Master’s Thesis 2020 30 ECTS

Faculty of Landscape and Society (LANDSAM)

Violence Against Women

in the Philippines

Tria Marie R. Garcia

Master of Science in International Development Studies
 Abstract

Violence against women is a public crime and human rights violation that has negative social,
economic, and health consequences for women and their communities. Violence against
women must be studied in a specific context in order to understand how social and cultural
norms affect the issue. Based on face-to-face semi-structured interviews with UN Women,
relevant nongovernmental organizations, academics, and government services for gender-
based violence victims, this study looked into the current legislation, actions and policies
being carried out by different actors to address violence against women in the Philippines.
The data was analyzed using a combination of the Public Health Model created by the Center
for Communicable Diseases, and the Integrated Ecological Model by Lori Heise. This study
found that violence against women is a widespread issue in the Philippines. However, the
lack of a central data bank to consolidate the data from various government services makes
the existing data unreliable. Moreover, despite the existence of laws and services to address
the issue, government services are inadequate and merely responsive rather than preventive.
Nongovernment organizations and academics play a complementary role where the
government services fall short. This study also found various factors about the Philippine
culture that serve as risk factors, protective factors, and factors that affect reporting behavior.
By identifying these different factors, this study opens the door for two main possibilities:
negative cultural factors that pose a risk or affect reporting behavior can be turned around to
become protective factors instead; and the existing positive aspects of the culture that serve
as protective factors must be taken advantage of by making them widespread.

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 Table of Contents

Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 1
List of abbreviations ................................................................................................................ 5
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 7
2. Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 8
2.1. GBV overview ........................................................................................................... 8
2.2. Violence against women in the Philippines ............................................................. 11
2.3. VAW policies and services in the Philippines ......................................................... 14
2.4. VAW reporting in the Philippines ........................................................................... 17
2.5. VAW in relation to Philippine culture ..................................................................... 18
2.6. The Public Health Model ......................................................................................... 22
2.7. Integrated Ecological Model .................................................................................... 23
3. Methodology ................................................................................................................... 25
3.1. Research questions ................................................................................................... 25
3.2. Selection of Respondents ......................................................................................... 25
3.3. Data collection ......................................................................................................... 28
3.4. Ethical issues ............................................................................................................ 29
3.5. Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 29
4. Findings........................................................................................................................... 30
4.1. Definitions and data ................................................................................................. 30
4.2. Laws ......................................................................................................................... 34
4.2.1. Strong policies and government support ......................................................... 35
4.2.2. Poor implementation of the law ....................................................................... 36
4.2.3. Police officers’ fear of retaliation.................................................................... 36
4.3. Services .................................................................................................................... 37
4.3.1. Undertrained, inefficient, and uncoordinated services.................................... 37
4.3.2. One-stop shop protection center ...................................................................... 38
4.3.3. Local levels of reporting can be problematic .................................................. 39
4.3.4. NGO services fill in the gaps ........................................................................... 39
4.4. Awareness ................................................................................................................ 40
4.5. Reporting.................................................................................................................. 41
4.5.1. Inefficient reporting system and lack of gender-sensitivity training ............... 41
4.5.2. Fear of stigma and victim-blaming .................................................................. 41
4.5.3. Perpetrator is a family member or husband/partner ....................................... 41
4.5.4. Lack of awareness and normalization of violence ........................................... 42
4.6. Economic empowerment ......................................................................................... 42

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 4.7. Educational attainment............................................................................................. 43
4.8. Socioeconomic class ................................................................................................ 43
4.8.1. Awareness and access to services .................................................................... 44
4.8.2. Social reputation .............................................................................................. 44
4.8.3. Powerful abusers ............................................................................................. 44
4.8.4. Living situation ................................................................................................ 44
4.9. Urban and rural settings ........................................................................................... 45
4.10. Age ....................................................................................................................... 45
4.11. Marital status ........................................................................................................ 46
4.12. Globalization ........................................................................................................ 46
4.12.1. Technology and the internet............................................................................. 46
4.12.2. Overseas Filipino Workers .............................................................................. 47
4.12.3. Broadens perspectives ..................................................................................... 48
4.13. Religion ................................................................................................................ 48
4.13.1. Political influence ............................................................................................ 48
4.13.2. The absence of a divorce law ........................................................................... 49
4.13.3. Catholic values and teachings ......................................................................... 49
4.14. Culture.................................................................................................................. 50
4.14.1. Culture of silence ............................................................................................. 50
4.14.2. Victim-blaming ................................................................................................. 50
4.14.3. Family value..................................................................................................... 50
4.14.4. Stoical Filipino woman .................................................................................... 51
4.14.5. Gender stereotypes........................................................................................... 51
4.14.6. Patriarchal society and macho culture ............................................................ 52
4.14.7. Purity and conservativism................................................................................ 53
4.14.8. Normalized violence......................................................................................... 53
4.14.9. Beso culture ..................................................................................................... 54
4.14.10. Sex as a taboo subject .................................................................................. 54
4.14.11. Cycle of violence .......................................................................................... 55
4.14.12. Traditional education................................................................................... 55
4.15. Organizations’ work in addressing GBV ............................................................. 55
4.15.1. UN Women ....................................................................................................... 56
4.15.2. Government services ........................................................................................ 57
4.15.3. NGOs................................................................................................................ 58
4.15.4. Academic work in the field of GBV .................................................................. 60
5. Discussion........................................................................................................................ 61
5.1. Step 1: Define and monitor the problem .................................................................. 62

