CARIBBEAN

STUDIES
Movements Towards Emancipation
Movement towards Independence

“From emancipation until the end of the nineteenth century Caribbean

The abolition of slavery in 1834 in the British colonies did not result in any
meaningful change in the social, economic or political wellbeing of
ex-slaves. However, freedom from slavery created a demand for greater
freedoms, and so began the movement to independence
 The socio, economic and political context of the
Post Emancipated British Caribbean
Social conditions after slavery

-Slavery ended but there was no true sense of freedom for the ex-slaves. Many of the ex-slaves
struggled to create a livelihood for themselves due to pervasive colonial oppression.
-The society was highly stratified with very little opportunity for blacks to improve their social
status.
- Education on the other hand was only given to the privilegedwhite,upper middle class whites
and coloured.
-Blacks were given basic skills in education which could not improve their status in society.
-Many Children attended school irregularly and for only a few years, as their parents could not
afford school fees and lunch money.
-Many also lived and worked in squalid conditions which led to the spread of diseases thus
leading to high mortality rates
 Political Conditions After Slavery

- Firstly, blacks had limited opportunity to vote and own property which contributed to much
of the hardships faced in the first half of the 19th century. For example, in order for blacks
(men) to vote they had to have 10 –30 shillings in 1906; women were not given franchise in 1919
but only to those who were aged 25, literate and paying 2 pounds a year in land tax.In places
such as Trinidad, there was no elected element in the colony’s government throughout the
19th century.
- Local legislature continued to be dominated by planters and other members of the
employed class who pass laws which favoured their own interests at the expense of
blackworkers.
- The money government needed for their expenses came mainly from import duties, but in
many cases these fell more heavily on the poor.
- Laws were not properly enforced fairly to protect the masses from exploitation.For example,
the law did not set the level of wages and offered any protection to workers when employers
decided to cut wages.
- .Clergymen of the Anglican Church were partisan to the government and decided which set
of people should get poor relief and whose child should get a scholarship
Economic Difficulties

-Economically, most blacks struggled to make a living from peasantry and huckstering due
to colonial oppression.

-The economic difficulties in the BWI were caused by the decline of the sugar industry and
the failure of most of the alternative crops to provide satisfactory substitutes by 1925.

-Later in the 1930s and 40s the Great Depression caused a Wall Street Crash 1929 which led
to the economic woes of the Caribbean.
 WHAT IS POLITICAL ENFRANCHISEMENT?
Political enfranchisement refers to the right of a people or nation to determine their own affairs.
Under colonialism the Caribbean colony was under the control of the European power. However, once after
emancipation had been achieved it was only a matter of time before Caribbean people would develop the
skills and experience necessary to challenge the status quo. In the years after emancipation, thousands of
Caribbean people migrated to different regional destinations for work and better wages. This propelled the
process towards Constitutional Decolonization, which is the process whereby the colony achieves
independence.
In the 1930's economic conditions had deteriorated to such a level that the region was wrecked by labour riots,
strikes and wide-scale protests. Violence and mayhem followed. This period saw the rise of charismatic leaders
in the labour movement who, riding on their mass popularity, made the successful transition to political
leaders. Uriah Buzz Butler, Adrian Cola Rienzi and Captain A.A Cipriani of Trinidad and Tobago became a
working class movement dedicated towards better working conditions for the poor as well as improvements in
health and education. This concern with the social welfare made it inevitable that the trade unions would be
the birth-place for Caribbean political parties.
 WHAT IS ADULT SUFFRAGE ?

Adult Suffrage consists of the extension of the right to vote to adult citizens
(or subjects) as a whole, though it may also mean extending said right to minors
and non-citizens. Although adult suffrage has two necessary components, the
right to vote and opportunities to vote, the term adult suffrage is associated only
with the right to vote and ignores the other aspect. Where universal suffrage
exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, sexual orientation,
gender identity, wealth, social status or disability.
 What were the conditions that led to the
granting of adult suffrage?
The right to vote in Trinidad and Tobago was granted by the British Government as a result of
hard work and activism by Trinbagonians. It was part of the 20th century anti-colonial
movement. The right to vote is part of the long struggle for the right to govern ourselves, it is
set in the context of poor West Indian colonies supporting Britain in two World Wars, the rise
of Pan Africanism and the increased frustrations of the lowest classes. Poverty and labour
issues lead to widespread unrest across the British West Indies in 1937, and the British
colonial Government sent the Moyne Commission in 1938 to investigate the causes. The
Moyne Commission made several recommendations regarding improving living and working
conditions. Significantly it recommended that the franchise be extended but the outbreak of
WW2 in 1939 meant that this was shelved as war was the main priority. The Report was
tabled, and once again British West Indians signed up to go to war to fight for Britain. The
men who fought in WW1 and WW2 however returned to the West Indies with a new
perspective on the unfairness of colonial rule. The international pressure on Britain to
decolonize after WW2 as well as pressure within the colonies led the British Government to
slowly implement reforms in the British West Indies.
Universal Adult Suffrage was granted to Trinidad and Tobago in 1945. However, the age of
eligible voters differed from the contemporary voting age. The franchise enabled men and
women aged 21 and older to vote. This was a significant achievement because the right to vote
was very limited prior to this. From 1925 to 1946 the franchise allowed men 21 years and older
and women 30 years and older, who met certain property and income qualifications to vote.
This was only about 6 % of the adult population (The Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago). This
was done to ensure that only the upper class, and mostly upper class men could vote. There
were very few eligible women because of the property and income qualifications on who could
vote. 1946 was the first year that men and women could vote regardless of their income and
property (The Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago).

