EXTRACTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF OIL FROM

Sesamum indicum L. (SESAME SEED) USING GAS

BY

OGUNBIYI BUKOLA AJOKE NSLT-19-0067

GIWA TIMILEHIN OLUBUSAYO NSLT-19-0010

DAWUD NIMOTALLAHI ADERONKE NSLT-19-0045

AKINOLA MARIAM YETUNDE NSLT-19-EP-0048

ADEYEYE ABISOLA TOLULOPE NSLT-19-0154

SUBMITTED TO

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL OF

D.S ADEGBENRO ICT POLYTHECNIC, ERUKU, ITORI, EWEKORO, OGUN

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF ORDINARY NATIONAL

NOVEMBER, 2021

1
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project research was carried out by the under listed student in the department
of Science Laboratory Technology, D.S Adegbenro ICT Polytechnic, Itori-Ewekoro, Ogun state.

OGUNBIYI BUKOLA AJOKE NSLT-19-0067

GIWA TIMILEHIN OLUBUSAYO NSLT-19-0010

DAWUD NIMOTALLAHI ADERONKE NSLT-19-0045

AKINOLA MARIAM YETUNDE NSLT-19-EP-0048

ADEYEYE ABISOLA TOLULOPE NSLT-19-0154

MISS OGUNYINKA O.O ___________________

(Project Supervisor) Signature and Date

MR. ADELOYE M.O ____________________

( H.O.D, SLT ) Signature and Date

ii
 DEDICATION

This project research is dedicated to GOD Almighty, for his love, provision and for the success granted

throughout the ND programme. Appreciation also goes to our Parents for their financial, moral and

spiritual support from our childhood till present; words alone cannot express how grateful we are to you.

You simply mean the world to us.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank God Almighty, for his infinite grace and enormous mercy over our lives throughout our ND

programme. We are also thankful to our parents for their support in all facet. Our appreciation also goes

to our project supervisor Miss. Ogunyinka. O.O for being so impactful, patient, encouraging and

supportive before and during the period of carrying out this project research. Profound gratitude to our

friends and course mates who directly or indirectly have being of help to us in the course of this work.

We pray that the Almighty God bless you all.

iv
 ABSTRACT

Edible oil is a fatty liquid that is physically extracted from several vegetables and also some animal

tissues, the most appreciated being olive oil for both taste and health properties, especially the extra-

virgin category, mechanically extracted from olives at low temperature. Edible oils are sources of

dietary fats that play an essential role in the body, satisfying nutritional needs, growth and are necessary

for proper functioning of brain and nerve system as well as the endocrine environment. This study aimed

at extracting and characterizing the oil of sesanum indicum L. The oil was extracted using soxhlet

extraction using n-hexane has solvent while the oil was characterized using Gas Chromatography-Flame

Ionization detector to analyses its fatty acid profile. The result of the Analysis showed that presence of

Linoleic Acid (42.11%), Oleic Acid (39.86%), Palmitic Acid (9.6%), Stearic Acid (7.95%), among

others. Total saturated fatty acid of 17.85%, monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) of 39.92% and

Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) of 42.23% were recorded from the oil analysis. The high content of

MUFA and PUFA in the oil suggests it beneficial effects on cardio vascular disease. However there is

need to employ conventional extraction techniques and determined its fatty acid profile.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i

Certification ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgement iv

Table of content v- viii

List of Tables ix

Abstract x

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background of Study 1

1.1 Statement of problem 2

1.2 Aim and objectives of the Study 3

1.3 Scope of the Study 3

1.4 Justification of the Study 3

1.5 Limitation of the Study 3

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 4

2.2 History 5

2.3 Production of sesame seed 6

2.4 Nutritional benefits of sesame seed 8

2.5 Utilization of sesame seed 9

2.6 Oil characterization 10

2.7 Oil Extraction 11

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2.8 Extraction Techniques 13

2.8.1 Traditional Soxhlet extraction 13

2.8.1.1 Principles of operation 13

2.8.1.2 Solvent selection 14

2.8.1.3 Benefits and drawbacks of Soxhlet Extraction techniques 15

2.9 Processing methods of sesame seed an products 15

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials 17

3.2 Reagents 17

3.3 Sample Collection 17

3.4 Procedure for sample Extraction 17

3.5 Fatty Acid Characterization by Gas Chromatography 18

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Result 19

4.2 Discussion 20

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary 23

5.2 Conclusion 23

5.3 Recommendation 23

REFERENCES 24-31

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1 A Picture of the Sesame Plant with the Seeds 7
Fig. 2 Soxhlet Extractor 14

viii
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Percentage yield of extract of sesame oil 25
Table 2: Fatty acid profile of sesame oil 26

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background of the Study

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L) is an annual flowering plant which belongs to the family pedaliaceae and

is one of the most ancient oilseeds crop known and used by mankind. It is being cultivated in the tropics

and the temperate zone of the world ( Biabani, and Pakniyat, 2008 ). It is one of the oldest oil crops and

is widely cultivated in Asia and Africa. (Ali et al., 2007). It was a highly prized oil crop of Babylon and

Assyria at least 4000 years ago (Ross, 2005). Sesame oil, otherwise also referred to as gingelly oil, is

one of the major sources of edible oil in India and is culturally associated from the Vedic period. It is

called “sesame” internationally, while it is called “benniseed” in West Africa; “simsim” in East Africa

and “Till” in India. Within Nigeria it is called different names in different localities. It is generally called

“ridi” in the Northern States. The Igalas, Idomas and Tivs of Benue State call it “Igogo”, “Ocha” and

“Ishwa” respectively. The Ibos call it “isasa” and Yorubas call it “Ekuku” or “Eeku” in parts of Ogun,

Ondo and Oyo states and Ilorin in Kwara State. (Aboje, 2011). Natural sesame oil derived from good

quality seed has a very pleasant flavour and can be consumed without further purification. Sesame was

the major oilseed crop in the ancient world due to its easiness of extraction, great stability, and

resistance to drought. It was cultivated and domesticated on the Indian subcontinent during Harapan and

Anatolian eras (Bedigian, 2004). The flower vary in color as white, blue, or purple and the seed variety

being white, black, yellow or blue which grows in their pods. The fruit when matures naturally split

open to release seeds along the septa from the top to bottom. Sesame is known to have preventive,

nutritional, curative and medicinal properties. The seeds are used either decorticated or whole in sweets

and in baked products, or milled to get the right grate of edible oil or paste (Bedigian, 2004).