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 5.1.1. Definition ......................................................................................................... 62
5.1.2. Statistics ........................................................................................................... 63
5.1.3. Laws ................................................................................................................. 65
5.1.4. Services ............................................................................................................ 67
5.1.5. Reporting.......................................................................................................... 68
5.1.6. Summary .......................................................................................................... 69
5.2. Step 2: Identify risk & protective factors ................................................................. 70
5.2.1. Individual level................................................................................................. 70
5.2.2. Relationship level ............................................................................................. 72
5.2.3. Community level............................................................................................... 74
5.2.4. Societal level .................................................................................................... 74
5.2.5. Global .............................................................................................................. 77
5.2.6. Summary .......................................................................................................... 78
5.3. Steps 3 & 4: Develop and test prevention strategies, assure widespread adoption . 79
5.3.1. UN Women ....................................................................................................... 79
5.3.2. Government services ........................................................................................ 79
5.3.3. NGOs and academics ....................................................................................... 81
5.4. Reflections, limitations, and recommendations ....................................................... 84
5.4.1. Methodology limitations and recommendations .............................................. 86
References ............................................................................................................................... 90
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................. 93
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................. 95
Appendix C ............................................................................................................................. 97
Appendix D ............................................................................................................................. 98

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 List of abbreviations

CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination against Women
CHR Commission on Human Rights
CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child
CSC Civil Service Commission
CWC Council for the Welfare of Children
DepEd Department of Education
DEVAW Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women
DILG Department of Interior and Local Government
DOH Department of Health
DOJ Department of Justice
DOLE Department of Labor and Employment
DSWD Department of Social Welfare and Development
GBV Gender-based violence
IAC-VAWC Inter-Agency Council for Violence Against Women and
Children
IPV Intimate-partner violence
LGU Local Government Unit
MCW Magna Carta for Women
NBI National Bureau of Investigation
NCR National Capital Region
NDHS National Demographic Health Survey
NGO Nongovernment organization
PCW Philippine Commission on Women
PNP Philippine National Police
PNP WCPC Philippine National Police Women and Children’s
Protection Center
PSA Philippine Statistics Authority
QCPD Quezon City Police District
RA Republic Act
VAW Violence against women

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VAWC Violence against women and children
WAGI Women and Gender Institute

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 1. Introduction

Gender-based violence (GBV) is a widespread human rights and public health issue. It
has profound social, economic, health, and familial consequences on the survivors and their
families. It hinders development as it affects a woman’s reproductive, physical, and mental
health; limits their ability to earn an income; and impedes their ability to make decisions
about their own health and matters about their children (Vyas & Watts, 2009). Worldwide, an
estimated 30% of women over 15 years old have experienced physical or sexual intimate
partner violence at some point in their lives (Palermo, Bleck, & Peterman, 2013, 2014; World
Health Organization, 2017). Violence against women (VAW) cuts across social, economic,
and national borders. VAW must be studied in relation to a specific context in order to better
understand the nature, extent, risks, and effects of the issue due to varied cultures and social
settings in developing countries. In addition, since GBV is often underreported, the existing
data on the prevalence and trends are based on the sub-sample of individuals who have
chosen to report. These individuals may be different from those who do not report, thus
leaving a significant group unreached by services and support programs that are based on the
data from those who chose to report (Palermo et al., 2013).
In the Philippines, 19% of women have experienced physical or sexual violence, yet
only six percent report to a formal source (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF,
2018). As academics continually emphasize how GBV is highly contextual, this study aims to
determine the cultural factors in the Philippines that contribute to the prevalence of GBV and
to the low rates of reporting. Moreover, this study aims to understand what the different
stakeholders are doing to address GBV. To accomplish this, this study will use a qualitative
approach guided by the Public Health Model (Centers for Disease and Control Prevention,
n.d.) and the Globalized Integrated Ecological Model (Fulu & Miedema, 2015; Heise, 1998).
These models will be used for a holistic and in-depth understanding of the existing figures of
GBV, cultural factors that affect it, and how different actors address the issue. Data will be
collected through face-to-face semi-structured interviews from actors directly involved in
addressing GBV, including the UN, nongovernment organizations, government offices, and
academics.
This study aims to improve the understanding of current action being done by
different actors to address GBV in the Philippines, and how these actors perceive the issue
and factors surrounding it. In order to achieve this, this study intends to answer the following
research questions:

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 • RQ1: How do UN Women, relevant NGOs, academics, and government
services for GBV in the Philippines perceive gender-based violence?
o 1a) What data do the organizations have, what are their sources, and
how is it used to address GBV?
o 1b) What do they identify as risk factors, protective factors, and factors
that affect reporting behavior?
• RQ2: How do UN Women, relevant NGOs, academics, and government
services for GBV in the Philippines address GBV?
o 2a) What strategies and programs are the organizations doing to
address GBV and do they monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of
these programs?

