(1939).

Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 8:412-426

Transference Problems in Schizophrenics
Frieda Fromm-Reichmann
Most psychoanalytic authors maintain that schizophrenic patients cannot be
treated psychoanalytically because they are too narcissistic to develop with
the psychotherapist an interpersonal relationship that is sufficiently reliable
and consistent for psychoanalytic work (1), (12), (13). Freud, Fenichel and
other authors have recognized that a new technique of approaching patients
psychoanalytically must be found if analysts are to work with psychotics (2),
(6), (8), (16), (19), (31), (32), (33), (34), (35), (36). Among those who have
worked successfully in recent years with schizophrenics, Sullivan, Hill, and
Karl Menninger and his staff have made various modifications of their
analytic approach (14), (17), (21), (22), (23), (24), (25), (28), (29).
In our work at the Chestnut Lodge Sanitarium we have found similar
changes valuable. The technique we use with psychotics is different from our
approach to psychoneurotics (3), (4), (32), (33). This is not a result of the
schizophrenic's inability to build up a consistent personal relationship with
the therapist but due to his extremely intense and sensitive transference
reactions.
Let us see first what the essence of the schizophrenic's transference
reactions is and second how we try to meet these reactions.
In order to understand them we must state those parts of our hypothesis
about the genesis of these illnesses that are significant for the development of
the patient's personal relationships and thus for our therapeutic approach.
We think of a schizophrenic as a person who has had serious traumatic
experiences in early infancy at a time when his ego and its ability to examine
reality were not yet developed. These
—————————————
Read before the 41st Annual Meeting of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, Chicago, May 1939.

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early traumatic experiences seem to furnish the psychological basis for the
pathogenic influence of the frustrations of later years. At this early time the
infant lives grandiosely in a narcissistic world of his own. His needs and
desires seem to be taken care of by something vague and indefinite which he
does not yet differentiate. As Ferenczi (7) noted they are expressed by
gestures and movements since speech is as yet undeveloped. Frequently the
child's desires are fulfilled without any expression of them, a result that seems
to him a product of his magical thinking.
Traumatic experiences in this early period of life will damage a
personality more seriously than those occurring in later childhood such as are
found in the history of psychoneurotics. The infant's mind is more vulnerable
the younger and less used it has been; further, the trauma is a blow to the
infant's egocentricity. In addition early traumatic experience shortens the only
period in life in which an individual ordinarily enjoys the most security, thus
endangering the ability to store up as it were a reasonable supply of assurance
and self-reliance for the individual's later struggle through life. Thus is such a
child sensitized considerably more towards the frustrations of later life than
by later traumatic experience. Hence many experiences in later life which
would mean little to a 'healthy' person and not much to a psychoneurotic, mean
a great deal of pain and suffering to the schizophrenic. His resistance against
frustration is easily exhausted.
Once he reaches his limit of endurance, he escapes the unbearable reality
of his present life by attempting to reëstablish the autistic, delusional world of
the infant; but this is impossible because the content of his delusions and
hallucinations are naturally colored by the experiences of his whole lifetime
(9), (10), (11), (12), (21), (22), (23), (24), (25).
How do these developments influence the patient's attitude towards the
analyst and the analyst's approach to him?
Due to the very early damage and the succeeding chain of frustrations
which the schizophrenic undergoes before finally

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giving in to illness, he feels extremely suspicious and distrustful of everyone,
particularly of the psychotherapist who approaches him with the intention of
intruding into his isolated world and personal life. To him the physician's
approach means the threat of being compelled to return to the frustrations of
real life and to reveal his inadequacy to meet them, or—still worse—a
repetition of the aggressive interference with his initial symptoms and
peculiarities which he has encountered in his previous environment.
In spite of his narcissistic retreat, every schizophrenic has some dim notion
of the unreality and loneliness of his substitute delusionary world. He longs
for human contact and understanding, yet is afraid to admit it to himself or to
his therapist for fear of further frustration.
That is why the patient may take weeks and months to test the therapist
before being willing to accept him.1
However once he has accepted him, his dependence on the therapist is
greater and he is more sensitive about it than is the psychoneurotic because of
the schizophrenic's deeply rooted insecurity; the narcissistic seemingly self-
righteous attitude is but a defense.
Whenever the analyst fails the patient from reasons to be discussed later—
one cannot at times avoid failing one's schizophrenic patients—it will be a
severe disappointment and a repetition of the chain of frustrations the
schizophrenic has previously endured.
To the primitive part of the schizophrenic's mind that does not discriminate
between himself and the environment, it may mean the withdrawal of the
impersonal supporting forces of his infancy. Severe anxiety will follow this
vital deprivation.
In the light of his personal relationship with the analyst it means that the
therapist seduced the patient to use him as a bridge over which he might
possibly be led from the utter loneliness of his own world to reality and
human warmth, only to have him discover that this bridge is not reliable. If so,
he will respond helplessly with an outburst of hostility or with
—————————————
1 Years in the case reported by Clara Thompson (27).