1
The crop is widely neutralized in tropical regions around the world where it is cultivated for its edible

seeds (Weiss, 2000) and oil which has high behenic acid content and is a common ingredient in cuisines

around the world. Like other nuts and foods, sesame can, sesame can trigger allergic reaction in some

people (Charlene, 2016). The world produced about 4.8 million metric tons of sesame in 2013.

According to the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FOASTAT) (2013), the

largest producer of sesame in 2013 was Myanmar. In general, the world producers of sesame include

Myanmar, producing 18%, India 13%, China 12.89%, Sudan 11.5%, Tanzania 8.6%, with Myanmar,

India and China being the largest producers followed by Burma, Sudan and Mexico (FOASTAT, 2005).

The world largest exporter of sesame is India and the largest importer, Japan (Chemonics, 2002).

Sesame is grown in most African countries including all the three countries that border Nigeria. These

countries include Burkina Faso, Togo and Cote d’ Ivoire. It is not grown in commercial quantities in

Nigeria therefore considered as an exotic crop (FOASTAT, 2000).The seeds of sesame are rich in mono

unsaturated fatty acid. Oleic acid helps lower bad cholesterol (LDL) and increases good cholesterol

(HDL) in the blood (Sirato et al., 2001).

Studies suggests that, Mediterranean diet which is rich in mono unsaturated fats may help prevent

coronary artery disease and stroke by flavoring healthy serum lipid profile. The seeds are also very

valuable source of dietary protein with fine quality of amino acids that are essential for growth,

especially in children (Ali, 2005). Sesame contains sesamol and sesaminol (phenolic antioxidants) which

help stave off harmful free radicals from the human body (Gunstone, 2004). The seeds also contains

folic acid which is essential for DNA synthesis, when given to expectant mothers during their

conception period may help prevent natural tube defects in the new borne (Gokbulut, 2007). They are

also rich sources of many essential minerals such as calcium, iron, manganese, zinc, selenium, copper,

and magnesium which play vital roles in bone, mine, red blood cell production, enzyme synthesis,

hormone production as well as regulation of cardiac and skeletal muscle activities (Lyon, 2015). They

are important source of phyto nutrients such as omega- 6 fatty acid, phenolic antioxidants, vitamins and
2
dietary fibre with potential anticancer as well as health promoting properties (Contarini et al., 2008).

Sesames seeds are commonly used for soups, sauces, pastries, condiments, confectionery, bread,

therefore the need to use it in the extraction of oil for consumption, especially in the northern part of the

country.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Africans are known to derive body creams and cooking oil from nut through traditional means. One of

such means involves roasting palm kernel nuts in dried pans to “force out” the popular black palm

kernel “pomade”. Others prefer to extract their body cream from boiling coconut juice to separate the

oil. Whatever the case or seed maybe, this shows that seed oil extraction has come a long way in the

history of our culture. In recent years it has been shown that the inclusion in the diet of seeds of different

plants such as walnuts, peanuts, almonds, pecans and similar products has a beneficial effect on the

blood lipid profile which is attributed to its high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids.

In this order of ideas, it is important to develop research projects for the preparation of foods with good

functional properties that allow the projection of native legumes as nutritional and agro industrial

alternatives at the regional and national levels. It is expected that when carrying out the analyses of the

oils present in the seeds of the sesamum indicum L, and ascertain the content, as this is important for

food or for use in cosmetics

1.2 Aim and Objectives

The main aim of this research project is to extract and characterize oil from sesame seeds.

The specific objectives includes;

1. To extract essential oil from sesame seeds using soxhlet extraction technique.

2. To evaluate the physico-chemical properties of sesame oil extract.

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3. To characterize the extracted oil from sesame seed using Gas Chromatography Flame Ionization

Detector (GC-FID).

1.3 Scope of the study

This study involves the extraction of oil from Sesame (Sesamum indicum L). The sample to be used is

the dry seed. The study will employ the use of soxhlet extraction to produce essential oils from dried

sesame seed which will be characterized using Gas Chromatography- Flame Ionization Detector which

allows the use of large amount of sample.

1.4 Justification of the Study

The importance of this study includes boosting the morale of sesame farmers especially in the Northern

part of the country to increase their productivity level for economic use. It will also help introduce a

new health beneficiary product to the general public which will go a long way to improve the quality of

lives of people especially Nigerians. The study will help in the exploitation and utilization of sesame in

pharmaceutical, foods and chemical industries instead of just limiting it to bakery products, soups,

sauces, condiments and confectionery products.

1.5 Limitation of the study

This study was limited to extraction of oil from sesame seed only but not any other product using

soxhlet extraction as any other extraction method was not utilized.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), otherwise known as sesamum or benniseed, member of the family

Pedaliaceae, is one of the most ancient oilseeds crop known to mankind. Sesame plays an important role

in human nutrition. Most of the sesame seeds are used for oil extraction and the rest are used for edible

purposes (El Khier et al, 2008). Sesame is grown primarily for its oil-rich seeds. Before seeds were

appreciated for their ability to add nutty flavour or garnish foods, they were primarily used for oil and

wine (Ghandi, 2009). After the extraction of oil, the cake is mostly used for livestock feed or often as

manure. Its colour varies from cream-white to charcoal-black but it is mainly white or black. Other

colours of some sesame seed varieties include, yellow, red or brown (Naturland, 2002). In Nigeria, the

notable colours for sesame seed are white, yellow and black (Fariku et al., 2007). The lighter varieties of

sesame which are considered to be of higher quality are generally more valued in the West and Middle

East, while both the pale and black varieties are prized in the Far East. (www.wikepedia-sesame). There

are numerous varieties and ecotypes of sesame adapted to various ecological conditions (Nzioku et al.,

2010).

The major world producers include India, Sudan, China and Burma (who contribute about 60% of the

total world production) (El Khier et al, 2008). Sesame is an important crop to Nigerian agriculture: it is

quite extensively cultivated especially in Northern Nigeria. It yields in relatively poor climatic

conditions, and it is widely used within Nigeria. Moreso, it is an important component of Nigeria’s

agricultural exports (Chemonics, 2002).

Sesame seed is rich in fat, protein, carbohydrates, fibre and some minerals. The oil seed is renowned for

its stability because it strongly resists oxidative rancidity even after long exposure to air (Global

5
AgriSystems, 2010). The oil fraction shows a remarkable stability to oxidation. This could be attributed

to endogenous antioxidants namely lignins and tocopherols (Elleuch et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2008).