This study is divided into six chapters. The Literature Review chapter will discuss the
existing literature surrounding GBV and VAW both in other developing countries and in the
Philippines. The Methodology chapter will discuss the process of the fieldwork in the
Philippines, the participants, and the models for analysis. The Findings chapter will discuss
the results of the interviews. The Discussion chapter that will use the theoretical models to
analyze the results, followed by the Conclusion.

2. Literature Review

This chapter discusses the existing literature surrounding GBV. It starts with a general
overview of existing studies in other developing countries and how the issue relates to
reporting, economic empowerment, and urbanization. This is followed by existing literature
in relation to the Philippine context. This includes statistics, policies and government
services, reporting behavior, and Philippine culture. Lastly, the chapter discusses the Public
Health Model and the Global Integrated Ecological Model, and how these models will be
used in this study.

2.1. GBV overview

Gender-based violence (GBV) is physical, sexual, or psychological violence

committed against individuals or groups based on their gender. Although both men and
women experience GBV, most of the victims are women and girls (European Institute for
Gender Equality, n.d.; United Nations, 2014). Despite the prevalence of GBV, it is widely

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underreported. Common reasons for not reporting and seeking formal help include shame and
stigma, lack of awareness or access to services, distrust of health workers, financial barriers,
cultural beliefs, fear of the offender, and fear of discrimination and stereotyping from law
enforcers (Palermo et al., 2013). Studies have paid little attention to reporting behavior of
GBV in developing countries (Palermo et al., 2013). Palermo et al. (2013) analyzed reporting
behavior in 24 developing countries and found that although 40% of GBV victims disclosed
the incidence to someone, only seven percent reported to a formal source. They also found
that in half of the countries analyzed, increasing age is positively correlated with formal
reporting. In addition, never married women were less likely to report than currently married
women, while formerly married women were most likely to report to a formal source. The
study also presents mixed results for the relation of education, wealth, and urban residence to
formal reporting. In four out of the 24 countries, educational attainment was positively
correlated with formal reporting. In Africa, higher wealth increased the probability of formal
reporting. Roughly 20% of the countries analyzed show that residing in urban areas increased
the likelihood of formal reporting. Cultural, political, and religious differences play an
important role in the regional differences of reporting patterns, which further emphasizes the
need for context-specific studies on the issue.
One of the most common reasons for not reporting found in the study by Palermo et
al. (2013) was the belief that there was no use in reporting. Those who experience GBV are
more likely to turn to informal reporting means such as customary legal systems. A study by
Bøås, Divon, and Sayndee (2016) on GBV and access to justice in Ganta, Liberia shows the
distrust of the people in the weak formal institutions. The legal justice system is often
ineffective and resolution is not immediate, which leads to women turning to customary
conflict mechanisms instead. These mechanisms use social relations and communal
responsibility to attain substantial resolutions. However, the type of perpetrator also
determines which justice system the victims turn to. If the offenders are members of the
community, majority of the respondents preferred to use the customary system. If the
offender is a stranger or foreigner, or if the case involves rape, respondents agreed that it
should be reported to the legal justice system. Bøås et al. (2016) also note that although the
customary legal system offers resolution, it could be reemphasizing biased gender
relationships and customary tyrannies, as gender roles in Liberia are often deeply rooted in
cultural practices and social constructions.
Different studies have shown mixed results on the effect of education, age, work or
economic empowerment, urbanization, and wealth to the exposure and risk of intimate

