6.

COLONIAL MINING SECTOR

 Colonial mining sector refers to the sector of colonial economy which dealt with extraction of minerals from
the ground. Such minerals were gold, copper, silver, iron, diamond, tin, salt and other valuable stones.
 This sector gained momentum after mineral revolution in South Africa when Diamond Kimberly in 1867 and
Gold in Witwatersrand in 1886. For example, the colonization of Southern and Northern Rhodesia (present
day Zimbabwe and Zambia) was nessesary since Cecil Rhodes intended to grab more areas which had
minerals.
 Mining activities in colonies were held by white men corporations which invested huge capital in buying
advanced equipments for mining.
The following are some colonial mining corporations in Africa.
 In German East Africa (Tanganyika)
i. Kironda Goldminen Gesellschaft mined gold at Sekenke on the Iramba plateaus.
ii. Zentralafirkanische Seengeleschaft produced salt in Uvinza near Lake Tanganyika.
 In Tanganyika under British
i. Williamson Diamond Limited was formed in 1940 at Mwadui Shinyanga by Canadian geologist Dr. J. T.
Williamson.
ii. Tan gold Mining Company mined gold at Kiabakari in present Mara region and Geita in Mwanza in 1922.
 
 In Belgium Congo
i. Union Miniere du Haut-Katanga (UMHK) mined copper from Katanga in Congo basin.
 In British Central and South Africa
i. Anglo-American Company & Rhodesian Selection Trust all together mined copper in Northern Rhodesia
(present Zambia) since 1930’s
ii. The Anglo-American Mining Corporation (AAMC) and De Beers Consolidated Mines owned two mines of
diamond in Kimberly (1867) and gold in Witwatersrand in South Africa (1886).
 In Portuguese West Africa
i. Angola Diamond Mining Company mined diamond in Cabinda region in Angola.
OBJECTIVES OF COLONIAL MINING SECTOR DURING COLONIAL ECONOMY
i. It intended at strengthening capitalist economy by generating extraordinary profit from mineral resources.
Mineral resources were highly needed to feed colonial industries.
ii. It intended at creating self-sufficient economy in the colonies by generating income which helped to
facilitate running of different projects in the colonies.
iii. Colonial mining sector intended to exploit African resources in form of mineral and human resources
FEATURES OF COLONIAL MINING
i. Mining activities were monopolized by foreign gigantic corporations (companies) since it required
extraordinary capital to invest in advanced equipment and processing technologies.
ii. Characterized with land alienation as Africans were taken from their native land to give chance for
commencement of mining operations in those areas.
iii. Mining activities were characterized with establishment of industries which were producing chemicals and
other pharmaceuticals required for processing bulky minerals into desired state for shipment to
metropolitan countries.
iv. Characterized by establishment of physical infrastructure such as roads and railway lines from mining areas
towards the coast to ease shipping of minerals to metropolitan countries.
v. It was characterized with taxation as the way of demanding several Africans to offer labour in colonial
mines. For Example, in 1902 British introduced a poll tax of 20 shillings for adult male in Southern Rhodesia
vi. It was characterized with massive labour power since many Africans from different places were employed
in mines. For example, in South Africa many labourers who were employed in Diamond and Gold mines in
Kimberly and Witwatersrand respectively came from Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
 
EFFECTS OF COLONIAL MINING SECTOR
 i. Mining activities facilitated the exploitation of African natural resources in form of precious minerals such
gold, diamond, copper and tins were exported in tones to metropolitan countries.
ii. It speeded up land alienation; Africans remained landless as mining corporations annexed African fertile
land to establish mining activities in those areas which had minerals. Example, by 1907 the two third of land
in Swaziland was owned by mining concessionaires.
iii. It led the emergence of large capitalist mining corporations in the continent which tapped African mineral
resources to maximize profit for capitalist owners in metropolitan countries. For example, in Tanganyika
Williamson Diamond Limited was formed in 1940 at Mwadui Shinyanga by Canadian geologist Dr. J. T.
Williamson still mines diamond to present.
iv. It led the emergence of big towns especially in areas were mining activities were taking place. Mining
activities attracted big number of people to live in areas with mining activities and later turned into big
towns. Example Johannesburg and Pretoria rose as big towns in South Africa following mining operations in
Kimberly and Witwatersrand.
v. It created and strengthened the working class which consisted of cheap labourers who worked for low
wages to sustain their lives in different parts of Africa where mining activities took place. This working class
later challenged colonial exploitation in form of struggle for independence.
vi. It facilitated the growth of industrial sector in Africa as mining activities required other processes hence
chemical processing industries were introduced near to mining areas to support mineral processing.
vii. It facilitated the rise of migrant labour in different parts of Africa since colonialists wanted to be assured
with constant labour supply in mines and migrant labour efficiently and effectively responded their needs.

