3 Dof Thermodynamics Table
3 Dof Thermodynamics Table
3 Dof Thermodynamics Table
Chapter 1
Fundamental terms:
1.
2.
3. _______________________ - when any of the properties change in the system, the system’s
state changes. The system has undergone a ____________________.
• Going from one state to another
4. __________________________________ - system is steady state if none of the properties change
with time
Equilibrium
• In thermo, there are several types of equilibrium that must be reached
o Mechanical, thermal, phase and chemical equilibrium
• When a system is isolated, it doesn’t interact with surroundings
o State can change because of internal spontaneous events as intensive properties
like temperature and pressure tend towards uniform values
o At ____________________________________________________ when all such
changes cease
• At equilibrium:
o Temperature is uniform throughout system
o Pressure considered uniform as long as gravity effects are negligible
Units
____________________ - quantity adopted as a standard of measurement
SI (metric) English
Quantity Units Symbols Units Symbols
Example 1
Perform the following unit conversions
a) 1 L to in3
Specific Volume
• Macroscopic viewpoint: matter is considered to be distributed continuously throughout a
region
• At any point, the ______________________ is defined as:
o Units:
SI
English
• Specific volume:
• Specific volume is preferred for analysis when dealing with gases with small density values
Pressure
• Consider a small area A passing through a point in a fluid at rest
Pressure Measurement
• Manometers/barometers measure pressure in terms of a column of liquid like mercury
Manometer
Barometer
Temperature
• When all changes are complete (no more volume changes), the thermal interaction is over
o Two blocks are in thermal equilibrium
• Physical property that determines thermal equilibrium: __________________________________
Temperature Scales
1. _________________________________________: unit is K
• SI unit system
• Lowest possible value = zero
• Absolute temperature scale
2. ________________________________________ : unit is °R
• English unit system
• Lowest possible value = zero
• Absolute temperature scale
Temperature Conversions
Example 2
The specific volume of 5 kg of water vapor at 1.5 MPa, 440 °C is 0.2160 m3/kg. Find:
Example 3
A vertical piston-cylinder assembly containing a gas is placed on a hot plate. The piston initially
rests on the stops. With the onset of heating, the gas pressure increases. At what pressure, in bar,
does the piston start rising?
Chapter 2
Work & Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
Units of Energy
• Work
o SI - N ∙ m or Joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ
o English - ft ∙ lbf, Btu
• Kinetic and potential energy have same units as work
Example 4
An object whose weight is 100 lbf experiences a decrease in kinetic energy of 500 ft ∙ lbf and an
increase in potential energy of 1500 ft ∙ lbf. Initial velocity is 40 ft/s and initial height is 30 ft.
Find:
a) V2
b) h2
Understanding Work
• Previously we looked at mechanical work:
W<0
Power
• Power �Ẇ � = rate of energy transfer by work
• Units
o SI: J⁄s or Watt, W
o English: ft ∙ lbf⁄s , Btu⁄h , hp
Expansion/Compression Work
• Consider a closed system with a piston cylinder assembly. One end filled with a gas, gas
expands.
Example 5
CO2 gas within a piston cylinder assembly undergoes a process from a state where P1 = 5 lbf⁄in2 ,
∀1 = 2.5ft 3 to a state where P2 = 20 lbf⁄in2 , ∀2 = 0.5ft 3 . The relationship between pressure and
volume is given by P = 23.75 − 7.5∀, where ∀ is in ft 3 and P is in lbf⁄in2 . Determine the work for
the process, in Btu.
Example 6
A gas contained within a piston cylinder assembly undergoes three processes in series:
Sketch the processes in series on 𝑃𝑃 − ∀ coordinates and evaluate the work of each process in kJ.
Q>0
Q<0
Energy Balance
• Energy in a closed system can only be changed in two ways:
o Work
o Heat
• Energy is conserved -> First Law of Thermodynamics
o Energy of a closed system increases or decreases by an amount equal to the net
amount of energy transferred across its boundary
Polytropic Process
• 𝑊𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑∀ can be used to find work of idealized processes
o P term in integrand is the pressure of the entire quantity of gas, not just the
pressure at the piston face
o Can be described by
Example 7
Closed system of m = 10kg undergoes a process during which there is energy transfer by work from
the system of 0.147 kJ/kg, an elevation decrease of 50 m, and an increase in velocity from 15 m/s to
30 m/s. The specific internal energy decreases by 5 kJ/kg and g = 9.7 m/s 2. Determine the heat
transfer for the process in kJ.