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partner violence (IPV). Education generally has a positive effect on decreasing risk of IPV
(Dalal, 2011; Sambisa, Angeles, Lance, Naved, & Thornton, 2011; Vyas & Watts, 2009).
Similarly, increasing age decreases the risk of IPV (Dalal, 2011; Palermo et al., 2013;
Sambisa et al., 2011). Sambisa et al. (2011) and (Palermo et al., 2013) suggest that increasing
age leads to more autonomy, less dependence on the partners, more experience to avoid
situations that elicit abuse, and more support from the kin and family, which in turn decreases
the exposure to IPV. Sambisa et al. (2011) and Vyas and Watts (2009) found that wealth and
higher socioeconomic status (SES) is mostly a protective factor from IPV. However, Vyas
and Watts (2009) express skepticism at this suggestion, as it is possible that victims from
higher SES are less likely to report IPV due to stigma.
Economic empowerment is strongly advocated by the UN and WHO as a protective
factor for violence against women (Dalal, 2011; World Health Organization, 2017).
However, studies have shown inconsistent effects of economic empowerment to IPV
exposure. In theory, women may have a higher status in their household when they contribute
financially, which decreases their vulnerability to abuse. On the contrary, this could also
challenge the power balance and status quo, leading to an increased risk of abuse. Increasing
a woman’s access to resources could also empower her to attain a better situation for herself,
but in situations of economic uncertainty or seasonal work, it may not be enough to enable
women to challenge or leave an abusive relationship (Vyas & Watts, 2009). Dalal (2011)
found that working women were more likely to experience IPV than those who did not work.
The results also differentiate the exposure to different types of abuses (physical, emotional,
sexual) based on the nature of the work, such as seasonal or occasional work, or having to
travel for work. Additionally, it was found that women who earned less or equal to their
husbands experienced less violence, while husbands without income were more abusive than
those who earned less than their wives. Women with bank transactions faced less risk of
abuse than those without bank transactions. Although economic empowerment could have
potential benefits to decrease the risk of IPV, the relationship must be understood in a
specific context.
Some studies have focused on the relationship between urbanization and GBV.
Differences have been noted in terms of prevalence, exposure, and risk-factors for GBV in
urban and rural areas. A study by McIlwaine (2013) focuses on the paradoxes of urbanization
and GBV in the global south, as the poor existing data makes it difficult to accurately
compare the urban and rural areas. On the other hand, Sambisa et al. (2011) chose to focus on
physical spousal violence against women in urban areas of Bangladesh, as current studies

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tend to focus on rural areas. They emphasize the relevance of studying IPV in the urban
setting as rapid urbanization is occurring in the developing world, and it is crucial to identify
appropriate intervention and prevention strategies suited towards the urban context. They
found higher rates of IPV in the urban slums, and lower rates in the non-slum areas. Dalal
(2011) found that women from rural areas were more exposed to sexual violence, while
women from urban areas experienced more emotional and less severe physical violence.
Contradictory findings were also highlighted by McIlwaine (2013), where in countries such
as the Philippines, Bolivia, Haiti, and Zambia, IPV was more prevalent in urban areas than
rural areas, while in Kenya, Moldova, and Zimbabwe, GBV by a non-partner violence was
more prevalent in urban areas, and IPV was more prevalent in rural areas.
Urban settings offer better access to social, legal, and health services. However, it
could also foster fragmented social relations, and pressures from urban living which can
trigger a higher incidence of violence (McIlwaine, 2013; Palermo et al., 2013, 2014). Urban
conditions of poverty and certain occupations can exacerbate stress-induced violence and
increase the vulnerability of women. McIlwaine (2013) found that certain physical settings
increase the risk of GBV. These include sanitation facilities situated far from homes, places
where drugs and alcohol are bought and consumed, and certain open public spaces such as
isolated parks, riverbanks, basketball courts, and places where gangs meet. Aside from
physical vulnerabilities, the changes in economic, social, and institutional roles also affect
GBV in urban cities. As gender ideologies and patriarchal structures are loosened and
challenged in cities, it can lead to a lower tolerance of GBV. Formal institutional support is
more widely available and accessible in urban settings. Women also tend to be more
economically and socially independent, which gives them more resources to challenge or
seek redress for violent experiences. On the contrary, urban settings can also fragment social
relations, which could increase the risk of GBV.
Gender-based violence is not determined by a single cause or situation. Rather, it is
often rooted in social constructs of gender roles and conservative patriarchal structures that
exist in communities and the wider society (McIlwaine, 2013; Sambisa et al., 2011). The risk
factors and the patterns in the prevalence of GBV are not static. These factors are highly
dependent on the context, and on how political, economic, and social factors foster an
environment for GBV.

2.2.Violence against women in the Philippines

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 The Philippines ranks eighth place in the 2018 Global Gender Gap Report (World
Economic Forum, 2018). It is among the top 14 countries who have exceeded the goal to
close the gender gap by 80% in terms of Economic Participation and Opportunity, and is part
of the top five countries where women equally attain managerial positions. It ranks among
the first in Educational Attainment, where the gender gap is closed, and holds the 13 th place
for Political Empowerment. It also brags closing 80% of the overall gender gap, with the
rates as high as it has ever been for the country (World Economic Forum, 2018). Despite the
impressive figures, the most recent National Demographic and Health Survey (Philippine
Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018) reports that 19% of women over 15 years old have
experienced physical or sexual violence in their lifetimes. Regional rates vary, but it is
interesting to note that the National Capital Region had one of the lowest rates of spousal,
sexual, and physical violence within the past year the survey was conducted (Philippine
Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018).
Spousal violence includes physical, sexual, and emotional violence (Philippine
Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018). One out of four ever-married women between 24-49
years old have experienced spousal violence. The most common form of violence they have
experienced is emotional, followed by physical, then sexual. Among the women who have
experienced spousal violence, 37% have sustained injuries. In terms of occurrence, spousal
violence was found to increase as the number of children increases, and to decrease as wealth
increases. The results also show an intergenerational effect wherein women who have
witnessed spousal violence between their parents are more likely to experience spousal
violence themselves (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018).
Physical violence is described as being hit, slapped, kicked, or physically hurt by
someone (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018). The survey found that 17% of
women between the ages 15-49 have experienced physical violence. Younger women (15-19)
are less likely to have experienced physical violence compared to older women (40-49).
However, the difference is fairly small, as 13% of younger women have experienced physical
violence compared to the 18% of older women. Similar to the results of spousal violence,
women in the lower wealth quintiles are more likely to experience physical violence
compared to those with more wealth. Among currently or previously married women, the
most common perpetrators were the current or former husband/partner. For the never-married
women, the most common perpetrators for physical violence were a parent or step-parent
(Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018).

