, Ralph Tyler, E.D. Hirsch, and advocates
of “back to basics” curricula fall into this category. What one assumes as being a universal culture is
the manifestation of Western-centrism. This view has failed to “promote a systematic critique of the
ideology of ‘Westernness’ that is ascendant in curriculum and pedagogical practices in education…
[although its] proponents articulate a language of inclusion” (McCarthy, 1994, p. 89). In fact, the
consequences are the perpetuation of established groups’ hegemony and the marginalization of
disadvantaged or segregated groups. In education, traditional multiculturalism favors the reproduction
of the value of the mainstream society or “cultural production” (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1970). From the
traditional perspective, neither mechanisms of racism nor ethnocentric biases regarding Westernness
or Eurocentrism are requestioned. Hence, from the traditional perspective, the world is as it is.
Conservative Critiques of Multicultural Education
The target of conservative critics is not the multicultural education literature itself; their targets are
curricular changes and policies being instituted in schools and universities on a wide scale. Their point
of contention is not so much whether education should be multicultural but what that should mean.
Ratvitch (1990) insists that the curriculum is already multicultural because “the common culture is
multicultural” (p. 10). Stotsky (1991) optimistically explains that reasonable citizens “should applaud
the integration of non-Western cultures and the histories of various minorities—women, Hispanics,
Blacks, Native Indian communities—into our schools’ curricula” (p. 26).
The main concern of conservative critics is that schools and universities are responding to diversity in
an increasingly harmful manner, and that damaging ideas increasingly drive public education, with
“myths of multiculturalism fed to all school children by a state monopoly that is masquerading behind
the values of tolerance, diversity, and pluralism” (Stotsky, 1991, p. 26). Furthermore, this “spread of
new multicultural perspectives throughout schools has taken place without much notice” (Gray, 1991,
p. 13). The public needs to be aware of perilous changes in schools (Gay, 2004) and of dangerous
effects of U.S. immigration policies (Auster, 1992). These circumstances lead to changes in schools’
demographics, and teachers need to be prepared to be sensitive to the cultural diversity in their
classrooms that results from these changes.
The Liberal Multicultural Perspective
Liberal multicultural education values cultural pluralism, which is, according to Bennett (1999):
an ideal state of societal conditions characterized by equity and mutual respect among existing cultural
groups. It contrasts sharply with cultural assimilation or “melting pot” images, where ethnic minorities
are expected to give up their traditions and blend in or be absorbed in the mainstream society or
predominant culture. (p. 11)
According to Grant (1994), multicultural education proposes to adapt curricula, teaching styles,
learning strategies, and communication between school and families. Also, it favors the adaptation of
schools to the needs of students and parents. Most teachers who abide by the established practices of
liberal multiculturalism try to incorporate some aspects of cultural diversity (such as diversity of
religion) into their curriculum, support bilingual education, believe in the typology of racism, and
reflect on the impact of ethnocentrism.
Based on the willingness to diversify the curriculum and add cultural content, this approach favors
differences and similarities without trivializing and folklorizing cultures proposed in the curriculum. In
such a reality, teachers will need to be prepared to understand students from different backgrounds, to
teach content that does not represent mainstream culture only, and to learn to communicate with
parents. This position sees culture not as fixed and essentialist, as in the traditional position, but as
dynamic and flexible. From the liberal perspective, mechanisms of racism requestion the social
construction of superiority and inferiority, discrimination, and exclusion based on physical or ethnic
differences, whereas ethnocentric biases revisit the perspective of universality. Hence, from the liberal
perspective, the world might be different.
Critical Multicultural Perspective
Historically, multicultural studies have encouraged us to advocate traditionally underrepresented and

excluded cultures and to consider them in their own right rather than through the lens of any single
culture (Giroux, 1983). Critical multicultural education encourages students to see in a variety of ways
so that they may begin to understand the complex web of intersectional and intercultural relationships
in the United States today. Contemporary scholars have called for a modification of traditional
multicultural education toward a critical multiculturalism that seeks to promote democratic initiatives
in curriculum, pedagogy, and social relations in the schools (McLaren, 2003). Critical multiculturalism
promotes understanding and participating in a diverse society and supports the efforts directed toward
attaining social, cultural and emotional harmony.
Critical multiculturalism suggests that, as teachers/learners, we each give ourselves to the process of
transformation through our own personal means and in dialog with others (Freire, 1998).
Transformation requires teachers to be “impatiently patient” and to become actors in our own
development as human beings (Freire, 1994). Slowly, patiently, and with agency, transformation
congeals around the central theme of developing a political economy of historical agency (Freire,
1998).
Critical multiculturalism is to be understood as referring to multicultural education operating on the