Example 8
Piston-cylinder assembly undergoes 2 processes, A and B, between the same end states, 1 and 2,
where P1 = 1 bar, ∀1 = 1m3 , U1 = 400 kJ, P2 = 10 bar, ∀2 = 0.1 m3 , U2 = 450 kJ.
Kinetic and potential effects are ignored. For each process, A and B:
Example 9
A gas in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of three
processes:
Ignore kinetic and potential energy effects. Determine the net work of the cycle (in kJ) and the
heat transfer for process 2-3 (in kJ). Is this a power cycle or refrigeration cycle?
P – v – T Relation
o Tc = critical temperature
o Pc = critical pressure
o Maximum temperature and pressure at which liquid and vapor phases can coexist
o Critical values available in tables
Phase Change
Consider water at 20℃ (68℉) that’s slowly heated while pressure is kept constant at 1.014 bar (14.7
psi)
1. Before heating
2. Heating to 100℃
3. Continued heating
4. Continued heating
5. Continued heating
• If process is reversed by cooling under same pressure, water will return to compressed
liquid by following same path
• In above example pressure was fixed at 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
o If pressure was increased, boiling would occur at a higher temperature
o Boiling temp depends on pressure -> if pressure is fixed, then boiling point is fixed
Steam Tables
Example
Find properties associated with compressed liquid water at 10 MPa and T = 220℃.
Linear Interpolation
• must interpolate if needed data isn’t in tables
Example
Find specific internal energy for superheated water vapor at P = 0.035 MPa and T = 100℃.
Saturation Tables
• Total volume:
Example 10
For H2O determine the specified property at the indicated state. Locate the state on a T-v diagram.
Example 11
Example 12
A closed rigid tank whose ∀= 1.5m3 contains Refrigerant 134a, initially a two phase liquid-vapor
mixture at 10℃. The refrigerant is heated to a final state where is 50℃ and quality is 100%. Locate
the initial and final states on a T-v diagram. Determine mass of vapor present at initial and final
states, in kg.
Example 13
For H2O, locate each of the following states on sketches of the P-v and T-v diagrams.
a) T = 120 ℃, P = 5 bar
b) T = 120 ℃, v = 0.6 m3 ⁄kg
c) T = 120 ℃, P = 1 bar
Specific Heat
Example 14
A rigid insulated tank with a paddle wheel is filled with H2O, initially a 2-phase liquid-vapor
mixture at 20 lbf/in2 , consisting of 0.07 lb of saturated liquid and 0.07 lb of saturated vapor. The
tank contents are stirred by the paddle wheel until all of the water is saturated vapor at a pressure
greater than 20 lbf/in2 . Ignore kinetic and potential energy effects. Determine:
Property Approximation
Methods of approximation:
• Z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the same TR , PR -> Principle of
Corresponding States
• Curve fitting data leads to generalized compressibility chart
Example 15
For air at 200 K, 132 bar find Z.
• When PR is small, Z= 1
• If Pv = RT can describe a gas then specific internal energy depends only on temperature.
• To verify ideal gas model works for a gas, find Z on compressibility chart
o Z should be 1
Example 16
Find volume (m3 ) occupied by 2 kg of H2O at 100 bar, 400 ℃ using
a) Compressibility chart
b) Steam tables
Example 17
Butane in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes isothermal compression at 173 ℃ from P1 =
1.9 MPa to P2 = 2.5 MPa. Find work in kJ⁄kg. Use compressibility data to solve.
Example 18
CO2 is contained in a piston-cylinder assembly, initially at 6 bar and 400 K, undergoes an
expansion to a final temperature of 298 K, during which 𝑃𝑃∀1.2 = constant. Assuming an ideal gas
model, find:
Conservation of mass:
Example 19
Air exits a turbine at 200 kPa and 150 ℃ with a volumetric flow rate of 7000 Liters⁄s. Modeling air
as an ideal gas, determine the mass flow rate, in kg⁄s.
Example 20
A mixing tank initially contains 2000 lb of liquid H2O. The tank is fitted with two inlet pipes, one
delivering hot water at a mass flow rate of 0.8 lb⁄s and the other delivering cold water at a mass
flow rate of 1.2 lb⁄s. Water exits through a single exit pipe at a mass flow rate of 2.5 lb⁄s.
Determine the amount of water, in lb, in the tank after 30 minutes.