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 Sexual violence is described as being forced to have sexual intercourse or to perform
any sexual acts when they did not want to (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF,
2018). Five percent of women aged 15-49 reported experiencing sexual violence. Three
percent of women with no children have experienced sexual violence, while nine percent of
women with more than five children have experienced sexual violence. Less women in the
wealthier quintiles have reported experiencing sexual violence compared to those in the
lower wealth quintiles. Among ever-married women, over 80% of the perpetrators were their
current or former husband/partner. For the never-married women, the most common
perpetrators were friends/acquaintances, other relatives, current or former boyfriends, or
strangers. However, physical and sexual violence do not always occur separately. Of the 19%
who have experienced either physical or sexual violence, 4% have experienced both
(Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018).
For reporting behavior, NDHS (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018)
found that among the women who have experienced physical or sexual violence, only one out
of three (34%) sought help to stop the violence. 25% of the women have disclosed the
incident to someone but did not seek help, while 41% have never sought help or told anyone.
This means that 3 out of 5 women suffer in silence. The survey found that the women in the
age group of 20-24 are the most likely to seek help. However, only six percent of the women
sought help from the police – a figure quite close to the seven percent found in the study by
Palermo et al. (2013). The women more commonly turn to their own family, friends, or
neighbors for help. Despite the low turnout for reporting to the police, there is a high
awareness of available government services for help. Over 80% of the women knew that they
could seek help from the Department of Social Welfare, the local Violence Against Women
desks, or the Philippine National Police Women and Children Protection Desk (Philippine
Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018). The low reporting numbers despite the high level of
awareness of available services could reflect a distrust in the public system, as Bøås et al.
(2016) and Palermo et al. (2013) have found in their studies.
A study by Hindin and Adair (2002) focuses on the relation of household decision-
making to IPV in Cebu, Philippines. The study conducted in-depth surveys and interviews as
part of the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey. The survey contained a decision
module with questions about who in the household decides about buying certain products and
how money is allocated. They found certain sociodemographic characteristics where IPV is
more common, such as urban areas, households with fewer assets, younger age of the wife
and husband, unemployed husbands, and husbands that are not frequent churchgoers. Their

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study found no significant correlation with education, the employment status of the wife, or
church attendance of the wife. They found a U-shaped pattern for higher levels of IPV when
the husband and the wife dominate decisions in certain domains, while women experience
less IPV among couples who practice joint decision-making. As men dominate more domains
of household decisions, the higher the likelihood of IPV. Similarly, Berbarte, Acedegbega,
Fadera, and Yopyop (2018) found that male dominance in household decision making is a
contributing factor to IPV. However, Hindin and Adair (2002) also found that as women
dominate more domains of household decisions, the higher their risk to IPV as well. In terms
of income distribution, they found that women who earn more than 50% of the total
household income are more likely to report IPV. However, employment status and relative
earnings showed no significant correlations to IPV. Although higher household wealth was
associated with lower risk of IPV, rural households with lower household wealth experienced
less IPV than urban women. They suggest the contradictory results could be related to how
certain factors in the urban setting affect the risk factors and occurrence of IPV.

2.3.VAW policies and services in the Philippines

The Philippines has numerous laws that address violence against women. The 1987
Constitution of the Philippines lays out several provisions on women, which are the basis for
protecting their rights and recognizing their value. The Philippines is also a signatory to the
major international human rights treaties, including the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and its Optional Protocol, as well as the
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). To showcase its commitment to CEDAW, the
Philippine government passed Republic Act 9710 (RA 9710) or the Magna Carta of Women.
It is the local translation of CEDAW provisions and aims to recognize, protect, fulfill, and
promote the human rights of Filipino women through elimination of discrimination. The
Republic Act 9262 (RA 9262), also known as the Anti-Violence Against Women and their
Children Act, or the Anti-VAWC Law, is a more specific law that addresses violence against
women. This law criminalizes violence against women and their children, and outlines
protective measures for women and appropriate sanctions for perpetrators (Foundation for
Media Alternatives [FMA] & Association for Progressive Communication [APC], 2013;
Santos, 2009). In addition, several other laws also address different issues of gender-based
violence: Anti-Trafficking in Persons act or RA 9208, Anti-Rape Law or RA 8353, Rape