notion that both the teacher and student in the classroom must have the flexibility to draw on the well-
ground of history and on the variety of cultural resources that fan out across the myriad groups that
make up society and the world. In promoting this framework, I challenge the tendency toward
lukewarm curriculum programs of cultural pluralism that are associated with models of multicultural
education. A critical multiculturalism also seeks to safeguard the idea that teachers and students are
products, not simply consumers, of knowledge, while at the same time pointing to the social interests
and purposes that are implicated in the school curriculum.
Criticizing modern society, Sleeter and Grant (1994) aimed at “the elimination of oppression of one
group of people by another” and expressed their hope “that the entire educational program is
redesigned to reflect the concerns of diverse cultural groups” (p. 209). This perspective recommends
that all students take into consideration all aspects of educational practices—including curriculum
concerns, instruction, different aspects of the classroom, and support for the regular classroom—to
include as much diversity as possible. Other school-wide features can “involve students in democratic
decision making...involve lower-class and minority parents actively...involve schools in local
community action projects...[and] include diverse racial, gender, and disability groups in non-
traditional roles” (p. 211). Sleeter and Grant (1994) argue that school goals have to “prepare citizens to
work actively toward social structural equality; promote cultural pluralism and alternative life styles;
[and] promote equal opportunity in the school” (p. 211). Although some authors have insisted that the
development of learning skills is necessary for students to become critical, conscious, and socially
active, others have focused on establishing congruence between what happens inside and outside the
classrooms regarding students’ sociocultural backgrounds. For them, multicultural education is
political or social reconstructionism. Therefore, the movement toward equity targets issues of
accessibility to a rich and sound curriculum, within which all students will represent themselves when
they attend school and, later, when they project their active and successful lives as wise citizens
refuting predeterminism.
From the critical-radical perspective, racial and ethnocentric biases are not only requestioned but also
involved in transformative actions regarding all aspects of educational practices and social changes
that are pluriethnic, pluricultural, democratic, equitable, and inclusive. Hence, from the critical-radical
perspective, the world must change. The process of becoming a multiculturally competent teacher
includes the commitment to denounce stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination, as well as racist
attitudes and ethnocentric biases toward transformative actions at school and in society, which may
lead to problems in traditional classrooms where multicultural educational issues are not addressed.
According to the literature, though the debate over multiculturalism in education rages on, many
critical educators have spent years developing a critical multiculturalist’s pedagogy. Objectives of a
critical multicultural approach include: (1) altering traditional student-teacher power relations; (2)
emphasizing and nurturing an appreciation for diversity and global processes; and (3) facilitating a
democratic and inclusive classroom environment. Overall, practicing critical multiculturalism in the
classroom alters the traditional student-teacher power relations, nurtures an appreciation for an
understanding of diversity, and empowers students to think critically about the world in which they
live.
The critical aspect of this perspective of multiculturalism is found in its move beyond the goals of a
promotion of pluralism and an appreciation of diversity to providing students with the tools to critique
the relationship between power and knowledge and the related discourses that hold down certain
members of society. A critical approach to multicultural reform needs to make salient connections
between knowledge and power. Such an approach would bring the entire range of traditional and
contemporary arrangements within schools, and between schools and communities, into focus for
reexamination with a view toward transformation. Thus, in both theory and practice, the ideas of
critical pedagogy are a part of critical multiculturalism (McLaren, 2003).
Multiculturalism and Critical Pedagogy
Critical pedagogy is concerned with the use of power in the teaching and learning dynamic, such as
what knowledge is produced and by whom it is selected. It is also concerned with ways to provide
students with means to resist oppression, improve their lives, and strengthen the democratic process
for everyone, thus insuring progressive social change and social justice. According to McLaren (2003),
critical pedagogy is concerned with a critique of society, around issues of power and developing
students’ critical abilities to work toward the transformation of society. McLaren also suggests that
critical pedagogy focuses on the relationship between educational ideas, policies, practices, and larger
oppressive political and ideological perspectives. Teachers using this approach engage students in
critical questioning of their own beliefs and assumptions (deMarrais & LeCompte, 1992). Since
Freire’s revolutionary work Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970), radical (critical/feminist/multicultural)
educators have endeavored to change the face of education by democratizing the student-teacher
power relations into a more emancipatory form and by including the work and experiences of
previously under- or unrepresented groups (Giroux, 1988a). Critical pedagogy tends to take a
theoretical and political approach to education, focusing on the needs and autonomy of individual
students and emphasizing the importance of critical thinking (Freire, 1970, 1985, 1994; Giroux, 1983,
1988b; McLaren & Hammer, 1989; Shor, 1980, 1992). While feminist and multicultural educators
share these theoretical and political concerns, they concentrate on linking macro-social elements of
gender, racial/ethnic, and sexual discrimination and oppression with the micro-social elements of the
classroom (Aptheker, 1993; hooks, 1994; Kanpol, 1995; Lewis, 2001; Luke, 1994; Maher & Tetrault,
1994; McLaren, 2005; Rich, 1979; Scanlon, 1993; Schieder, 1993; Spelman, 1985).
Critical pedagogy and liberatory praxis theories have become a focus in classrooms at the university
level (hooks, 1994; Giroux, 1988b). Obidah (2000) defines critical pedagogy as a “systematic
interrogation of schools and schooling processes that enables educators to see terrains not simply as
sites of instruction or as arenas of indoctrination and socialization but as cultural terrains that promote
and/or negate student empowerment and teachers’ self-transformation” (p. 1040). Giroux (1988b)
states that critical pedagogy “takes into consideration how the symbolic and material transactions of
the everyday provide the basis for rethinking how people give meaning and ethical substance to their
experiences and voices” (p. 10). This type of pedagogy begins with human agency, with a view of
teachers as transformative intellectuals who usurp traditional notions of power and authority in the
classroom and allow intellectual and critical spaces to exist wherein students may make meaning and
find power for themselves (Obidah, 2000).
The creation of critical spaces is fundamentally tied to the struggle for a qualitatively better life for all
through the construction of a society based on social justice—a shared goal of multicultural education
(Banks, 2008). McLaren (1994) elaborates on the concept of critical pedagogy that “should conceive
of reality—most importantly classroom reality—as a multiplicity of social relations, embodied
metaphors, and social structures which cohere and contradict, some of them oppressive and some of
them liberating” (p. 201). Perceiving the classroom reality in this way creates an avenue for each
individual teacher to address how his or her “self” potentially becomes an embodied metaphor in the