Example 21
Steam at 80 bar, 440 ℃ enters a turbine operating at steady-state with a volumetric flow rate of
236 m3 ⁄min. 20% of the entering mass flow exits through a diameter of 0.25 m at 60 bar, 400 ℃.
The rest exits through a diameter of 1.5 m with a P = 0.7 bar and a quality of 90%. Find velocity at
each exit duct, in m⁄s.
Evaluating Work
• If matter flows across CV boundary, work is done.
• Separate work into two pieces
o Work associated with fluid pressure as mass is introduced at inlets and removed at
exits
o All other work (rotational shafts, electrical devices, etc.) -> Ẇ CV
• Recall Ẇ = F� ∙ V�
• If F� is written in terms of pressure at exit:
• For flowing matter, the rate at which work is done by the normal force due to pressure is:
o At the exit:
o At the inlet:
Steady-State
All properties are unchanged with __________________.
Example 22
Air at 600 kPa, 330 K enters a well-insulated, horizontal pipe having a diameter of 1.2 cm and exits
at 120 kPa, 300 K. Applying the ideal gas model for air, determine at steady state:
Example 23
Steam enters a turbine operating at steady state at 700℉ and 450 lbf⁄in2 and leaves as a saturated
vapor at 1.2 lbf⁄in2 . The turbine develops 12,000 hp and heat transfer from the turbine to the
surroundings occurs at a rate of 2 × 106 Btu⁄h. Ignore kinetic and potential energy effects. Find
the volumetric flow rate of the steam at the inlet, in ft 3 ⁄s.
Diffuser:
Only work involved with nozzles/diffusers is flow work. Potential energy effects are usually
neglected.
Example 24
Air with a mass flow of 2.3 kg⁄s enters a horizontal nozzle operating at steady state at
450 K, 350 kPa, and a velocity of 3 m⁄s. At the exit, the temperature is 300K and the velocity is
460 m⁄s. Using the ideal gas model for air with constant 𝑐𝑐𝑃𝑃 = 1.011 kJ⁄kg ∙ K, find:
Turbines
Example 25
Steam at 1800 lbf⁄in2 and 1100℉ enters a turbine operating at steady-state. 20% of the entering
mass flow is extracted at 600 lbf⁄in2 and 500℉. The rest of the steam exits as saturated vapor at
1 lbf⁄in2 . The turbine develops a power output of 6.8 × 106 Btu⁄h. Heat transfer from the turbine
to the surroundings occurs at a rate of 5 × 104 Btu⁄h. Neglect kinetic and potential energy effects.
Find the mass flow rate of the steam entering the turbine, in lb⁄s.
Example 26
Refrigerant 134a enters an insulated compressor operating at steady-state. Refrigerant enters as
saturated vapor at −20 ℃. Mass flow rate is 1.2 kg⁄s. Refrigerant exits at 7 bar, 70 ℃. Ignore
kinetic and potential energy effects. Find the volumetric flow rates at the inlet and exit. Also find
the power input to the compressor in kW.
Heat Exchangers
• Devices that allow heat from a fluid to pass to a second fluid without the two fluids coming
into direct contact
• Kinetic and potential energy effects are usually ignored
Example 27
Refrigerant 134a enters a condenser operating at steady state at 70 lbf⁄in2 , 160℉ and is condensed
to saturated liquid at 60 lbf⁄in2 on the outside of tubes through which cooling water flows. In
passing through the tubes, the cooling water increases in temperature by 20 ℉ and experiences no
significant pressure drop. Cooling water is modeled as incompressible with v = 0.0161 ft 3 ⁄lb and
c = 1 Btu⁄lb ∙ °R. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 3100 lb⁄h. Neglect kinetic and potential
energy effects, as well as any heat transfer from outside of the condenser. Find:
Throttling Devices
• Achieve a reduction in pressure by introducing a restriction into a line where a fluid flows
• Examples: porous media, partially opened valve, etc.
Example 28
Ammonia enters the expansion valve of a refrigeration system at a pressure of 10 bar and a
temperature of 24 ℃ and exits at 1 bar. What is the quality of the refrigerant exiting the valve?