There are several notable differences between the elections of 1946 and contemporary
elections. For instance, private homes were used as polling stations, along with schools and
public buildings. Another difference is the extent of the democracy. On July 1st, 1946 the
election was held for the Legislative Council and on October 28th, 1946 an election was held for
the County Council. Trinidad and Tobago was still a British colony and had a British Governor.
 Moreover, in 1946, Tobago was considered as one county. Alphonso Philbert Theophilus
James ran for Tobago and won a seat on the Legislative Council for Tubal Uriah Butler’s Party.
Significantly, Tobago had the highest turnout of voters across the nation. Many Tobagonians
came to Trinidad prior to the election to campaign (The Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago).The
1946 election was also a landmark moment in the history of Trinidad and Tobago because this
was the first time that a woman was nominated by the Governor for a seat on the Legislative
Council. Audrey Layne Jeffers became the first woman to sit on the Legislative Council of
Trinidad and Tobago.

In addition to Jeffers, there were several other outstanding leaders who worked tirelessly
to bring a voice to the disenfranchised lower classes. Muzumbo Lazare, Captain Arthur
Cipriani, Tubal Uriah “Buzz” Butler, Elma Francois, Christina King, Chanka Maharaj and Adrian
Cola Rienzi were some of the leaders of the anti-colonial movement. One leader, Albert “Bertie”
Gomes stands out as he campaigned for Universal Adult Suffrage, arguing that it was the
poorest persons who needed the right the vote. In the election 1946 he defeated Uriah Butler, as
they both campaigned for the same constituency. He was outspoken on many issues and a
champion of the underclass, the steelpan, calypso, the Shouter Baptists and more.
The right to vote was not granted overnight, it was part of a lengthy effort which
involved many people from all walks of life. When it was granted by Britain, it was
done so in stages and with restrictions. This movement evolved into calls for the right
to have internal self-governance and then full independence. This is why we should
appreciate the right to vote.
 Constitutional Steps Towards Independence in
the British-Colonized Territories
In the British West Indies, the movement towards independence was by evolution and not by revolution. This movement was
constitutional in that it involved the changes made in the laws by which a country was governed, thus giving local people an
ever-increasing share in their own government.Stages in the Constitutional Evolution of the British West Indies:

1. Old Representative System

(1) Proprietary Government and the Old Representative System

Between 1627 and 1660, the first English colonies were proprietary colonies which were administered by
proprietors who were chosen by the King of England. These proprietors such as the Earl of Carlisle sent out
settlers, provisions, appointed Governors and carried out the King’s instruction for the colonies. In return, they
hoped to benefit when the colonies started production. They were encouraged to summon free men of the
colony to an assembly to help make laws by the ‘’Letters Patent’’ issued by the King in 1627. Thus, the
representative system government is very old in the Caribbean, e.g. the Barbados Assembly which was first called
The Proprietary System of government was abandoned on the restoration of King Charles II in 1660
except in the Bahamas. The former proprietary colonies were handed over to a committee of the
Privy Council which appointed governors who in turn called the assemblies and councils of the
representative principle already established. Hence, the representative system continued.

From 1663 to 1673, the constitution of a British West Indian colony involved a Governor or
Lieutenant-Governor who represented the King; a Legislative Council consisting of members
nominated by the Governor on account of their property corresponded with the House of Lords
which acted as a Court of Appeal; and an Assembly which made minor laws and agreed on
taxation corresponded with the House of Commons.