The seed is rich in protein and the protein has amino acid profile with good nutritional value similar to

soybean (NAERLS, 2010). The chemical composition of sesame shows that the seed is an important

source of oil (44-58%), protein (18-25%), carbohydrate (~13.5%) and ash (~5%) (Borchani et al., 2010).

Sesame seed is approximately 50 percent oil (out of which 35% is monounsaturated fatty acids and 44%

polyunsaturated fatty acids) and 45 percent meal (out of which 20% is protein) (Ghandi,2009; Hansen,

2011).

Sesame seeds are small, almost oblate in shape and have a mild and delicious aroma and taste. Sesame

seed is used whole in cooking and also yields sesame oil (Hansen, 2011). It has a rich nutty flavour

(although such heating damages their healthful polyunsaturated fats) and is used mainly as a food

ingredient in whole, broken, crushed, shelled, powdered and paste forms. Its use is country based, in the

US; it is used as some form of whole seed product for the confection and baking industries. A small

percentage percent of total production is however processed into oil, meal or flour (Hansen, 2011). In

Nigeria, the seeds are consumed fresh, dried, fried or when blended with sugar. It is also used as a paste

in some local soups. (Fariku et al., 2007).

Sesame seeds are not only used for culinary purposes but also in traditional medicines for their nutritive,

preventive and curative properties. Its oil seeds are sources for some phyto-nutrients such as omega-6

fatty acids, flavonoid phenolic anti-oxidants, vitamins and dietary fiber with potent anti-cancer as well

as health promoting properties. Sesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds used in

various countries. It is used as a cooking oil in South India and Asia and often as a flavor enhancer in

Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and to a lesser extent Southern Asia cuisine.

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It is stable and free from undesirable nutrition or flavor component (Weiss, 2000). Beniseed oil has a

natural oxidant which prevents aging and is vital for the production of liver cells (NAERLS, 2010). The

oil also contains oleic (35.9-47%), linoleic (35.6-47.6), palmitic (8.7- 13.8%), stearic (2.1-6.4%), as well

as arachidic acids (0.1-0.7%) (Elleuch et al., 2007; Borchani et al., 2010).

2.2 History

Sesame seeds are the seeds of the tropical annual Sesamum indicum. The species has a long history of

cultivation, mostly for its yield of oil. The oil plant has been grown since the beginning of arable

cultivation, and originates from the dry bush savannah of tropical Africa, and spread from there to India

and China, where it is still widely cultivated. (Naturland, 2002). Archeological records indicate that it

has been known and used in India for more than 5,000 years and is recorded as a crop in Babylon and

Assyria some 4,000 years ago (Borchani et al., 2010).

Sesame was cultivated during the Indus valley civilization and was the main oil crop. It was probably

exported to Mesopotamia around 2500 BCE and was known in Akkadian and Sumerian as 'ellu'. Prior to

600 BC, the Assyrians used sesame oil as a food, salve, and medication, primarily by the rich, as the

difficulty of obtaining it made it expensive. Hindus used it in votive lamps and considered the oil sacred.

2.3 Production of sesame seed

Global production of sesame seed is estimated by FAO at 3.15 mn tonnes per year (2001) having risen

from 1.4 mn tonnes in the early 1960’s. However only a small proportion of the global sesame harvest

enters international trade. For the most part, the oil is expressed locally and used locally for cooking or

the seeds themselves are eaten, particularly after being fried.

Sesame is grown in many parts of the world on over 5 million acres (20,000 km2). The largest producer

of the crop in 2007 was India, China, Myanmar, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda and Nigeria. Seventy percent

of the world's sesame crop is grown in Asia, with Africa growing 26% (Hansen, 2011).

7
The largest producers are China and India, each with an annual harvest around 750,000 tonnes followed

by Myanmar (425,000 tonnes) and Sudan (300,000 tonnes). These figures are only rough estimates of

the situation as sesame is a smallholder crop and much of the harvest is consumed locally, without

record of the internal trade and domestic processing. Nigeria has a great market potential for sesame

seed production for domestic and export markets noting that the production figures of the commodity

has been on a steady increase since 1980, reaching 67000 MT by 1997 and was estimated to reach 139,

000 MT by the year 2010, according to the federal ministry of agriculture and natural resources (Joseph,

2009). This is agreement with the 2008 annual report of the Central Bank of Nigeria which states there

has been a rise in production of sesame seed from 98,000,000 to 152,000,000 kg from 2003 to 2007

(CBN, 2009).

Out of the estimated 3.5million hectares of Nigeria’s arable land suitable for the growth of sesame seed,

only 300,000 is currently used for the crop. However average yield of crop is about 300kg/ha which is 4

times lower than the average yield of other seed crops eg groundnut and soybeans. In major production

zones in the country, it is used in traditional food recipes and snacks rather than for export purposes

(NAERLS, 2010). Nigeria was the largest supplier to the Japanese market, the world’s largest import

market for sesame (Chemonics, 2002). Thus, the potentials for beniseed production in Nigeria is high

since Japan, as well as Taiwan and Korea, generate global demand and offer opportunity for Nigerian

growers. Nigeria has a 6% share of the $600 million global market for sesame seed (Nigeria’s Harvest,

2009).

Sesame was widely grown in Middle Belt, Northern and Central Nigeria as a minor crop initially in

1974 when it became a major cash crop in many Northern States eg Benue, Kogi, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano,

Nasarawa, Katsina, Plateau, Yobe and Federal capital Territory (NAERLS, 2010). Sesame is commonly

grown by smallholder farmers. The major producing areas in order of priority are Nasarawa, Jigawa and

Benue States. Other important areas of production are found in Yobe, Niger, Kano, Katsina, Kogi,

8
Gombe and Plateau States. Harvesting begins in late December and continues through July. Each

producing area has only one season.

There are 2 types of sesame produced in Nigeria

1. White/raw = Food-grade used in bakery industry. 98-100% whitest grade seeds

2. Brown/mixed = Primarily oil-grade

The White (Food Grade) seed is grown around the towns of Keffi, Lafia/Makurdi, Doma, and in

Nassarawa, Taraba, and Benue States. It is easier to sort and the Fumani/Denin people consume sesame

locally. The Brown/mixed grows in the North, in Kano State and in Jigawa State near Hadejia, and

somewhat in the southern part of Katsina State. There is some local consumption of the brown grade,

but not much. The brown can be upgraded to food grade through bleaching, as discussed earlier

(Chemonics, 2002). Several varieties of sesame are cultivated in Nigeria.

