ELEMENTS OF POETRY

Poetry
• In poetry the sound and meaning of words are combined to express feelings,
thoughts, and ideas.
• The poet chooses words carefully.
• Poetry is usually written in lines.

A. The Ornaments of Poetry

1. Line or Verse: single line of poetry

2. Stanza: a group of verse forming a single unit.
3. Rhythm: the arrangement of words so that the accented syllables come at regular
intervals
• Rhythm is the flow of the beat in a poem.
• Gives poetry a musical feel.
• Can be fast or slow, depending on mood and subject of poem.
• You can measure rhythm in meter, by counting the beats in each line.

4. Meter: regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables.

5. Feet: groups of regularly recurring accented and unaccented syllables
• Combination of accented and unaccented syllables. Unit of measure in poetry

6. Rhyme: similarity of sound, usually at the end of lines. It is a matter of pronunciation not
spelling.
• Repetition of similar sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of rhyme is the end
rhyme.
• Rhymes are words that end with the same sound. (Hat, cat and bat rhyme.)
• Rhyming sounds don’t have to be spelled the same way. (Cloud and allowed rhyme.)
• Rhyme is the most common sound device in poetry.

AABB ABAB ABBA ABCB

falls Noodles sticks tail
balls Sun stones snout
play doodles bones it
toda. Run tricks inside-out

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7. Scansion: dividing a verse into its feet. Dividing the poetry into feet by pointing put
different syllables.

8. Assonance: vowel rhyme or a similarity of vowel sounds.

• Repetition of vowel sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza).

9. Alliteration: repetition of a sound at or near the beginning or words.

• The repetition of initial sounds on the same line or stanza.
• Alliteration is the repetition of the first consonant sound in words, as in the nursery
rhyme

10. Onomatopoeia: fitting the sound to the meaning. Words that sound like which they
describe.

• Words that represent the actual sound of something are words of onomatopoeia.
Dogs “bark,” cats “purr,” thunder “booms,” rain “drips,” and the clock “ticks.”
• Appeals to the sense of sound.

11. Free Verse: poetry which does not follow a regular pattern or rhythm.
• A free verse poem does not use rhyme or patterns.
• Can vary freely in length of lines, stanzas, and subject.

12. Sonnet: a poem of which mostly consist of 14 lines and has a certain pattern or rhyme and
rhythm.

FIGURES OF SPEECH

Figure of Speech – is a phrase or word having different meanings than its literal meaning.
Form of expression to make the ideas concrete, vivid, beautiful,
forceful or amusing.

1. Simile – unlike objects are compared using the words like and as.
- Comparing between things or objects.
Examples:
He fights like a lion.
He eats like a wolf.

2. Metaphor – comparison of unlike objects without the use of as and like.

- which an implied comparison is made between two unlike things that
actually have something in common.

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 - a word or phrase for one thing that is used to refer to another thing in
order to show or suggest that they are similar.

3. Personification – is a FOS in which a thing- an idea or an animal is given human

attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have
the ability to act like human beings.
Example:
Justice is blind.

4. Apostrophe – a writer or a speaker using an apostrophe, detaches himself the reality

and addresses an imaginary character in his speech.
- in which some absent or non-existent person or thing is addressed as if
present and capable of understanding.
- addressing or speaking to the dead as if living; to an object as if it is alive;
to the absent as if they are present and able to understand the speaker.
- They are talking to someone.
Examples:
“Walk softly, March, forbear the bitter blow.”

5. Metonymy – it a FOS that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something
else with which it is closely associated.
Examples:
He is an Ayala. (a rich man)
There is a death (poison) in the cup.

6. Antithesis – is the term used to refer to an author’s use of two contrasting or

opposite terms in a sentence for effect.
Examples:
His body is active, but his mind is sluggish.
You are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart.

7. Hyperbole – an exaggeration used in order to make a point or to emphasize.

- it may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression,
but is not meant to be taken literally.
Examples:
I have told you a million times to clean your room.

8. Irony – is a FOS in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is
different from the actual meaning of the words.
- brings about some added meanings to a situation.
- real life is full of ironical expressions and situations.