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Victim Assistance and Protection Act or RA 8505, Anti-Sexual Harassment Act or RA 7877,
Anti-Mail Order Bride or RA 6955, and the most recent Safe Spaces Act or RA 11313.
The Anti-VAWC Law includes various services to protect victims of violence against
women. It recognizes violence against women and their children as a public offense, which
allows any citizen with knowledge of the crime to file a complaint. To make reporting more
accessible at the local level, it requires every police precinct in the country to have a
women’s desk, and that a woman police officer must investigate rape cases. Additionally,
every province and city is required to have a rape crisis center. It also entitles the victims to
support from various government services, including legal assistance, medical assistance,
temporary shelter, counseling and psychosocial services, recovery and rehabilitation
programs, and livelihood assistance (SALIGAN, 2007). However, the study by Santos (2009)
on the implementation of the Anti-VAWC Law emphasizes the lack of public awareness and
understanding of the law, for both citizens and public officials. Some participants in the study
mentioned cultural notions that hinder the implementation of the law, such as the idea that
intimate partner violence is normal in a relationship and a private matter, women are at fault
for the violence because it is their role to keep the harmony in a relationship and in the
family, or that their abusive partner will eventually come to his senses once his anger
subsides. Nguyen (2019) found similar accounts of police officers being biased and not
taking reports seriously. However, Article 5 of CEDAW states that the state must address
social and cultural norms that promote discrimination against women. These include cultural
practices and stereotypes that foster the inferiority of women (United Nations, 1979).
There is a wide range of institutional mechanisms and government services for
women. The Anti-VAWC Law established an Inter-Agency Council on Violence Against
Women and Children (IAC-VAWC) that comprises of government agencies assigned to
create programs and projects to eliminate VAWC according to their various functions. These
include:
• Philippine Commission on Women (PCW)
• Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)
• Civil Service Commission (CSC)
• Commission on Human Rights (CHR)
• Council for the Welfare of Children (CWC)
• Philippine National Police (PNP)
• National Bureau of Investigation (NBI)

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 • Department of Justice (DOJ)
• Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG)
• Department of Education (DepEd)
• Department of Health (DOH)
• Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE)

Non-government organizations and women’s human rights advocates also contribute

a significant role in addressing VAWC. The various government services rely on the
expertise NGOs for training and crafting programs (Foundation for Media Alternatives
[FMA] & Association for Progressive Communication [APC], 2013; Santos, 2009).
Each government agency has different functions to address violence against women and
children in accordance with the law. At the ground level, the Women and Children’s Desks
required in each Local Government Unit (LGU) are the first to receive reports about VAWC.
The PNP and the NBI are in charge of investigatory services and procedures for reported
VAWC cases, while the DOH provides medical services, and the DOJ assists with legal and
prosecution services. The DSWD provides psychosocial and rehabilitation services, as well
as temporary shelters, and the LGUs, under the DILG, are also tasked to work with the
DSWD in recovery and livelihood assistance for the victims upon release from the
rehabilitation centers (Foundation for Media Alternatives [FMA] & Association for
Progressive Communication [APC], 2013; SALIGAN, 2007).
However, Santos (2009) found several shortcomings of different government
agencies. Not all cities and provinces had rape crisis centers and most of which were located
in large hospitals. Moreover, the rape crisis centers are mostly located in city centers, which
is difficult to access for those living in the surrounding far-flung villages. Women living in
these areas often do not have the financial means to afford the long commute. In relation, a
participant from the DOH expressed concerns about the lack of resources to establish and
maintain a rape crisis center in every province and believed the centers should be funded by
the LGUs. Conversely, the LGUs also complained about their lack of funds to do so. The
existing rape crisis centers are unable to operate 24 hours a day, which leaves the risk of
women to be treated by untrained staff on the sensitive matter. Some local government units
were also found to misuse the five percent budget allocated for Gender and Development
activities, while others found the budget too little, which made them skeptical to
accommodate all the complaints they receive (Santos, 2009).

16
 The study by Santos (2009) pointed out the poor data collection system of VAWC
cases in the country. The various government agencies have separate data collection
mechanisms, which makes consolidation and comparison difficult due to the inaccuracies and
possible overlaps. There is no standard monitoring and documentation system, nor is there a
central national institution to collect and monitor the VAWC data across the country (Santos,
2009). This makes it difficult to comprehend the national situation on VAWC, which is
crucial in addressing the problem and improving its services.
In writing, the Philippines has numerous laws and services that cater to victims of
violence against women. Despite that, one out of five women still experience VAW. Even
worse, only six percent of them sought help from the public system. These figures, as well as
studies by Santos (2009) and Foundation for Media Alternatives [FMA] and Association for
Progressive Communication [APC] (2013), indicate that there is still a lack of
implementation and awareness of the law, and inefficient public services.