Fig. 1. A Picture of the Sesame Plant with the Seeds

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2.4 Nutritional benefits of sesame seed

Sesame seed (Sesamum indicum L.) is an oilseed with a chemical composition of about 50-52% oil, 17-

19% protein and 16-18% carbohydrate (Tunde-Akintunde and Akintunde, 2004). Its seed contains about

42-54 % quality oil, 22-25 % protein, 20-25 % carbohydrates and 4-6% ash (El Khier et al, 2008). The

hull contains large quantities of oxalic acid, crude fiber, calcium and other minerals. When the seed is

properly dehulled, the oxalic acid content is reduced from about 3 % to less than 0.25 % of the seed

weight (Akinoso et al., 2010). Sesame seed contains antioxidants which inhibit the development of

rancidity in the oil. In the food industry, where synthetic antioxidants are used extensively, there is an

increasing demand for more of these natural products (Bennet, 2011). The nutritional benefits derived

from sesame seeds are based on the variety being utilized.

Sesame seed (Sesamum indicum L.), from Northern Congo were reported to contain 5.7% moisture,

48.5% crude oil, 20% crude proteins, 7.78% carbohydrate (by difference), 9.4% crude fiber and 4.2%

ash (Nzikou et al., 2009; 2010). The protein content of White Sudan sesame seed was high (~25%)

similar to other foodstuffs rich in proteins such as almond, hazelnut protein the contents of which were

respectively, 20% and 21% (Borchani et al., 2010). The ash content in raw sesame was relatively high

(~5%) compared to other products of great consumption such as almond (3%), and the pistachio (2.7%)

(Borchani et al., 2010). Other Sudanese local and improved varieties considered by El Khier et al (2008)

had protein content of 32.50 to 35.94 and 33.43 to 40.00 respectively.

The seeds also contained significant amount of important minerals with the Potassium concentration

being the highest, followed by Phosphorus, Magnesium, Calcium and Sodium (Loumouamou et al.,

2010). For White sesame seed (S. indicum L.) from Sudan, oil was 52.24%, protein 25.97%, fibre

19.33% and ash 4.685 (El Khier et al, 2008). The predominant mineral composition was calcium

followed by potassium, magnesium and phosphorus. All other elements were present in comparatively

low concentrations (Elleuch et al., 2007). This is similar to the results obtained by Borchani et al. (2010)

10
for white Sudanese sesame. Potassium is an essential nutrient and has an important role is the synthesis

of amino acids and proteins. Calcium and Magnesium plays a significant role in photosynthesis,

carbohydrate metabolism, nucleic acids and binding agents of cell walls. Calcium assists in teeth

development and Magnesium is an essential mineral for enzyme activity, like calcium and chloride;

magnesium also plays a role in regulating the acid-alkaline balance in the body. Phosphorus is needed

for bone growth, kidney function and cell growth. It also plays a role in maintaining the body’s acid-

alkaline balance. The presence of these minerals also confirms the fat that sesame seed is of high

nutritional benefit to its consumers.

2.5 Utilization of sesame seed

Sesame is grown for its seeds, and the primary use of the sesame seed is as a source of oil for cooking.

The young leaves may also be eaten in stews, and the dried stems may be burnt as fuel with the ash used

for local soap making, but such uses are entirely subordinate to seed production. In West Africa, the

shoots and young leaves of the varieties S. alatum and S. radiatum are eaten as a vegetable.

Sesame is commercialized in a number of forms. Most sesame is processed directly into oil by the

grower or within the producing region, but can also be sold in various stages of processing, for various

uses, such as meal, paste, confections, and bakery products. Sesame seeds can also be consumed directly

as a highly nutritious foodstuff (Naturland, 2002). Sesame seeds have delicate nutty flavor. Their flavor

indeed becomes more pronounced once they are gently roasted under low flame just for few minutes.

De-hulled sesame seed is mainly used to add texture, taste and aesthetic value to a variety of bakery

products like bread, bread sticks, cookies, sesame bars etc; and also as an additive to cereal mixes and

crackers. It is also used in the making of tahin or sesame butter - a paste of ground sesame seeds, which

is used as an ingredient (in Greece) and halva, placed within breads or sprinkled on the surface of bread

and breadsticks as a garnish (Germany and the Netherlands) and for the preparation of rolls, crackers,

cakes and pastry products in commercial bakeries (Nzikou et al., 2009). Ground and processed seeds can

11
also be used in sweet confections, candies are made from sesame mixed with honey or syrup and roasted

(in South Asia, middle East and East Asia) while sesame paste and starch are used to make goma-dofu

(Japan). Sesame seed can also be in the manufacture of margarine, sprinkled over salads and desserts,

particularly sundaes and other ice cream based preparations, preparation of gomshino (a Japanese

delicacy) and soybean oil. It can also be used in other food dishes including Mexican and East Asian

cuisines.

Sesame seed is primarily grown for its oil in Nigeria and the oil is a primary source of cooking oil in

Eastern Nigeria. Sesame seed is an excellent source of high quality oil and protein, its oil is odourless

and close in quality to olive oil (Tunde-Akintunde and Akintunde, 2007). Sesame oil has no odour, it is

straw-like in colour and has an excellent taste. Sesame seed oil is a natural salad oil, requiring little or no

winterization, is one of the few vegetable oils that can be used directly without refining and is used

widely as cooking oil. Because of the excellent quality of the edible oil it produces, sesame is often

called queen of the oil seed crops. Light sesame oil have a high smoke point and is suitable for deep-

frying, while dark sesame oil (from roasted sesame seeds) has a slightly lower smoke point and is

unsuitable for deep- frying. Instead it can be used for the stir frying of meats or vegetables, or for the

making of an omelette. East Asian cuisines often use roasted sesame oil for seasoning. It is also used

widely for production of magarine, shortening, canned sardine and beef as well as in soap and

confectionary industries (NAERLS, 2010). Sesame oil has a high preservative effect though the seeds

are prone to rancidity because of its high oil content. The oil prevents rancidity due to a preservative

within the oil called sesamol. Sesame oil obtained during the first, cold pressing is one of the costliest

produced. The oil is light yellow, does not dry out, and can be used with strong heat. Sesame oil

obtained from the second, warm pressing and extraction has a lower quality than cold-pressed.