course of teacher-student interactions. In terms of implementation, Grossberg’s (1994) model of a
progressive pedagogical project is outlined below:
1. First model – Hierarchical pedagogical. A practice that assumes the teacher already understands
the truth to be imparted to the students.
2. Second model – Dialogic practice. The aim of this model includes allowing the silenced to speak,
and only when absolutely necessary does it claim to speak for them. According to Obidah (2000),
a pitfall to this practice is the assumption that students are not already speaking, simply because
educators do not hear them.
3. Third model – Praxical pedagogy. According to Grossberg, praxical pedagogy “attempts to offer
people the skills that would enable them to understand and intervene into their own history”
(1994, p. 17). One pitfall in the use of this type of practice is assuming that people are not already
intervening in their own history and, more importantly, that educators know the right skills to
utilize in the process every time. Grossberg cautions that “there are no universal skills which we
can offer independent of the context into which we want to intervene, and, more important, into
which our students want to intervene” (1994, p.17).
4. Fourth model – Pedagogy of articulation and risk. Grossberg (1994) asserts that such a practice,
while refusing the traditional forms of intellectual authority, would not abandon claims to
authority. Refusing to assume ahead of time that it knows the appropriate knowledge, language or
skills, it is a contextual practice that is willing to take the risk of making connections, drawing
lines, and mapping articulations between different domains, discourses and practices, to see what
will work (p. 18).
The fourth model delineates a pedagogy that keeps the practice of teachers on its toes and is inclusive
of all the moments when teachers falter, hesitate, and come face to face with their own limitations
(Obidah, 2000). A pedagogy of articulation and risk also seems to include the moments when teachers
assert their knowledge, but it also includes space within the assertions for students’ questions,
contestation, and even resistance (Wink, 2005). Such responses then inform and/or alter the teacher’s
knowledge (Obidah, 2000).
Debates on multicultural education can lead an educator to question pedagogy’s influence on, and
effectiveness in, conveying the knowledge of multiculturalism. Questioning pedagogy led to my
investigation of critical pedagogy, models for implementing practices based on the theories, and their
impact on curricula. Advocacy for critical pedagogy, however passionate and forthright, is one thing.
Actually implementing it is another. What follows is a discussion of critical multiculturalism from a
teaching perspective.
Critical Multiculturalism: Teaching Perspective
Critical multiculturalism raises an individual’s critical consciousness about his or her class, gender,
racial (and other) identity, or beliefs that have been shaped by the dominant perspectives, ideologies,
and educational practices rooted in such ideologies; it urges him or her “to question and rethink these
paradigms and in the process empowers him or her to move toward learning to teach for educational
and social equity and change” (Ukpokodu, 2003, p. 19). The primary theoretical precept that grounds
this view and practice of critical multiculturalism comes from the scholarship on critical theory and
critical pedagogy, especially the works of Paulo Freire, Henry Giroux, Ira Shor, Joe Kincheloe,
Christine Sleeter, Maxine Greene, and Peter McLaren, to mention a few.
Freire, McLaren, and Fairclough are especially concerned with inequities, issues of domination, and
social privileges as well as self-reflection, equalitarianism, social justice, and education for human
conscientization. McLaren (1997) contends that it is:
important to remind those who participate in the struggle for liberation from White patriarchal
capitalist exploitation that they must never cease to resist new forms of consumption and desires that
sometimes seek to supplant the basic needs of the people. (p. 12)
Ukpokodu (2003) defines teaching from a critical multicultural perspective as a:
learning paradigm in which teachers and students consciously engage in the construction of
knowledge, critique the various forms of inequities and injustices embedded in the educational system,
and strive to gain the empowerment needed to engage in culturally responsive and responsible
practice. (p. 19)
Teaching from a critical multicultural perspective means interrogating the social system from a critical
and social justice standpoint (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1997; McLaren, 1998; Shor, 1992; Sleeter,
1996). This means providing preservice teachers opportunities to question their cultural, social, and
philosophical perspectives and identities so that they may develop the quality of mind necessary to
work with and support the academic goals of students from diverse racial, cultural, socioeconomic,
gender, and language backgrounds. In order for preservice teachers to be successful in today’s
classrooms, a thorough attempt to understand diversity and multicultural education is necessary for
them to become better equipped to meet challenges in the classroom.
Teacher Preparation and Multicultural Education
Ideally, a critical approach to multicultural teacher education will help preservice teachers develop the
habits of mind or critical consciousness needed to work with students from diverse racial, cultural,
socioeconomic, and linguistic backgrounds. Preservice teachers need to move beyond the idea that
multicultural education entails simply developing superficial multicultural units or celebrating
culturally diverse heroes and histories. Aspiring educators need to recognize the hidden curriculum
(Lewis, 2001) —specifically the racism and oppression that are embedded in the school culture—and
develop means to expose and expunge these covert prejudices (Banks, 2008).
Preparing teachers for our postmodern world has become a major challenge (Banks, 1996). The field
of teacher education, in general, has been slow in advancing and imagining teacher education in both
its theory and practice within an existing postmodern paradigm (Banks, 2008). While society has
changed drastically over the past four decades, many teacher education programs and K-12 school
districts continue to frame and carry out their daily rituals within a traditional modernist model
(Darling-Hammond, 2005). Due to numerous historically constructed reasons, these traditional
models: (1) cater to the working world’s demand for increased tracking and de-skilling (Fine, 1991);
(2) adhere to the values of capitalism and all its inherent ramifications (Shapiro, 1990); (3) perpetuate
the cultural construction of teacher work and the understanding of the ways in which gender shapes
classroom practices, leading to teaching as a White middle class and female-dominant occupation
devoid of power (Apple, 1990); (4) discourage teacher education professors from dealing with the
world of popular culture and utilizing the field of cultural studies as a form of pedagogy (Giroux,
1995); and (5) complicate the exploration of or admission of our own social and cultural deficiencies
(Kanpol, 1995). These issues in and of themselves have evolved because of the changing structures of
society.
Teaching multicultural education from a critical perspective means engaging preservice teachers in
understanding their cultural and social identities as well as their socioeconomic positions and how
these aspects of their character may affect teaching and student learning. Preservice teachers need to
understand that teaching and learning occur in sociocultural-political contexts that are not neutral but
based on relations of power and privilege. More specifically, preservice teachers can achieve this
understanding by examining their identities and their socialized selves, which have been constructed
by their sociocultural circumstances, and by exploring the ways in which these circumstances
influence their understanding and relationships with others, especially students from diverse
socioeconomic backgrounds. Teaching multicultural education from a critical perspective involves