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renewed withdrawal as may be seen most impressively in catatonic stupor.
One patient responded twice with a catatonic stupor when I had to change
the hour of my appointment with her; both times it was immediately dispelled
when I came to see her and explained the reasons for the change. This
withdrawal during treatment is a way the schizophrenic has of showing
resistance and is dynamically comparable to the various devices the
psychoneurotic utilizes to show resistance.2
The schizophrenic responds to alternations in the analyst's defections and
understanding by corresponding stormy and dramatic changes from love to
hatred, from willingness to leave his delusional world to resistance and
renewed withdrawal.
As understandable as these changes are, they nevertheless may come quite
as a surprise to the analyst who frequently has not observed their source. This
is quite in contrast to his experience with psychoneurotics whose emotional
reactions during an interview he can usually predict. These unpredictable
changes seem to be the reason for the conception of the unreliability of the
schizophrenic's transference reactions; yet they follow the same dynamic rules
as the psychoneurotics' oscillations between positive and negative
transference and resistance. If the schizophrenic's reactions are more stormy
and seemingly more unpredictable than those of the psychoneurotic, I
believe it to be due to the inevitable errors in the analyst's approach to the
schizophrenic, of which he himself may be unaware, rather than to the
unreliability of the patient's emotional response.
Why is it inevitable that the psychoanalyst disappoints his schizophrenic
patients time and again?
The schizophrenic withdraws from painful reality and retires to what
resembles the early speechless phase of development where consciousness is
not yet crystallized. As the expression of his feelings is not hindered by the
conventions he has eliminated, so his thinking, feeling, behavior and
—————————————
2 Edith Weigert-Vowinckel (30) observed somewhat similar dynamics in
what she calls the 'automatic attitudes' of schizoid neurotics.

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speech—when present—obey the working rules of the archaic unconscious
(26). His thinking is magical and does not follow logical rules. It does not
admit a no, and likewise no yes; there is no recognition of space and time. I,
you, and they are interchangeable. Expression is by symbols; often by
movements and gestures rather than by words.
As the schizophrenic is suspicious, he will distrust the words of his
analyst. He will interpret them and incidental gestures and attitudes of the
analyst according to his own delusional experience. The analyst may not even
be aware of these involuntary manifestations of his attitudes; yet they mean
much to the hypersensitive schizophrenic who uses them as a means of
orienting himself to the therapist's personality and intentions towards him.
In other words, the schizophrenic patient and the therapist are people
living in different worlds and on different levels of personal development
with different means of expressing and of orienting themselves. We know
little about the language of the unconscious of the schizophrenic, and our
access to it is blocked by the very process of our own adjustment to a world
the schizophrenic has relinquished. So we should not be surprised that errors
and misunderstandings occur when we undertake to communicate and strive
for a rapport with him.
Another source of the schizophrenic's disappointment arises from the
following: since the analyst accepts and does not interfere with the behavior
of the schizophrenic, his attitude may lead the patient to expect that the analyst
will assist in carrying out all the patient's wishes, even though they may not
seem to be to his interest, or to the analyst's and the hospital's in their
relationship to society. This attitude of acceptance so different from the
patient's previous experiences readily fosters the anticipation that the analyst
will try to carry out the patient's suggestions and take his part, even against
conventional society should occasion arise. Frequently it will be wise for the
analyst to agree with the patient's wish to remain unbathed and untidy until he
is ready to talk about the reasons for his behavior or to change spontaneously.
At