In the industry, sesame oil may be used as a solvent in injected drugs or intravenous drip solutions, a

cosmetics carrier oil, to coat stored grains to prevent weevil attacks. The oil also has synergy with some

12
insecticides. Lower grade sesame oil can be used locally in soaps, lubricants, and illuminants. Sesame

oil can also be used as a raw material in the manufacture of inks (sesame oil yields a top quality ink after

it is burnt), paints, and pharmaceuticals (as healing oil or a vehicle for drug delivery). The oil also has

additional use in the industrial preparation of perfumery, cosmetics (skin conditioning agents and

moisturizers, hair preparations, bath oils, hand products and make-up), insecticides and paints and

varnishes. However, all of these uses are comparatively insignificant in terms of the quantities used.

Different cultures have different traditional uses for sesame. In Nigeria, industrial processing and

utilization of sesame have not been fully developed. However, the product is locally processed and

utilized in various forms in the states where the crop is cultivated. Principal among the products are:

“Kantun Ridi” and “Kunun Ridi”. At the local level, oil is also extracted from the seed and the cake is

made into “Kulikuli” which together with the leaves are used to prepare local soup known as “Miyar

Taushe”. The oil is used locally for cooking as well as for medicinal purposes such as the treatment of

ulcers and burns. The stem and the oil extract are equally used in making local soap. In all the states

where sesame is cultivated, women are more involved in the local processing of sesame seed into

commercial products.

2.6 Oil characterization

The different variety of sesame plant, cultivation climate, soil type, ripening stage, the harvesting time

of the seeds and the extraction method used has an important effect on the yield and quality of oil

obtained from sesame (Nigeria’s Harvest, 2009; El Khier et al., 2008). Black seed types have been

reported to contain less oil than white and brown seeded strains (Akinoso et al., 2010). Composition of

fatty acids in sesame oil was also reported to be variable among the different cultivars worldwide (El

Khier et al., 2008).

13
The chemical properties of oil are amongst the most important properties that determines the present

condition of the oil. Free fatty acid and peroxide values are valuable measures of oil quality. The

chemical properties of white and black sesame seed varieties from Hong, Adamawa State, Nigeria was

determined. The unsaponifiable matter (% of oil), saponification value (mg KOH/g), iodine value (g/100

g) and free fatty acid (% Oleic) was 0.76, 150.26, 98.20 and 0.78 while that of the black variety was

0.71, 158.04, 106.26 and 0.73 respectively (Fariku et al., 2007). Oil obtained from another Nigerian

variety (Goza-25) had the following properties; peroxide value varied from 3.9 and 15.4 meq/kg while

oxidative stability varied from 13 h to 63.3 h (Akinoso et al., 2010). These values are significantly

different from values obtained from varieties in other locations.

The iodine value of some local Sudanese and imported sesame seed cultivars varied from 101.52 to

114.85g/100g for the local cultivars and 97.70 to 111.30 g/100g for the introduced cultivars (El Kheir et

al., 2008). Saponification value varied from 174 – 196.32 mg/g for local and 182.31 - 198.02mg/g for

improved, while the Peroxide value varied from 2.22 – 15.07 meq/H 2O2/Kg for local and 2.24 – 10

meq/H2O2/Kg for improved. The acid value however varied form 3.1 – 6.6 mg/g for local and 3.1 –

9.3mg/g for introduced. The chemical properties of oil obtained from white Sudanese sesame seed are

iodine value 113.35 g of I2 100 g-1 of oil, saponification value 186.60 mg KOH g-1 oil, peroxide value

0.14 meqO2kg-1 oil, acid value 1.64 mg KOH g-1 oil, and free fatty acids 0.82 % of Oleic acid

(Borchani et al., 2010). Oil obtained from solvent extraction of Northern Congo sesame seed had the

following chemical properties; iodine value of 117.2gl2/100g, free fatty acid value of 0.06 % oleic acid,

saponification value of 197 and peroxide value of 0.06 meq/H2O2/Kg (Nzikou et al., 2009; 2010).

Generally the high iodine values of sesame oil is an indication of the presence of unsaturated fatty acid

and this places the oil in the drying groups, The low value of free fatty acid shows that this oil is stable.

The higher oxidative stability of raw sesame oil could be attributed to the presence of such natural

antioxidants as tocopherols, sesamin and sesamolin (Elleuch et al., 2007). The saponification value is

14
high and this suggests the use of the oil in production of liquid soap, shampoos and lather shaving

creams. the peroxide value is lower than that expected of rancid oil, which ranges from 20.00 to 40.00

mg.gG1 oil (Nzioku et al, 2010). This shows that sesame oil is not rancid and is considered stable.

2.7 Oil Extraction

Extraction is an important step for the separation, identification, and use of valuable compounds from

different plants (Stevigny et al. 2007). The choice of an acceptable technique to obtain maximum yield

and highest purity varies according to the nature of the target compound.

Numerous chemical and mechanical processes like solvent extraction and steam distillation are used for

the extraction of compounds from plants (Shirsath et al. 2012).

The existing techniques used for the extraction of essential oils, fat, and oils include Soxhlet,

hydrodistillation, and maceration with alcohol (Wang and Weller 2006). The mass transfer resistances

due to the involvement of more than one phase within the system repeatedly limit the use of traditional

Soxhlet extraction techniques (Jadhav et al. 2009). This separation method requires a very long time

depending on the diffusion rates of solvents. Furthermore, standard extraction techniques are energy

intensive (Puri et al. 2012). These techniques are manual processes, and reproducibility is a major

challenge (Shen and Shao 2005). Thermally sensitive components are deteriorated by the heating

process, resulting in low extraction yields. These active molecules might be altered by the pH,

temperature, and pressure conditions used. The limitations mentioned above, combined with the

significant increase in the demand for bioactive components, essential oils, fat, and oils, have prompted

the need for appropriate, selective, cost-saving, and eco-friendly extraction technologies that are rapid,

produce higher yields, and comply with relevant legislation (Ibánez et al. 2012). This has led to the

development of novel extraction processes, such as supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), to enhance the

product quality and the quantity of the active natural products (Sajfrtová et al. 2010, Bimakr et al. 2012).

15
In the last few years, SFE has received significant attention as a promising alternative to conventional

technology for separation of various valuable compounds from natural sources (Gomes et al. 2007, Liu

et al. 2010). This is because the technique is generally performed at low temperatures and short

extraction times and a little amount of solvent is used as compared with traditional extraction methods

(Liza et al. 2010). Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction has attracted a lot of interest

because carbon dioxide (CO2) is an inert, low-cost, nontoxic, and environmentally-friendly solvent that

permits extraction at low temperatures and comparatively low pressures.