Example 29
Separate streams of air and water flow through the compressor and heat exchanger arrangement
shown below. Steady-state operating data are provided on the figure. Heat transfer with the
surroundings can be neglected, as can all kinetic and potential energy effects. The air is modeled as
an ideal gas. Determine
Clausius Statement
It’s impossible for any system to operate in such a way that the sole result would be an energy transfer
by heat from a cooler body to a hotter body
Kelvin-Planck Statement
• Examples of irreversibilities:
o Unrestricted expansion of a liquid or gas to lower pressure
o Spontaneous chemical reactions
o Friction – sliding and fluid
o Inelastic deformation
o Internal irreversibilities -> occur in the system
o External irreversibilities -> occur in the surroundings
_____________________________________ of:
1. For _______ system undergoing a power cycle between 2 reservoirs only a portion
of heat transfer 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 can be obtained as work
The rest is discharged to the cold reservoir
3. _____________ reversible power cycles operating between the same two reservoirs
have the same thermal efficiency
Two temperatures on Kelvin scale are in the same ratio as the values of the heat
transfer absorbed and rejected
Example 30
The data listed below are claimed for a power cycle operating between hot and cold reservoirs at
1500 K and 450 K, respectively. For each case, determine if the cycle operates reversibly,
irreversibly, or is it impossible.
Example 31
A power cycle receives 1000 Btu by heat transfer from a reservoir at 1000℉ and discharges energy
by heat transfer to a reservoir at 300℉. The thermal efficiency of the cycle is 75% of that for a
reversible power cycle operating between the same reservoirs.
a) For the actual cycle, determine the thermal efficiency and the energy discharged to the
cold reservoir, in Btu
b) Repeat for the reversible power cycle
Carnot Cycle
• Can be used to see how efficient an engine could be
• Involves a system undergoing a series of 4 internally reversible processes
Process 1-2:
Process 2-3:
Process 3-4:
Process 4-1:
• Thermal efficiency
• Reverse Carnot cycle -> Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles
o Magnitudes of energy transfers will be the same but energy transfers are in
opposite direction
Example 32
1.5 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 of water within a piston-cylinder assembly execute a Carnot power cycle. During isothermal
expansion, the water is heated at 500℉ from saturated liquid to saturated vapor. The vapor then
expands adiabatically to a temperature of 100℉ and a quality of 70.38%.
Clausius Inequality
Example 33
A system executes a power cycle while receiving 1000 kJ by heat transfer at a temperature of 500 K
and discharging energy by heat transfer at a temp of 300 K. Determine 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 if the thermal
efficiency is (a) 100 %, (b) 40 %, (c) 25 %
Chapter 6 – Entropy
T dS Equation
Consider compressible system undergoing an internally reversible process, neglect KE, PE
Example 34
1 kg of H2O contained in a piston-cylinder assembly, initially at 160 ℃, 150 kPa undergoes an
isothermal compression process to saturated liquid. For the process, W = −471.5 kJ. Determine:
a) Heat transfer, in kJ
b) Change in entropy in kJ⁄K
Example 35
5 kg of nitrogen undergoes a process from P1 = 5 bar, T1 = 400K to P2 = 2 bar, T2 = 500K.
Assuming an ideal gas, find the change in entropy in kJ⁄K, with:
____________________________________________________ process
• ____________________________________________ = __________________________
entropy process
o Adiabatic & reversible
Example 36
H2O in a piston assembly, initially at 10 lbf⁄in2 , 500 ℉, undergoes an internally reversible process
to 80 lbf⁄in2 , 800 ℉ during which the temperature varies linearly with entropy. Determine work
and heat transfer in Btu⁄lb. Neglect KE and PE effects.
Example 37
A system consisting of 10 lb of air contained within a closed, rigid tank is initially at 1 atm and
600°R. Energy is transferred to the system by heat transfer from a thermal reservoir at 900°R until
the temperature of the air is 800°R. During the process, the temperature of the system boundary
where the heat transfer occurs is 900°R. Using the ideal gas model, determine the amount of
energy transfer by heat, in Btu, ant the amount of entropy produced, in Btu⁄°R.
Example 38
Air as an ideal gas flows through the turbine and heat exchanger arrangement. Steady-state data is
given. Stray heat transfer and kinetic and potential energy can be ignored. Find:
a) Temperature T3 , in K
b) Power output of 2nd turbine, in kW
c) Rates of entropy production (kW/K) for turbine 1 and heat exchanger
d) Rank components in order of inefficiency
Isentropic Processes
• Constant entropy = _____________________________
• Ideal gas
Example 39
Argon in a piston-cylinder assembly is compressed isentropically from state 1, where P1 =
150 kPa, T1 = 35 ℃ to state 2, where P2 = 300 kPa. Assuming ideal gas model with k = 1.67, find
a) T2 in ℃
b) Work in kJ per kg of Argon