Types of Irony

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 1. Verbal Irony/Irony of Statement
- it is a contrast between what is said and what is meant.

2. Dramatic Irony
- when an audience perceives something that characters in the
literature does not know
- it occurs when the audience or the reader knows more than the
character about events. In other words, what the character thinks is
true is incongruous/inconsistent with the audience knows.

3. Situational Irony
- discrepancy between the expected result and actual result
- it refers to the contrast between the actual result of a situation and
what was intended or expected to happen.
Examples:
His friend’s hand was as soft as a rock.

9. Synecdoche – a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole or

it may use a whole to represent a part.
Example:
The word “glasses” refers to spectacles.

OTHER LITERARY TERMS

1. Hero – can be defined as the male principal character of a literary work.

2. Heroine - the principal female character in a literary or dramatic work
3. Antagonist – is a character, or a group of characters, which stands in opposition to
the protagonist, which is the main character. It is common refer to an antagonist as a
villain (the bad guy), against whom a hero (the good guy) fights in order to save
himself or others.
4. Poetic Justice – ideal form of justice in which the good characters are rewarded and
the bad characters are punished by an ironic twist of their fate.
• All forms of literature must convey moral lesson, it is important to bring out
the moral lessons because of the audience relates themselves with good
character.
• A literary view that virtue wins and vice loses in long run.
5. Foreshadowing – is the author’s use of clues to hint at what might happen later in
the story. Writers use foreshadowing to build their readers’ expectations and to
create suspense.
• Giving the reader a hint of something that is going to happen without
revealing the story or spoiling the suspense.
6. Epigram – is a short by insightful statement, which communicates thought in a witty
or funny way.

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 • Originated from the greek word “epigramma” which means “inscription” or
“to inscribe”.
7. Realism – manner of treating subject matter that presents a careful description of
everyday life. It is an approach that attempts to describe life without idealization or
romantic subjectivity.
8. Moral - Derived from the Latin term “morālis,” moral means a message conveyed by,
or a lesson learned from, a story, a poem, or an event.
9. Flashback – a literary device in which an earlier episode, conversation, or events is
inserted with the sequence of events.
10. Resolution - is the part of the story's plot where the main problem is resolved or
worked out. The resolution occurs after the falling action and is typically where the
story ends. Another term for the resolution is "dénouement," which comes from the
French term dénoué, meaning "to untie."

LITERARY STANDARDS

1. Universality – a great literary work is timeless and timely. It is forever relevant, it appeals
to one and all, anytime, and anywhere because it deals with an array of individual's
perceptions as well as orientations toward fundamental truths and universal
conditions.
• Great literature is timeless.
• Universality is defined as a work of art that can appeal to a great number of people,
regardless of gender, race, nationality or income. Works that appeal to a person's
heart or describe the condition of human nature are considered universal texts.

2. Artistry – a quality which appeals to our sense of beauty.

• Artistry is a quality that describes a novel's ability to reveal and convey hidden truth
and beauty.

3. Intellectual Value – each literary pieces must stimulate thought. These should enrich our
mental life by making us realize about the fundamental truths towards
life and human nature.
• Intellectual value is determined by the novel's relevance to society and its ability to
stimulate thought.

4. Suggestiveness – this is the quality relevant to the emotional power of literature to make
us feel deeply and stir our imagination. It should trigger and evoke visions
above and beyond the plane of ordinary life experiences.
• Associated with the emotion of a literary piece.
• It is the novel's ability to appeal to the reader's emotions and imagination and to
open them up to new possibilities.

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5. Spiritual Value – a literary work must elevate the spirit within us by bringing our moral
values into the realm of the physical world. It should present moral
values necessary for us to reflect and eventually inspire us to become a
better person.
• Elevates the spirit by bringing out the moral values of a person or situation.
• Spiritual Value elevates the spirit and the soul and thus has the power to motivate
and to inspire.

6. Permanence – a great literary work endures and can be read again as each readings gives
fresh delights and new insights. It should not be ephemeral or merely a
passing hype to the audience; it should be long-lasting.
• Permanence is determined by how well a novel endures through the ages. There are
many novels that were popular in their time but gradually faded into obscurity and
irrelevance.