2.4.VAW reporting in the Philippines

Violence against women is widely underreported. Santos (2009) found several

reasons Filipino women choose to remain silent about the abuse: shame, self-blame, fear of
the abuser, insufficient resources to pursue legal action, inaccessible reporting facilities, or
being pressured by others to resolve the issue and to iron out the relationship with the abusive
partners. The participants of the study only reported the abuse as a last resort, if the children
were also at risk or if their own lives were seriously jeopardized.
Every police station in the country is mandated to have a women’s desk. However,
Santos (2009) found various issues with the protection of violence against women and
children at this level. Some of those mentioned were insufficient knowledge of the law,
gender insensitivity, dismissing cases due to the absence of physical injuries as “evidence,”
delayed responses, being advised by police officers to make peace with their abusive
partners, and police officers’ fear of criminal liability. Some police officers complained of
being countercharged for trespassing, arresting without a warrant, or arbitrary detention of
the accused. However, the law clearly states that any person intervening in accordance with
the law to ensure safety for a VAWC victim is exempt from criminal, civil, or administrative
liability.
In one interview from Santos (2009), a woman reported the abuse to local district
officials but was met with hesitation in pursuing her complaint. The mediators were friends

17
with her husband and got free vulcanizing services from his shop. After issuing a local
protection order for the wife and arresting the husband, he was released immediately after he
convinced the police to let him go. Even worse, the police speculated that the wife was filing
a case against the husband in order to get the income from his vulcanizing shop. The police
reasoned the lack of witnesses as evidence for the case, and even advised her that domestic
violence is normal within a relationship (Santos, 2009). Similarly, Nguyen (2019) mentioned
the problem with smaller, tight-knit communities is the higher chance for corruption among
the local officials and gossip within the community. This makes it more difficult for victims
to face the stigma of having a broken marriage or family. This shows that more local levels of
reporting are not always ideal because of the familiarity within such communities.
Victims of intimate partner violence rarely pursue a criminal case against their
abusive partner. Instead, they prioritize moving to a safer place and fixing new arrangements
for their own work and their children’s schools. Many victims are economically dependent on
their abuser, which could also prevent them from leaving the relationship. The legal process
is costly and time-consuming, both of which many victims cannot afford. Nonetheless, when
women ultimately choose to seek government services for protection and justice, they face
various problems and obstacles within the system that further discourage them to push
through (Santos, 2009).

2.5.VAW in relation to Philippine culture

Cultural stereotypes can contribute to the persistence of violence against women and
influence reporting behavior. Some studies have found that cultural stereotypes expected of a
Filipino woman and a power imbalance in existing social structures instill a tolerance of
violent behavior (Berbarte et al., 2018; Molin, 2018; Santos, 2009; Tanyag, 2018). Studies
also found the strong influence of the Catholic church on policies and moral codes and the
religious roots of valuing a woman’s virginity as factors that foster tolerance of violence
against women (Estrada-Claudio, 2002; Manalastas & David, 2018; Yarcia, de Vela, & Tan,
2019).
Stressful situations, such as experiencing repeated natural calamities, can exacerbate
existing social structures that encourage violence against women. Studies by Nguyen (2019)
and Molin (2018) found that risk factors associated with the perpetration of GBV post
disasters are strongly rooted in social structures rather than being due to the impacts of the
disaster. The social structures that encourage such violence include power imbalances,

18
unequal gender norms, patriarchal structures, a macho culture, rigid gender roles, a binary
understanding of gender identities, and a normalized violent behavior of men. Violent
behavior is often triggered by situations following a disaster, such as a loss of livelihood, lack
of coping mechanisms to deal with traumatic experiences and new gender roles, men’s
jealously, and tensions formed by changed power dynamics in a relationship. The act of GBV
is often used to regain the lost sense of power and masculinity. Overall, Molin (2018) found a
lack of programs to deal with GBV post-disasters, and the potential of humanitarian sectors
to address the issue. Nguyen (2019) found that despite the presence of laws that address
GBV, there is a gap between the written law and the actual implementation. Molin (2018)
also emphasized the need for long-term and multidimensional efforts from an extensive range
of actors to address the root causes of the issue.
In the Philippine culture, the caring roles of women are attributed to being self-
sacrificial and altruistic. A study by Tanyag (2018) on women’s role during post-disaster
displacement found that women are expected to adjust and sacrifice their own needs for those
of the family, community, and state. The unpaid care work they provide is expected to adapt
to the situation and is even necessary for the survival and recovery of the community. This
feminization of care validates and maintains the cultural stereotype of self-sacrificial and
altruistic behavior expected from women and girls. The silent and non-complaining ideal of a
Filipino woman is one of the reasons Filipino women are model domestic and care workers
all around the world. In fact, this sacrificial and altruistic stereotype of Filipino women is
what supports household and national economies (Tanyag, 2018). However, Santos (2009)
points out that this same stoical stereotype also affects how women respond to violence
against them, specifically to intimate partner violence. They are programmed to silently cope
with and adjust to the situation, or to turn the blame on themselves. In line with this, Berbarte
et al. (2018) found the strong patriarchy and caring roles of women are sociocultural factors
that promote IPV. Moreover, women fear the backlash of not being able to save their
relationship or to keep the family together in a culture where the family and marriage are
sacred institutions (Santos, 2009).
Philippine culture highly values family, more so in the context of marriage. The study
by Santos (2009) on the implementation of the Anti-Violence against Women and their
Children Act of 2004, found that women choose to stay silent on intimate partner violence in
order to keep the family together for the children’s sake. Both women and government
officials in the study were unaware that violence against women is a public crime and thought
of IPV as normal within a marriage or a relationship. Because of this notion that IPV is a