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other times he will unfortunately be unable to take the patient's part without
being able to make the patient understand and accept the reasons for the
analyst's position.
For example, I took a catatonic patient who asked for a change of scene,
one day for lunch to a country inn, another time to a concert, and a third time
to an art gallery. After that he asked me to permit him with a nurse to visit his
parents in another city. I told him I would have to talk this over with the
superintendent and in addition suggested notifying his people. Immediately he
became furious and combative because this meant that I was betraying him by
consulting with others about what he regarded as a purely personal matter.
From his own detached and childlike viewpoint he was right. He had given up
his isolation in exchange for my personal interest in him, but he was not yet
ready to have other persons admitted to this intimate relationship.
If the analyst is not able to accept the possibility of misunderstanding the
reactions of his schizophrenic patient and in turn of being misunderstood by
him, it may shake his security with his patient.
The schizophrenic, once he accepts the analyst and wants to rely upon him,
will sense the analyst's insecurity. Being helpless and insecure himself—in
spite of his pretended grandiose isolation—he will feel utterly defeated by the
insecurity of his would-be helper. Such disappointment may furnish reasons
for outbursts of hatred and rage that are comparable to the negative
transference reactions of psychoneurotics, yet more intense than these since
they are not limited by the restrictions of the actual world.
These outbursts are accompanied by anxiety, feelings of guilt, and fear of
retaliation which in turn lead to increased hostility. Thus is established a
vicious circle: we disappoint the patient; he hates us, is afraid we hate him
for his hatred and therefore continues to hate us. If in addition he senses that
the analyst is afraid of his aggressiveness, it confirms his fear that he is
actually considered to be dangerous and unacceptable, and this augments his
hatred.

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 This establishes that the schizophrenic is capable of developing strong
relationships of love and hatred towards his analyst.
'After all, one could not be so hostile if it were not for the background of a
very close relationship', said one catatonic patient after emerging from an
acutely disturbed and combative episode.
In addition, I believe the schizophrenic develops transference reactions
in the narrower sense which he can differentiate from the actual interpersonal
relationship.
A catatonic artist stated the difference between the two kinds of relations
while he was still delusional and confused when he said pointing to himself,
'There is the artist, the designer and the drawer', then looking around my
office at the desk and finally at me, 'the scientist, the research worker, the
psychiatrist… As to these two my fears of changes between treatment and
injury do not hold true. Yet, there is also something else between us—and
there is fear of injury and treatment—treatment and injury.' Then he implored
me: 'Understand! Try to be psychic—that will constitute real communism
between us' (here using a political symbol to indicate a personal bond).
Another instructive example was given by an unwanted and neglected
middle child of a frigid mother. He fought all his life for the recognition
denied him by his family. Ambitious, he had a successful career as a
researcher. During the war he was called to a prominent research center some
distance from his home. Ten years later, after several frustrating repetitions of
his childhood conflicts, he became sick.
The first eighteen months of his analysis were spent in a continuous
barrage of hatred and resentment. He would shout: 'You dirty little stinking
bitch', or, 'You damned German Jew; go back to your Kaiser!' or, 'I wish you
had crashed in that plane you took!'. He threatened to throw all manner of
things at me. These stormy outbursts could be heard all over the hospital.
After a year and a half he became less disturbed and began to be on
friendly terms with me, accepting willingly some

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interpretations and suggestions. Asked about his hatred of me, he said, 'Oh, I
think I did not actually hate you; underneath I always liked you. But when I
had that call to the Institute—do you remember?—I saw what the Germans
had done to our men and I hated you as a German for that. Besides, mother, far
from being proud of me as you would have expected, hated me for going
instead of staying home and supporting her pet, my younger brother. You were
mother, and I hated you for that. My sister, although living near the Institute,
did not even once come to see me although she had promised to. So you
became sister, and I hated you for that. Can you blame me?'
From these examples can one doubt that the schizophrenic demonstrates
workable transference reactions?
As the usual psychoanalytic approach is effective only with
psychoneurotics, what modifications are necessary in our current technique in
order to meet the particular needs of schizophrenics?
Contact with the schizophrenic must begin with a long preparatory period
of daily interviews (as in psychoanalysis with children) during which the
patient is given the opportunity of becoming acquainted with the analyst, of
finding out if the analyst can be of value to him, and of overcoming his
suspicion and his anxiety about the friendship and consideration offered to
him by the analyst. After that the patient may gain confidence in his physician
and at last accept him.
One patient shouted at me every morning for six weeks, 'I am not sick; I
don't need any doctor; it's none of your damned business'. At the beginning of
the seventh week the patient offered me a dirty crumpled cigarette. I took it
and smoked it. The next day he had prepared a seat for me by covering a
bench in the yard where I met him with a clean sheet of paper. 'I don't want
you soil your dress', he commented. This marked the beginning of his
acceptance of me as a friend and therapist.
Another very suspicious patient after two days of fear and