taking risks to move preservice teachers beyond their comfort zones to experience diversity firsthand,
which can be accomplished through field experiences, study abroad programs, and/or virtual
interactive field experiences (Malewski, Phillion, & Lehman, 2005). These types of multicultural
experiences should be incorporated into the total education of all children. Thus, multicultural
education should permeate the schools’ curricula (Nieto, 2000b).
Conclusion
Despite the continuation of these debates, multiculturalism has become (though at times reluctantly) an
accepted paradigm in curriculum formation on all levels of education, and the establishment of this
discipline has now led to other issues and concerns (Banks, 2008). Some of these concerns focus on
the underlying assumptions upon which conceptions of multicultural education are based (Hoffman,
1996; McCarthy, 1994; McLaren, 2003). Concepts such as culture and identity, which are integral to
curriculum, are objects of particular scrutiny.
In sum, changing the present content of the school curriculum is not an adequate and sufficient model
for meaningful curriculum reform in the area of race relations in schooling. A critical multicultural
education needs to look at the constraints and barriers to teacher creativity and innovation in the
institutional culture of schools, in the educational priorities set by district offices, and especially in
teacher education programs in colleges and universities.
Finally, efforts to redefine the curriculum in the name of multiculturalism must progress beyond the
narrow prescription of incremental addition and replacement. A critical approach to multicultural
reform must make salient connections between knowledge and power. Such an approach would bring
the entire range of traditional and contemporary arrangements within schools, and between schools
and communities, into focus for reexamination with a view toward transformation. In the words of
W.E. Dubois (1868 – 1963), Education must not simply teach work…it must teach life.
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10/23/2014 Curriculum & Schooling: Multiculturalism, Critical Multiculturalism and Critical Pedagogy