COLONIAL LABOUR FORCE

 Colonial labour force meant the labour that was employed by colonialists in different sectors of colonial
economy.
 Colonial labour force was a backbone of colonial economy since many sectors depended on labour.
 The introduction of colonial agriculture, mining and infrastructure and other sectors went simultaneously
with possible method of obtaining cheap labour.
 Colonial states set up a labour department whose role was to collect all the data concerning the availability
of labour.
OBJECTIVES OF COLONIAL LABOUR
i. It aimed at generating income through forcing Africans to pay tax.
ii. To reduce costs of administering the colonies. The Africans were easily obtained and they were paid little
amount of money.
iii. Colonial labourers were providing good markets for European manufactured goods in Africa.
iv. It aimed creating the class of Africans who could help in suppression of African resistance against colonial
rule in Africa. Some Africans were recruited as colonial militants who suppressed African resistance.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL LABOUR
i. Most of colonial labourers were unskilled and dealt with manual works like tilling land.
ii. Colonial labourers worked in very poor conditions and long hours. For instance in plantation they worked
for 18 hours six days per week.
iii. Colonial labourers were paid low wages to ensure overreliance on colonial sectors for survival.
iv. Most of colonial labourers were coercively forced to work in colonial projects. Most of the time they were
punished and whipped by their colonial masters.
v. Colonial labourers faced extreme oppressions and injustices as most of them were brutally punished.
TECNIQUES USED BY COLONIALISTS TO OBTAIN COLONIAL LABOUR
i. Land alienation and cattle confiscation; colonialists forcibly evicted Africans from their native and fertile
land for agriculture as well as taking cattle to make Africans become property less in order to make them
offer their labour power for survival. Example in 1920, over 75% of entire land in Southern Rhodesia was
covered by settlers.
 ii. Introduction of taxation system; colonialists introduced different types of taxes in order to force Africans to
work in colonial projects to earn money for paying tax. Example in Southern Rhodesia, every adult male was
required to pay poll tax 20 shillings in 1902.
iii. Using recruiting agencies; colonialists encouraged recruiting agencies to recruit colonial labour from
different parts of colonies to work in colonial projects. Example SILABU (Sisal Labour Bureau) recruited
labourers from Kigoma and Rukwa to work in sisal plantations in Tanga and Morogoro. In South Africa,
Witwatersrand Native Labour Association brought labourrers from Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique to
work in gold mines.
iv. Introduction of colonial education; colonialists introduced colonial education simply to impart knowledge to
few Africans who could assume some white collar jobs in colonies.
v. Through use of coercive means; colonialists forced Africans to work in colonial firms whether they wanted
or not. Africans were paid low wages and sometimes were not paid at all. Example in 1947 in Portuguese
colonies, adult male aged 18 and 55 were forced to provide free labour services in government companies
for six months.
vi. Introduction of money economy; colonialists established money as medium of exchange hence Africans
were forced to work in colonial projects in order to earn money for sustaining their life as everything was
obtained through money.
vii. Enacting labour legislations; colonial governments enacted official laws which restricted to work in colonial
projects without any compromise. Example, in Kenya colonialists established Masters and Servant Act to
compel the Africans to work for settlers in 90 days per year at small wages.
TYPES OF COLONIAL LABOUR
 In general colonial labour fell into two major categories namely as voluntary and involuntary labour. These
two categories can be further analyzed into the following types depending on how they were used by
colonialists.
 Colonial labour included the following types
I. Forced labour
II. Family labour
III. Migrant labour
IV. Indentured labour
V. Contract labour
VI. Permanent labour.
I. FORCED LABOUR
• Forced labour refers to the type of colonial labour were by Africans were forced to offer labour in colonial
projects without their wish. It is not different from slave labour since it used force. Example in Tanganyika,
British passed Native Authority Ordinance of 1926 where by Africans were forced to provide ‘free of charge’