The Crown wanted the colonies put into groups for administrative convenience but the colonies
resisted because they valued their independence, e.g. Nevis refused a union with St. Kitts in 1723.
Colonies such as Dominica, Grenada and St. Vincent were acquired by Britain in 1763 and
encouraged to set up representative assemblies. However, Trinidad, British Guiana and St. Lucia
were acquired between 1802 and 1815, and were made Crown Colonies because the Representative
System was thought to be inappropriate
 (2) Crown Colony Government 1866-1898

Crown Colony Government was introduced in 1866 after the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica so that the Crown
could assume direct and full responsibility for the administration of the colonies. It was thought necessary and desirable
because a strong government was needed to deal with the violence threatened by poor blacks. There would be fewer
delays caused by debates and votes in assemblies. It could raise taxes without the fear of opposition since taxes were
necessary to provide the revenues needed for such forces as has been used to suppress the Morant Bay Rebellion. It was
seen as a less costly and more efficient that the Old Representative System.
Under Crown Colony Government, there was little or no election of persons to the legislature. There was a governor
who made most of the decisions. He was assisted by an Executive Council which was mainly made of an advisory body
without legislative functions and a Legislative Council which comprised senior government officials, as well as some
nominated individuals who represented a small section of the community. Later, a few members elected on a restricted
franchise were introduced. The Governor sought advice mainly from the Legislative Council. There was greater control
from Britain from the Colonial Office.Crown Colonial Government was introduced in Jamaica in 1866, the Windward
Islands such as St. Vincent, Tobago and Grenada by 1877; followed by Montserrat, the Virgin Islands, Dominica, Antigua,
Nevis, and British Honduras. By 1880, most of the territories had given up their right to self-government.
However, there were people in the British Caribbean who became dissatisfied with Crown Colony Government
during the late 19th century. This was because they were excluded from the electoral process and wanted a return to the
elective principle. In addition, when and represented the planting or merchant interest, and there was no representation
in the government for the masses because the property qualification for the franchise remained very high. This
dissatisfaction with Crown Colony Government was evident mainly among the emerging black and coloured middle
classes who wanted a share in the government of their territories. In Trinidad as well as in other colonies, opposition
came mostly from traders and professional townspeople especially those in the capita
 (3) Representative Government
West Indian nationalists regarded Crown Colony Government as a step backwards in constitutional
development because they went further from governing themselves than they had been before 1866.
Crown Colony Government was out of touch with the masses because the governor and officials were
British citizens who came to the West Indies for short tours of duty and then departed. The protests in the
1930s made it clear how out of touch the officials had become. Thus, the people wanted the elective
principle re-introduced.Eventually, changes were made gradually to Crown Colony Government beginning
with the introduction of a few elected members, then increasing the numbers. However, the Governor was
always assured of a majority in the Legislative Council. The Legislative Councils began to consist of official
members, nominated members, and elected members. Gradually, the Legislative Council was divided into
two sides: the official or nominated majority on one side and the elected members on the other side. In the
late 1920s and 1940s, the number of elected members in some territories became large enough to have an
influence in politics. Political parties began to emerge to wing these seats and have their policies put into
effect. This re-introduction of the elective principle was a very important step in constitutional and political
development

The elective principle or representative government was introduced in Jamaica in 1884 when elected
members were equal in number to nominated and official members in a Legislative Council. In Trinidad
which had been a Crown Colony since 1815, the electoral principle was introduced in Antigua, St.
Kitts-Nevis, Montserrat, St. Lucia, and British Honduras. However, the outbreak of the Second World War
(1939-45) delayed further constitutional change
 (4) Responsible Government

This type of government was the next step taken. At first, the government appointed a few of the
elected representatives to sit on his Executive Council. Later, the members of the Executive Council
were appointed and could be removed by the representative legislature (the House of
Representatives). Eventually, the governor’s Executive Council consisted of a majority of elected
representatives who were appointed and removed on the advice of the leader of the party to which
most of the members of the House of Representatives belonged. The leader was known as the Chief
Minister. Some of these members of the Executive Council were at first appointed Chairman of
Committees that gave and offered advice on the activities of the various administrative
departments. Eventually, they were given full responsibility for the departments to which they were
attached, at which time they assumed status of ministers. They had administrative authority over
their departments and they began to exercise executive functions. The leader of the party with the
majority of seats in the House of Representatives became Premier or Chief Minister and then he
would select his ministers
 (5) Internal Self-Government