In addition, CO2 can evaporate instantly when exposed to atmospheric conditions (Herrero et al. 2010).

As CO2 is a nonpolar solvent, adding a little quantity of polar solvents as cosolvent can greatly enhance

the extraction efficiency of polar compounds. Among the prominently used solvents, ethanol (EtOH) is

the most commonly used because of its high miscibility with CO2, nontoxicity, and allowed use in the

food and pharmaceutical industries (Herrero et al. 2010). SC-CO2 has been found to be selective in the

isolation of desired compounds without leaving any toxic residues in the extracts and with no risk of

thermal degradation of the processed product. In reality, SC-CO2 extracts are most often recognized as

safe to use in food products (Gerard and May 2002). Extraction with SC-CO 2 has become comparatively

mature with potential applications for the extraction of valuable compounds from solid plant matrices

and seed oil.

Soxhlet extraction (Luque de Castro and Priego 2010), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE)

(Kaufmann and Christen 2002, Tripti et al. 2009), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) (Vinatoru 2001,

Patist and Bates 2008, Vilkhu et al. 2008), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) (Kaufmann and Christen

2002, Smith 2002), and SFE of vegetable materials (Sovová and Stateva 2011).

2.8 Extraction techniques

2.8.1 Traditional Soxhlet extraction

16
2.8.1.1 Principles of operation

Basic techniques for the extraction of fat and oils from seed matrices are based primarily on the

selection of solvent, including the use of heat and agitation. Soxhlet extraction, which has been the

oldest method of extraction, is the most referenced technique for evaluating the performance of other

solid-liquid extraction methods except in restricted fields of applications, such as the extraction of

thermolabile compounds (Luque de Castro and Priego 2010). An overview of Soxhlet extraction of solid

materials has been reported by Luque de Castro and Priego (2010).

Figure 2 shows the standard Soxhlet system. The seed materials (solids) are placed in the thimble-holder

and filled with condensed fresh solvent from a distillation flask. As the liquid reaches an overflow level,

a siphon aspirates the solution of the thimble-holder and unloads it into the distillation flask, carrying

extracted solutes into bulk of the liquid. In the solvent flask, solutes are separated from the solvent using

distillation. Solutes are left in the flask and fresh solvent passes into the solid bed. The operation is

repeated until complete extraction is achieved.

Soxhlet extraction and heat reflux extraction are not the same process. Heat reflux extraction can be

performed simply by boiling the material in the solvent, where a chilled surface is used to condense the

rising solvent vapors as they boil off and return them to a liquid state in the container, without boiling

away. The extract continues to concentrate in the solvent and is reduced to essence later. Soxhlet

extraction, on the other hand, is for separating parts that are soluble in a solvent.

17
 Fig 2:- Soxhlet Extractor

2.8.1.2 Solvent selection

An appropriate extracting solvent ought to be selected for the extraction of targeted component using the

Soxhlet extraction technique. Different solvents will yield entirely different extracts and extract

compositions (Zarnowski and Suzuki 2004). The most generally used solvent for extraction of edible

oils from plant sources is hexane.

This is due to its low boiling temperature and easy recovery and since most oils are soluble in hexane.

The disadvantage of n-hexane is its hazardous air pollution level (Mamidipally and Liu 2004). The use
18
of alternative solvents such as isopropanol, ethanol, hydrocarbons, and water has increased because of

environmental, health, and safety considerations. d-Limonene and hexane have been employed in the

extraction of oil from rice bran (Mamidipally and Liu 2004). It was observed that d-limonene extracted a

considerably higher quantity of oil than hexane did under any given set of conditions. At a pH of 12,

water (H2O) was used to extract rice bran oil (Hanmoungjai et al. 2000). The oil extracted using the

aqueous medium had a lower content of free fatty acid (FFA) and color imparting than did oil extracted

using hexane. Low FFA offers low initiation of products’ oxidation and coloring of materials. However,

using different solvents often results in less recovery because of a decrease in molecular affinity

between solvent and solute. The costs of alternative solvents such as acetone and ethanol (hexane is the

standard) may be higher. A cosolvent is commonly added in order to increase the polarity of the liquid

phase. A mixture of solvents such as isopropanol and hexane has been reported to increase the yield and

kinetics of the extraction (Li et al. 2004).

2.8.1.3 Benefits and drawbacks of Soxhlet extraction techniques

The benefits of conventional Soxhlet extraction method include keeping the system far from equilibrium

by constantly exposing the solid matrix to fresh solvent, maintaining high extraction temperature to

enable recovery of the compounds of interest, and not requiring filtration after leaching. Additionally,

the Soxhlet extraction is a very simple and a low-cost technique (Luque de Castro and Priego 2010).

The major disadvantages of conventional Soxhlet extraction method include the following: the

extraction time is lengthy and the process is labor intensive; a considerable amount of solvent is

consumed; agitation cannot be provided in the extraction device to speed up the process; the large

solvent used needs an evaporation/ concentration procedure; there is risk of thermal decomposition of

the target compounds; there is no selective extraction; and the process allows manipulations of limited

variables. The time and the requirement of a large amount of solvent result in wide criticism of Soxhlet

extraction technique (Luque de Castro and Priego 2010).

19
2.9 Processing methods of sesame seed and products

Sesame seed processing is basically done to clean and dehull seed as well as to extract oil from seed.

Sesame can be processed to several different stages, such as simply cleaning, or cleaning and dehulling,

cleaning/dehulling/drying, cleaning/dehulling/drying/crushing for oil, etc. Generally, sesame seeds are

cleaned, dehulled (important because of presence of tannins which are located in hulls). In Nigeria,

dehulling is done by soaking in a salt solution overnight. Seeds are rubbed in a mortar to loosen pericarp

and then kernel is separated from oat by sedimentation washing (NAERLS, 2010). After dehulling,

seeds are washed and then dried usually with sun-drying.

Conditioning of oil seeds is an important operation in the production line of sesame oil. These activities

include roasting, flaking, size reduction, cooking, pre-pressing and drying. Dehydrating and roasting of

sesame seeds before oil expression improves sesame oil yield and quality. Also the oxidative stability of

oil and by-products has been reported to depend on processing techniques and variety of seeds (Akinoso

et al., 2010). Beniseed oil extraction is done traditionally in Nigeria by pounding the seeds in a mortar

and pouring water into it (Tunde-Akintunde and Akintunde, 2007). The oil floats to the surface from

where it can be removed by skimming. This method is slow and laborious and results in low oil yield.