labour services in public works like construction of railway.
II. FAMILY LABOUR
• Family labour refers to the type of colonial labour which was provided by the members of the family or
people who were bloodily related. This was common in areas where colonialists introduced peasant
agriculture for example in Uganda .
III. CONTRACT LABOUR
• Contract labour refers to labourers who are hired for a specific task and a finite period. In this way, the
colonialist used recruiting agents to mobilize and employ African labourers to work in colonial sectors.
Agents persuaded Africans to sign contracts of offering their labour . For example, Sisal Labour Bureau
(SILABU) recruited Africans to work in sisal plantations in Tanga and Morogoro during British rule in
Tanganyika.
V. INDENTURED LABOUR
• These were the employees within a system of unfree labour who is bound by a signed or forced contract to
work without pay for the owner for a period of time. For example British used Indians during the
construction of Kenya-Uganda railway line in 1896.
 VI. PERMANENT LABOUR
• These were the labourers who were paid and worked for unlimited duration.
VII. MIGRANT LABOUR
• These were the labourers who were taken from distant places either within or outside of a country to offer
labour in colonial sectors. For example in Tanganyika, many labourers were taken from Kigoma and Rukwa
moved to provide their labour in Sisal plantations in Morogoro and Tanga.
• In South Africa, migrant labourers came from Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique to work in gold and
diamond mines.
CONDITION OF LABOURERS IN THE COLONIES
i. Labourers were paid low wages compared to those white who worked in the same position.
ii. Africans were discriminated; It was officially accepted that Africans could not be employed in higher
positions. Rather, they were only employed in semi-skilled jobs which were paid low wages.
iii. African labourers had no insurance security; Africans in most parts were exploited without redress. For
example in 1914 and 1934, gold miners who died in Ghana were paid only three pounds as the
compensation for their families.
iv. They were required to travel with a pass in their own country. In countries like Kenya, South Africa and
Rhodesia, Africans had to carry an identity which stated wether the man worked, and also if that man pays
taxes.
v. Africans were oppressed, exploited and humiliated. They were poorly fed and worked for many hours.
vi. The labourers were refused necessary social services, such as health facilities, water and schools .
WHY COLONIALISTS PREFFERED MIGRANT LABOUR
i. Migrant labourers were cheap; They were paid low wages and were unable to advance. Therefore, the
colonialists exploited them to the maximum in order to make huge profits.
ii. Migrant labourers were important markets for European manufactured goods they purchased clothes,
utensils and other manufactured goods from the colonialists.
iii. Migrant labour were easy to control at work as they were living far away from their homes they were
lodged according to their ethnic groups. Each tribe was under tribal supervision, hence it could not be easy
for them to run away from working stations.
iv. Migrant labourers ensured constant supply of labour since they were all present in their camps hence when
required to work they were full available.
v. To avoid resistances; Since migrant labourers were coming from different places with different historical
and geographical backgrounds, cultures, mentality, and the ways of life , they could not easily resist. If an
uprising occurred, they were suppressed easily because there was no unity among them.
vi. Migrant labourers did not cause the problems resulting from land allienation, taxation, interference of
trade, and cattle confiscation. Therefore, they were preffered as the best means of earning great profit
without troubles.
EFFECTS OF COLONIAL LABOUR
i. Family separation as many Africans left their families to seek labour in colonial firms like agriculture, mining
and physical infrastructure.
ii. Spread of western civilization especially migrant and contract labourers when returned their home places.
iii. It created labour shortage in African families which later resulted in famine following absence of man
powers in several economic activities.
iv. capitalists maximized profit as they used Africans to produce plenty of wealth in form of raw materials and
provision of cheap labour.
v. Africans lost their land through land alienation as it was done purposeful to compel Africans to provide
labour power in colonial projects.