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confusion ushering in a real panic became stuporous for a month—mute,
resistive to food and retaining excretions. In spite of this rather unpromising
picture, I sat with him for an hour every day. The only sign of contact he gave
to me or anyone was to indicate by gestures that he wanted me to stay; all that
he said on two different days during this period was: 'Don't leave!'.
One morning after this I found him sitting naked and masturbating on the
floor of his room which was spotted with urine and sputum, talking for the
first time yet so softly that I could not understand him. I stepped closer to him
but still could not hear him so I sat down on the floor close to him upon which
he turned to me with genuine concern: 'You can't do that for me, you too will
get involved'. After that he pulled a blanket around himself saying, 'even
though I have sunk as low as an animal, I still know how to behave in the
presence of a lady'. Then he talked for several hours about his history and his
problems.
Finally I offered him a glass of milk. He accepted the offer and I went to
get it. When I came back after a few moments his friendliness had changed to
hostility and he threw the milk on me. Immediately he became distressed:
'How could I do that to you?' he asked in despair. It seemed as though the few
minutes I was out of the room were sufficient time for him to feel that I had
abandoned him.
His confidence was regained by my showing that I did not mind the
incident. And for eight months of daily interviews he continued to talk.
Unfortunately he was then removed from the sanitarium by his relatives.
This also serves to illustrate the difference between the schizophrenic's
attitude towards time, and ours. One patient, after I told him I had to leave for
a week, expressed it thus: 'Do you know what you are telling me? It may mean
a minute and it may mean a month. It may mean nothing; but it may also mean
eternity to me.'
Such statements reveal that there is no way to estimate what time means to
the patient; hence the inadvisability of trying

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to judge progress by our standards. These patients simply cannot be hurried
and it is worse than futile to try. This holds true in all stages of treatment (15).
This was brought home to me by a catatonic patient who said at the end of
five months of what seemed to me an extremely slow movement in the
direction of health: 'I ought to tell you that things are going better now; but'—
with anxiety in his voice—'everything is moving too rapidly. That ought to
make us somewhat sceptical.'
As the treatment continues, the patient is neither asked to lie down nor to
give free associations; both requests make no sense to him. He should feel
free to sit, lie on the floor, walk around, use any available chair, lie or sit on
the couch. Nothing matters except that the analyst permit the patient to feel
comfortable and secure enough to give up his defensive narcissistic isolation,
and to use the physician for resuming contact with the world.
If the patient feels that an hour of mutual friendly silence serves his
purpose, he is welcome to remain silent: 'The happiness to dare to breathe
and vegetate and just to be, in the presence of another person who does not
interfere', as one of them described it.
The only danger of these friendly silent hours is that the patient may
develop more tension in his relationship with the analyst than the patient can
stand, thereby arousing great anxiety. It belongs among the analyst's 'artistic'
functions, as Hill has called them (14), to sense the time when he should
break his patient's friendly silence.
What are the analyst's further functions in therapeutic interviews with the
schizophrenic? As Sullivan (24) has stated, he should observe and evaluate
all of the patient's words, gestures, changes of attitudes and countenance, as
he does the associations of psychoneurotics. Every single production—
whether understood by the analyst or not—is important and makes sense to the
patient. Hence the analyst should try to understand, and let the patient feel that
he tries.3 He should as a rule not
—————————————
3 Diethelm also stresses this viewpoint (5).
4 Laforgue (18) attributes the cure of a case of schizophrenia to his
interpretative work with the patient. According to my experience I believe it
was due to his sensitive emotional approach and not the result of his
interpretations.

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attempt to prove his understanding by giving interpretations because the
schizophrenic himself understands the unconscious meaning of his productions
better than anyone else.4 Nor should the analyst ask questions when he does
not understand, for he cannot know what trend of thought, far off dream or
hallucination he may be interrupting. He gives evidence of understanding,
whenever he does, by responding cautiously with gestures or actions
appropriate to the patient's communication; for example by lighting his
cigarette from the patient's cigarette instead of using a match when the patient
seems to indicate a wish for closeness and friendship.
'Sometimes little things like a small black ring can do the job', a young
catatonic commented after I had substituted a black onyx ring for a silver
bracelet I had been wearing. The latter had represented to him part of a
dangerous armour of which he was afraid.
What has been said against intruding into the schizophrenic's inner world
with superfluous interpretations also holds true for untimely suggestions. Most
of them do not mean the same thing to the schizophrenic that they do to the
analyst. The schizophrenic who feels comfortable with his analyst will ask for
suggestions when he is ready to receive them. So long as he does not, the
analyst does better to listen. The following incident will serve as an
illustration. A catatonic patient refused to see me. I had disappointed him by
responding to his request that someone should spend the whole day with him
by promising to make arrangements for a nurse to do so instead of
understanding that it was I whom he wanted. For the following three months
he threatened me with physical attack when I came to see him daily, and I
could talk with him only through the closed door of his room.
Finally he reaccepted me and at the end of a two-and-a-half hour interview
stated very seriously: 'If only you can handle this quite casually and be
friendly and leave the young people [the nurses] out of it, I may be able to
work things out with