Other traditional methods involve crushing to paste using a local grinding machine. Boiling water is

added to the paste, stirred and left for 24h. The oil floating on top of the paste is decanted and the

process is repeated until negligible oil is formed (Fariku et al., 2007). Another oil extraction method is to

roast seeds for 5 – 19 minutes at 180 – 210oC and then mill. Oil is pressed out by adding water to the

milled product (NAERLS, 2010). After oil extraction, the cake is dried by sun drying and milled to

obtain defatted flour.

The processing of sesame products in the US is similar but the facilities used are different (Hansen,

2011). After harvesting, the seeds are cleaned and hulled. The seeds pass through an air separation stage

to remove any foreign particles. About 10 percent of this "cleaned natural seed" moves directly into food

20
use as whole seed to be blended into flour for baked goods. Next, a combination of water and friction

work together as the seeds are passed against the chamber of the hulling machine to separate the hull

from the seeds. This dust- free de-hulled seed makes up 30 percent of domestic production and has a

99.97 percent purity for the baked goods market. Once the seeds have been hulled, they are passed

through an electronic color-sorting machine that rejects any discolored seeds to ensure perfectly colored

sesame seeds. Immature or off-sized seed is removed but saved for oil production. Sesame oil is

extracted by pressure in a mechanical expeller and is tolerant of only minimal heating by the extraction

process. This pure, mechanically expressed oil is called “virgin” oil and is preferred by many food

handlers. The oil is often blended with other vegetable oils for salads and other food uses. Sesame oil

should be kept refrigerated. Sesame seeds can become rancid if exposed to prolonged heat. If properly

stored, the packed seeds have a 2-year shelf life with little reduction in quality (Hansen, 2011).

21
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

Materials used for the experiment carried out are listed below:

1. Analytical Balance (Gulfex FA 2104)

2. Gas Chromatograph (Agilent 7890A, Agilent Technologies, USA)

3. Freezer, capable of maintaining 4 oC.

4. Hot Plate

5. Hot-Air Oven (Labnet)

6. Heating Mantle, with variable heat settings

7. Micropipet (variable volume)

8. Pestle and Mortar

9. Soxhlet Extractor

10. Sesame seed

3.2 Reagents

1. n-butanol (Fisher, USA)

2. n-hexane (Fisher, USA)

3. N-methanol (Fisher, USA)

4. Fatty Acid Standards (AccuStandards, USA)

22
3.3 Sample Collection

The Sample Sesamum indicum L. were collected from Lafenwa Market, Abeokuta south and then

preserved by storage in clear polythene bag.

3.4 Procedure for Sample Extraction

A portion of the sesame seed sample was ground to a coarse powder, with pestle and mortar. Thereafter,

50 g of the ground sample was weighed into an extraction thimble, and placed in the soxhlet extractor.

The extractor was fitted to a flask, with 200 ml hexane, and placed on a heating mantle. A reflux

condenser was fitted. The oil in the sample was then extracted by refluxing at 60℃, for 6 hours.

The extract was quantitatively transferred to a tarred flask, and placed on a hot plate (at 40°C) to

evaporate the hexane. The residue (oil) was placed in a desiccators and allowed to cool to 25℃, weighed

and then saved as crude extracts for further analysis. The percentage yield of extracted oil was

calculated as

weight of extract oil ( g ) ={ weight of dish+ extract ( g ) }−weight of empty dish(g)

weight of extract ( g ) x 100

3.5 Fatty Acid Characterization by Gas Chromatography

Fatty acid profiles were measured by derivitization, converting the corresponding fatty acids to

corresponding fatty acid methyl esters. Briefly, 2 ml of n-hexane was added to 0.02 g of oil to obtain

fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) by cold transmethylation with methanolic potassium hydroxide. Then,

200 µL of methanolic potassium hydroxide solution (2 N) was added and vigorously mixed. The extract

was dried over anhydrous magnesium sulphate. The supernatant was then carefully transferred to a glass

23
vial and analyzed by gas chromatography in an Agilent 7890A Gas Chromatograph, equipped with a

flame ionization detector. (Agilent Technologies, USA). This was performed using a HP 5-M column

(30 m x 0.25 mm, id x 0.2 µm film thickness).

The oven temperature program was an initial temperature of 130 0C, followed by an increase of 50C/min

from 130 to 2600C, and then maintained at 2600C for 4 min.

The temperature of the injector and detector was 220 and 260 0C, respectively, with an injection volume

of 1 µL. Helium was used as the carrier gas (120 kPa).

Each FAME was identified by direct comparison with a standard mixture (AccuStandards, USA).

Quantitation was performed using Agilent GC Software (ChemStation), and results are expressed as the

relative percentage of each fatty acid, on the basis of relative peak areas.

24
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULT

The extraction of oil from sesame seed using soxhlet extraction, gave a yield of 12.51% as shown below

Oil Content
(a) Weight of empty dish (g) 9.0450
(b) Weight of dish + extract (oil) (g) 10.2959
(c) Weight of extract (oil) (g) 1.2509
(d) Weight of sample taken (g) 10.0000
Yield (%) [(c) x 100/(d)] 12.51
Table 1: Percentage yield of Extract of Sesame Oil

Fatty acid characterization of sesame oil extract using Gas- chromatography Flame Ionization Detector

(GC-FID)

2. Fatty Acid Profile

Fatty Acid Methyl Esters Fatty Acids

(C16:1)
Stearic Acid Methyl Ester (C18:0) 7.342080 Stearic Acid (C18:0) 7.95
Oleic Acid Methyl Ester (C18:1) 40.564129 Oleic Acid (C18:1) 39.86
Linoleic Acid Methyl Ester (C18:2) 42.682570 Linoleic Acid (C18:2) 42.11
Linolenic Acid Methyl Ester (C18:3) 0.124481 Linolenic Acid (C18:3) 0.12
Lauric Acid Methyl Ester (C12:0) 0.024054 Lauric Acid (C12:0) 0.20
Total Fatty Acid Methyl Ester 100.0054 Total Fatty Acid 100.00
Saturated Fatty Acid 17.85
Monounsaturated Fatty Acid 39.92
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid 42.23

Table 2: Fatty Acid Profile of Sesame Oil

Table 2 of the fatty acid characterization of sesame oil extract showed that, C 18:1 and C18:2 acids were

present at approximately the close level. In the analysis of fatty acid, C 18:1 and C18:2 acids have the

highest levels percentage concentration (39.86 and 42.11%, respectively), this result correlate with those

25
obtained with Algerian sesame seeds but with lower levels (C 18:1:acid 39.56–40.74% and C18:2:acid

41.03–42.05%) Murwan et al., (2007).