7. Style – it is peculiar way in which a writer sees life, form his or her ideas expresses them.
Great works are marked as much by their memorable substances as by their
distinctive style.

LITERARY MODELS

1. Cultural Model – literature makes one appropriate and respect the differences.
Teaching literature within a cultural model enables students to understand and
appreciate cultures and ideologies different from their own in time and space, and to
come to perceive tradition of thought, feeling and artistic form within the heritage the
literature of such culture endows.

2. Language Model – this model emphasizes the fact that language is the literary medium
and that literature could be seen an instrument to teach specific vocabulary and
structure. Relies on the development of students’ knowledge. It focuses on the way
language is used in literary text.

3. Personal Growth Model – entails students engaging with the reading of literary texts,
appreciation and evaluation cultural artefacts, and understanding of our society, culture
and ourselves as we function within that social matrix.
• Literature aims to help one achieve lasting pleasure and deep satisfaction in
reading.
• Enjoyment and love for literature
• Learners are encouraged to express their opinions, feelings, and make
connection between their own personal life and cultural experiences.

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LITERARY APPROACHES

1. Formalistic Approach – The formalistic approach to literature examines a text by its

"organic form" - its setting, theme, scene, narrative, image and symbol. It is often
referred as "a scientific approach to literature," because it advocates methodical and
systematic readings of texts. Excluding any external elements or outside information
(i.e author's personal life or the social, historic background of the time the text was
written or the reader's bias) in criticism, the formalistic approach aims to analyze
merely the text itself.

2. Moral or Humanistic Approach – Literature is viewed to discuss man and its nature. It
presents man as essentially rational; that is, endowed with intellect and free will; or
that the piece does not misinterpret the true nature of man. The approach is close to
the “morality” of literature, to questions of ethical goodness or badness.

3. Historical Approach – Literature is seen both as a reflection and product of the times
and circumstances in which it was written. It operates on the premise that the history
of a nation has telling effects on its literature and that the piece can be better
understood and appreciated if one knows the times surrounding its creation. The
historical approach involves understanding the events and experiences surrounding the
composition of the work, especially the life of the author, and using the findings to
interpret that work of literature.

4. Sociological Approach – Literature is viewed as the expression of man within a given

social situation or social event or social phenomena. The sociological approach
stresses on social “relevance”, social “commitment,” contemporaneity, and it deems
communication with the reader important.

5. Cultural Approach – Literature is seen as one of the manifestations and vehicles of a

nation’s or race’s culture and tradition. It includes the entire compels of what goes
under “culture” – the technological, artistic, sociological, ideological aspects; and
considers the literary piece in the total cultural milieu in which it was born.

6. Psychological Approach – Literature is viewed as the expression of “personality,” of

“inner drives” or “neurosis”. It includes the psychology of the author, of the
characters, and even the psychology of creation. It has resulted in an almost
exhausting and exhaustive “psychological analysis” of characters, of symbols and
images, of recurrent themes, and others.

7. Impressionistic Approach – Literature is viewed to elucidate “reaction-response”

which is considered as something very personal, relative, and fruitful. Unconditioned
by explanations and often taking the impact of the piece as a whole, it seeks to see
how the piece has communicated.

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Time Frames of Philippine Literature in English

1. The Period of Re-orientation: 1898-1910

2. Period of Imitation: 1910-1925
3. Period of Self-Discovery: 1925-1941
4. Japanese Period: 1941-1945
5. The Rebirth of Freedom: 1946-1970
6. Period of Activism: 1970-1972
7. Period of the New Society: 1972-1981
8. Period of the Third Republic: 1981-1985
9. Contemporary Period: 1986

Literary Compositions that Have Influenced the World

1. The Bible or the Sacred Writings

2. Koran
3. The Iliad and the Odyssey
4. The Mahab-harata
5. Canterbury Tales
6. Uncle Tom’s Cabin
7. The Divine Comedy
8. El Cid Compeador
9. The Song of Roland
10. The Book of the Dead
11. The Book of the Days
12. One Thousand and One Nights or The Arabian Nights

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