Category: Vol. 4, 2011

Curriculum & Schooling: Multiculturalism, Critical

An Overview of Multicultural Education

Multiculturalism, an established discipline in the field of education, manifests a body of knowledge,

The Traditional Multicultural Perspective

Conservative Critiques of Multicultural Education

The Liberal Multicultural Perspective

predominant culture. (p. 11)

Critical Multicultural Perspective

Historically, multicultural studies have encouraged us to advocate traditionally underrepresented and

Critical multiculturalism is to be understood as referring to multicultural education operating on the

Multiculturalism and Critical Pedagogy

Critical Multiculturalism: Teaching Perspective

Ukpokodu (2003) defines teaching from a critical multicultural perspective as a:

Teacher Preparation and Multicultural Education

socioeconomic backgrounds. Teaching multicultural education from a critical perspective involves

Darling-Hammond, L. (2005). Teaching as a profession: Lessons in teacher preparation and

Fine, M. (1991). Framing drop-outs. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.

Ghaffari, M. (2000). Intelligence: E pluribus unum, an ontological and epistemological inquiry.

Gray, P. (1991, July 8). Whose America? Time, 138(1), 13.

McCarthy, C. (1994). Multicultural discourse and curriculum reform: A critical perspective.

McLaren, P. (1994). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of

McLaren, P. (1998). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of

McLaren, P. (2003). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of

Taguieff, P. A. (1997). Vers un modele d’intelligibilité. Paris: Flammarion.

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