The results are in agreement with those of Elleuch et al., 2007, who found that the sesame seeds oil were

a good source of C18:1 n-9 (39.56–40.36%) and C18:2 (41.03–42.19%) acids.

Oleic (C18:1 n-9), linoleic (C18:2), palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) acids were the predominant fatty acids

in the samples and accounted for more than 99% of the total fatty acids. The values obtained were

closely in the ranges reported by (Crews et al., 2006; Were et al., 2006; Elleuch et al., 2007).

4.2 Discussion

Both oleic and linoleic acids had different mechanisms on the inflammatory phase of wound healing in

rats. Therefore, proinflammatory effect of these acids may speed up the wound healing process (Pereira

et al., 2015).

Oleic Acid’s high lipid count makes it a great moisturizer, and a number of cosmetic companies add it to

lotions and soaps in order to boost their ability to nourish the skin.

The present study showed also that the linolenic (C 18:3) acid content in all extract was slightly lower than

that found in the literature (Were et al., 2006; Elleuch et al., 2007).

Myristic acid, a short-chain saturated fatty acid (14:0), is one of the most abundant fatty acids in milk fat

(above 10%) (Verruck et al., 2019). This fatty acid is known because it accumulates fat in the body,

however, its consumption also impacts positively on cardiovascular health. In cosmetics and personal

care products, Myristic Acid functions as an opacifying agent and a surfactant cleansing agent.

Palmitic acid a natural saturated acid, present in plants, animals, and microorganisms. It is among the

fatty acids that are used in concentration in cosmetics. Palmitic acid is well known for its ability to

increase levels of cholesterol and promote fat deposition in coronary arteries and other tissues of the

body.
26
Palmitoleic acid is an important fatty acid for pharmaceutical applications. It is postulated to have anti-

thrombotic effects, which can help prevent stroke (Ogbonna et al., 2013)). Palmitoleic acid may improve

another essential process – fat burning (Borchani et al., 2010).

Stearic acid a saturated fatty acid with an 18- carbon chain and the IUPAC name octadecanoic acid was

found, Stearic acid is mainly used in the production of detergents, soaps, and cosmetics such as

shampoos and shaving cream products. Soaps are not made directly from stearic acid, but indirectly by

saponification of triglycerides consisting of stearic acid esters. Esters of stearic acid with ethylene

glycol, glycol stearate, and glycol distearate are used to produce a pearly effect in shampoos, soaps, and

other cosmetic products. They are added to the product in molten form and allowed to crystallize under

controlled conditions. Detergents are obtained from amides and quaternary alkylammonium derivatives

of stearic acid. Surfactants, cosmetics and personal hygiene products are in fact prospects of stearic acid.

Lauric acid can be metabolized into ketone bodies, which are important energy sources for extrahepatic

organs in the body, such as the brain, heart and muscle. Among all fatty acids, lauric acid contributes the

least to fat accumulation.

In the fatty Acid profile, saturated fatty acid is 17. 85%, too much saturated fat cause cholesterol to build

up in the arteries (blood vessels). It also raises the Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL) cholesterol which is

bad to the body. High LDL cholesterol increases risk for heart disease and stroke.

The Monounsaturated Fatty Acid (MUFA) and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (PUFA) are 39.92 and

42.23% respectively. In the extract, the total content of MUFA and PUFA is approximately 82%.

Our results for fatty acid composition are consistent with the corresponding data reported for sesame

seeds from different origins (Crews et al., 2006) who observed that the oils extracted with the solvents,

contained identical fatty acid species but with modest differences in concentrations.

27
Fatty acid distribution of sesame oils as presented in Table 2 shows that the major saturated fatty acids

in Sesamum indicum L seed oil were palmitic, Stearic acids and main unsaturated fatty acids are linoleic

and oleic acids Linoleic acid which is one of the most important polyunsaturated fatty acids in human

food because of its prevention of distinct heart vascular diseases (Boelhouwer, 2013)

High monounsaturated fatty acids diets exhibited various benefits on cardiovascular disease risk factors

beyond those associated with plasma lipids and lipoproteins. A diet rich in monounsaturated fat had

beneficial effects on blood pressure and glucose metabolism (Gillman et al, 2012).

28
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

This study investigates the extraction technique and characterization process of oil from sesame seed

using Gas- Chromatography- Flame Ionization detector. analysis was carried out to investigate Fatty

acid and Fatty Acid Methyl Esters characterization of sesame oil extract; the fatty acid analyze includes

Myristic Acid, Palmitic Acid, Palmitolenic Acid, Stearic Acid, Oleic Acid Linoleic Acid, Linolenic

Acid, Lauric Acid, Saturated fatty acid, Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), and Polyunsaturated fatty

acid (PUFA). The Fatty Acid Methyl Ester includes Myristic Acid Methyl Ester, Palmitic Acid Methyl

Ester, Palmitolenic Acid Methyl Ester, Stearic Acid Methyl Ester among others.

5.2 Conclusion

Analyses of Sesame oils indicated their high contents of unsaturated fatty acids. Therefore, this study

provide information about nutritional and health impact of sesame oil which serve as nutritional sources

of natural antioxidants for health promotion and disease prevention.

Therefore, in view of the results, sesame is an important source of both unsaturated fatty acids and

natural antioxidants, confirming its role as an important oleaginous crop for human nutrition.

5.3 Recommendation

The majority of studies carried out on the nonconventional methods of oil extraction have been centered

on laboratory batch processes. There is need to extend the research to continuous microwave and

ultrasound assisted extraction as well as supercritical fluid extraction systems at the laboratory scale and

subsequent scale-up to both pilot and industrial systems. An important and useful extension of this work

29
is to carry out the economic evaluation of the various nonconventional extraction systems to evaluate

their profitability.

Further quality parameters like refractive index, specific gravity, moisture content, iodine value peroxide

value (PV) should also be carried out on the research.

In further study, wet samples could be extracted and other extraction methods could be used.

30
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