In internal self-government, all the departments were transferred to ministers from the chief
administrative officials. However, defence, foreign affairs, and the constitution continued to
be the responsibility of Britain. The Executive Council had evolved from an advisory body to
the governor to a Cabinet of ministers presided over by the leader of the party with the
largest number of seats in the House of Representatives. There was also a gradual reduction
in the number of officials in the Legislative Council until it became a Senate of West Indians
nominated by the party leaders and formally approved and appointed by the governor who
now functioned on the advice of his ministers.This type of government consisted of:

(a) the Governor, the representative of the British government, who functioned on the advice
of the ministers
(b) the Premier or Chief Minister who was the leader of the majority party in the House of
Representatives. He presided over the meetings of the Cabinet
(c) the Legislative body made up of the House of Representatives and the Senate, or the
House of Assembly made up of elected and nominated members
(d) the elected representatives who held ministerial positions and had full control over
internal affairs
(e) Britain still had responsibility for external affairs, defence, and the constitution
 Tripartite Kingdom- Netherland Antilles
After 1815, the Dutch possessions in the Caribbean region consisted of St. Eustatius, Saba and St. Marteen
(shared with France), in the Leeward islands:Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao, off the southern mainland coast and
Dutch Guiana (Suriname). These territories were all administered in the same manner as the British and
French colonies in the Caribbean and government was completely in the hands of the Netherlands.Each
territory was ruled by a governor appointed by the Crown in Holland. There was an assembly or staten which
was dominated by the Old Dutch classes of planters and merchants. By the 1930s, the Colonial Government
was being attacked by the new middle class made up of oil refinery workers from Aruba and Curacao. As a
result of continued dissatisfaction in Curacao, a new constitution was proposed in 1936. The representative
body (staten) consisted of ten members, five of whom were appointed and the others elected. The governor
continued to have the most political power and the Netherlands could intervene in the internal affairs of
Curacao. Despite this, the 1936 constitution represented the first step in the direction of a suffrage.The first
election under this particular suffrage was held in 1937 and contested by two political parties: the Catholic
Party and the Curacao PoliticalUnit.By 1949, the Dutch Antilles were given greater autonomy especially when
universal adult suffrage and internal self-government were granted. In 1954, the colonies became partners
(equal members) in a Tripartite Kingdom in a scheme laid down in the Charter of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands. Members of the Tripartite Kingdom were the Dutch Antilles, Suriname and the Netherlands.
They were all equal partners and all three had to agree on any constitutional changes in the Caribbean
territories. Each member of the kingdom was to keep its full internal self- government. Defence, foreign affairs
and the police were a joint responsibility. The people were considered Dutch citizens.
In the Dutch Antilles, an elected local council was established in each island. All sent deputies to a
22-member, single-chamber staten in Curacao, the seat of the governor.After 1954 and throughout
the rest of the 20c, the question of independence including the degree of autonomy enjoyed by
each island, dominated politics in the Dutch Antilles. Under the governor appointed by the Crown,
executive power rested in an 8-member Council of Ministers led by a Prime Minister. Each island
had its own elected Island Council and an Executive Council under a Lieutenant-Governor yet,
despite this, resentment was often expressed about the dominant position in Curacao.In 1985, the
local island Council in Aruba decided to ask the Netherlands for a new status as a completely
separate internally self-governing unit of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This was granted in 1986
with the Netherlands retaining responsibility for defence and foreign affairs only. It was expected
that in 1996, independence would follow. Aruba was then placed under a Governor appointed by the
Crown and administered by a Prime Minister and Cabinet drawn from the majority party in a
21-seat staten. However, in 1990 the government requested that the agreement for automatic
independence be cancelled in 1996. The request was granted and Aruba remained part of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands
 Constitutional Arrangements in the
French and Dutch Antilles and Puerto Rico
After the Treaty of Vienna in 1815, France was left with the following colonies in the Caribbean: French Guiana,
Martinique, Guadeloupe, and its dependencies: Marie Galante, Desirade, Les Saintes, and Saint Martin which
was shared with the Netherlands. Consequently, the constitutional position ofthe French Empire reflected the
constitutional changes that look place in France.Early in 1848, the French working class in Paris rioted and this
led to the overthrow of King Louis Philippe and the establishment of a Republic in France. This republican
government abolished slavery on March 3rd, 1848 and universal adult suffrage was given to all men in the
colonies (including former slaves). However, when Napoleon III became Emperor as a result of a crop,
universal adult suffrage was abolished from 1852 to 1870. It was again restored in 1871 due to the establishment
of the Third Republic and many constitutional changes were implemented.The French colonies were
governed by officials appointed by the French Central Government. Each island had a council which was
allowed to give advice to the officials. Each town and city had a mayor and other officials who were locally
elected. Each colony was allowed to send three deputies to the National Assembly in Paris.