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you.' The next day in the middle of another hour of confused hallucinatory
talking, he went on: 'This is a great surprise to us. There were lots of errors
and misunderstandings between us and we both learned quite a bit. If you
could arrange for me to see my friends and to spend more time on an open
ward, and if you remain causal we might be able to coöperate.' It is scarcely
necessary to say that we acted in accordance with his suggestions.
In contrast to fortunate experiences like these there will remain long
stretches on every schizophrenic's lonely road over which the analyst cannot
accompany him. Let me repeat that this alone is no reason for being
discouraged. It is certainly not an intellectual comprehension of the
schizophrenic but the sympathetic understanding and skilful handling of
the patient's and physician's mutual relationship that are the decisive
therapeutic factors.
The schizophrenic's emotional reactions towards the analyst have to be met
with extreme care and caution. The love which the sensitive schizophrenic
feels as he first emerges, and his cautious acceptance of the analyst's warmth
of interest are really most delicate and tender things. If the analyst deals
unadroitly with the transference reactions of a psychoneurotic it is bad
enough, though as a rule not irreparable; but if he fails with a schizophrenic in
meeting positive feeling by pointing it out for instance before the patient
indicates that he is ready to discuss it, he may easily freeze to death what has
just begun to grow and so destroy any further possibility of therapy.
Here one has to steer between Scylla and Charybdis. If the analyst allows
the patient's feelings to grow too strong without providing the relief of talking
about them, the patient may become frightened at this new experience and then
dangerously hostile toward the analyst.
The patient's hostility should ideally be met without fear and without
counterhostility. The form it sometimes takes may make this difficult to do.
Let it be remembered however, that the less fear patients sense in the therapist
the less dangerous they are.

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 One patient explained this to me during the interviews we had in her post-
psychotic stage of recovery. 'You remember', she said, 'when you once came
to see me and I was in a wet pack and asked you to take me out? You went for
a nurse and I felt very resentful because that meant to me that you were afraid
to do it yourself and that you actually believed that I was a dangerous person.
Somehow you felt that, came back and did it yourself. That did away with my
resentment and hostility toward you at once, and from then on I felt I could get
well with you because if you were not afraid of me that meant that I was not
too dangerous and bad to come back into the real world you represented.'
Sometimes the therapist's frank statement that he wants to be the patient's
friend but that he is going to protect himself should he be assaulted, may help
in coping with the patient's combativeness and relieve the patient's fear of his
own aggression.
Some analysts may feel that the atmosphere of complete acceptance and of
strict avoidance of any arbitrary denials which we recommend as a basic rule
for the treatment of schizophrenics, may not accord with our wish to guide
them towards reacceptance of reality. We do not believe that is so.
Certain groups of psychoneurotics have to learn by the immediate
experience of analytic treatment how to accept the denials life has in store for
each of us. The schizophrenic has above all to be cured of the wounds and
frustrations of his life before we can expect him to recover.
Other analysts may feel that treatment as we have outlined it is not
psychoanalysis. The patient is not instructed to lie on a couch, he is not asked
to give free associations (although frequently he does), and his productions
are seldom interpreted other than by understanding acceptance.
Freud says that every science and therapy which accepts his teachings
about the unconscious, about transference and resistance and about infantile
sexuality, may be called psychoanalysis. According to this definition we
believe we are practising psychoanalysis with our schizophrenic patients.
Whether we call it analysis or not, it is clear that successful

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treatment does not depend on technical rules of any special psychiatric school
but rather on the basic attitude of the individual therapist toward psychotic
persons. If he meets them as strange creatures of another world whose
productions are nonunderstandable to 'normal' beings, he cannot treat them. If
he realizes however, that the difference between himself and the psychotic is
only one of degree and not of kind, he will know better how to meet him. He
will be able to identify himself sufficiently with the patient to understand and
accept his emotional reactions without becoming involved in them.
SUMMARY
Schizophrenics are capable of developing workable relationships and
transference reactions.
Successful psychotherapy with schizophrenics depends upon whether the
analyst understand the significance of these transference phenomena and
meet them appropriately.
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Article Citation [Who Cited This?]
Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1939). Transference Problems in Schizophrenics.
Psychoanal. Q., 8:412-426