The French Government supported the assimilation of the people of the colonies. This was known as the
policy of Assimilation based on the conviction of the French Government that French colonization and culture
were superior to all others. Thus, France wanted all of its colonial subjects absorbed into the dominant system
of the mother country because of its superior culture. They should speak the French language, adopt French
manners and customs, and generally adopt the French culture so as to become Frenchmen
 Plebiscite & Commonwealth- Puerto Rico
Independence was a goal for many Puerto Rico under Spanish rule. In the 19th century, the main political division
was between the wealthiest classes and the small group of educated middle class liberals, who wanted
independence from Spain. There were several conspiracies on the part of these liberals to win independence. For
example, in 1865, one was led by a Venezuelan, M. Rojas, and an exile in New York, Matias Bregman. It began with
the Grito de Lares (Declaration at Lares) which called for independence and the emancipation of slaves. This
attempt failed but could not prevent theliberal movement from continuing to grow in the island and abroad.In
Puerto Rico, there was a split between those who wanted self-government (autonomists) and those who wanted
unconditional freedom from Spain (unconditionalists). The autonomists feared that if they got full
independencefrom Spain, then they would become under United States control. However, Spain promised their
leader, Munoz Riviera, self- government in 1897 once it came to power, so as to terminate all independence
sentiments of the PuertoRico radicals as well as the abolitionist sentiments. In 1897, Spain granted Puerto Rico a
constitution but before it could come into effect, the island come into effect, the island was ceded to the U.S. by
the Treaty of Paris in September 1898. This took place as a result of the invasion of an American expeditionary force
which took the island. The recent constitution gains were erased and Puerto Rico became a protectorate of the
United States.

In 1900, the U.S. passed the Foraker Act which gave Puerto Rico its first constitution under the Foraker Act. This
made the island an unincorporated territory of the United States. By 1917, there was limited political reform for
example the Jones Act which replaced the Foraker Act gave Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship and the U.S. still
appointed the governor of the island. The Puerto Ricans could now vote for their Senate representatives. However,
the island still remained an ‘’unincorporated territory’’ of the U.S.
After the 1930s depression, independence sentiments increased in Puerto Rico. In 1937, Pedro Albizu
Campus, a pro-independence activist led a protest which resulted in a massacre in the town of
Ponce. In 1940, Luis Munoz Marin and his Popular Democratic Party came to power. He rejected the
struggle between statehood and independence and stressed the need foreconomic reform and
greater local government control over Puerto Rico’s affairs. Marin was able to persuade the U.S.
President Harry Truman to appoint a Puerto Rican, Jésus T. Pinero as Governor of Puerto Rico in
1946. In 1947, the Jones Act was amended to allow Puerto Ricans to elect their own governor
instead of being directly dominated by the U.S. Thus, Marin was elected governor in 1947/1948.
Puerto Rico became a Free Associated State or a commonwealth with a self- government in all
local affairs but remained dependent on the U.S. for defence and foreign relations.In 1952, Puerto
Rico adopted a new constitution approved by the U.S. Congress and a majority of Puerto Ricans. It
confirmed Puerto Ricans as U.S. citizens but they were not allowed to send representatives to vote
in Congress. They were entitled to all the obligations of U.S citizens but were exempt from federal
taxation. However, the U.S. is still obliged to provide grants and other financial support to the island
as if it were a state

Puerto Ricans gained internal self-government under this commonwealth form of government.
There was an elected governor for a four-year term, an elected two-house legislature made up of a
Senate of 27 members, and a House of Representatives of 51 members and the U.S. had the
responsibility for defence and foreign affairs.
The majority of Puerto Ricans accepted the commonwealth status in spite of the disadvantages
because they appreciated the benefits to be gained. They were unwilling to adopt any political
change that threatened the financial aid which accompanied the political and economic
connections to the U.S. Hence, no progress has been made in the advancement to
independence.However, the dream of independence still exists among many Puerto Ricans and
this explains the action of many radical nationalists in the 1970s and 1980s. For example, it was
reported that Luis Rosa who was linked to a militant group, Armed Forces for National Liberation
unsuccessfully sought independence for Puerto Rico in an armed struggle. Thus, those who wanted
complete independence and those who wanted Puerto Rico to became a state of the U.S. did not
manage to accomplish their aims.Some changes were made in 1970 when the commissioner was
granted the right to vote in congressional committees, and Puerto Rico was given equal treatment
to other states by federal departments. In 1973, revenue-sharing status was extended to Puerto
Rico, thus emphasizing the financial status of the island as a state
THANK YOU !

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