19
couple’s private business, both the women and public officials think that it must be sorted out
between the partners and therefore public intervention is unnecessary (Santos, 2009). These
widespread cultural notions not only fail to protect women from violence, but also foster the
tolerance and silence on violence against women.
Despite the separation of the Catholic church and the Philippine State, the Catholic
church plays a significant role in dictating moral codes of Philippine culture. Over 80% of the
Philippine population practice Roman Catholicism, brought by the nearly 400 years of
Spanish colonization. Many traditional discourses rooted in the Spanish colonization and
Catholic values still penetrate gender ideals in present society (Nguyen, 2019). The
Catholic’s teachings encourage chastity among women and subservience to their husbands.
Moreover, the Catholic church is very vocal on opposing policies related to sexuality. Its
substantial influence makes abortion, divorce, sex work, same-sex marriage, gender identity
recognition, and commercial pornography illegal in the country. It promotes pro-life and
family values and opposes divorce, euthanasia, abortion, total population control, and
homosexual relationships, or coined in the acronym ‘DEATH’ (Manalastas & David, 2018;
Yarcia et al., 2019).
The Catholic church and religious groups strongly advocate for protecting Philippine
morality and the institution of marriage. They use arguments relating to values, beliefs, and
ideologies rooted in the messages of Catholicism and historic structures of Philippine society
to oppose the Anti-Discrimination bill, divorce, and contraception. Such issues are likened to
being sinful, not normal, unnatural, and immoral (Manalastas & David, 2018; Yarcia et al.,
2019). Tanyag (2018) was informed by a local NGO that many priests are unaware of sexual
and reproductive health issues and rights, and instead foster blind obedience over informed
decision making. In CEDAW’s concluding observations on the 7th and 8th periodic reports of
the Philippines, the committee highlighted the persistence of the dominant stereotype of
women’s primary role as child bearers encouraged by culture and religion. Such stereotypes
stem from the deep-seated Catholic influence, in which the ideal woman is likened to the
Madonna that encourages values of martyrdom and virginity (Tanyag, 2018).
In the Philippine culture, virginity lies on a double standard. Female virginity is often
regarded as virtuous, while male virginity is not given equal importance. Even in the
Philippine legal discourse, the term “virtuous female” is used to refer to an “unmarried
female who is a virgin.” This clearly shows the gendered notions on virginity in Philippine
society (Manalastas & David, 2018). A survey by Manalastas and David (2018) found that
60% of Filipinos believed it was very important for a woman to remain a virgin until

20
marriage, while 28% found it important, and only 12% said it was not important. This view
on women’s virginity was spread out across different demographics, regardless of age, sex,
marital status, educational attainment, or location. Manalastas and David (2018) also
conducted qualitative interviews and focus group discussions which revealed that female
respondents rarely referred to religion or community perception as the reason for valuing
virginity. Instead, the “women only expressed concern about what their husbands would
think and how it would reflect on their husbands’ social status” (Manalastas & David, 2018,
p. 39). On the other hand, 45% of men in their survey disapproved of men having pre-marital
sex. This shows an in-group bias of men being more lenient with themselves regarding sex.
One reason is that virginity among men is stigmatized and ridiculed in the culture.
Manalastas and David (2018) suggest that women themselves endorse and sustain the cultural
beliefs that limit their sexual agency.
The emphasis on a woman’s virginity and purity leads to the objectification of women
and isolation of her value. A study by Estrada-Claudio (2002) analyzed how rape incidents
were presented in Philippine tabloid articles. The stories describe rape as the act of taking
away a woman’s purity and virtue, equating a woman’s value solely on her sexual experience
instead of her character or achievements. The victim is often described as losing her
womanhood after being raped by a man, but no equivalent is said for men in rape stories or in
the general culture. The rape stories liken losing one’s womanhood to losing her purity and
honor, emphasizing that a woman’s worth is anchored on her physical body and sexual
innocence. This reflects on the Philippine culture wherein the Virgin Mary is set as the
standard of a woman’s purity and character. In relation, Manalastas and David (2018) found
that women’s virginity is perceived as a gift given to or a prize for men in marriage. The view
of claiming a woman’s virginity as a prize for men constructs women as merely static objects
(Manalastas & David, 2018). The restrictive views on women’s sexual agency is shaped by
the expectations and opinion of men, which gives the power and agency to men rather than to
women themselves.
Similarly, the study by Estrada-Claudio (2002) highlights the objectification of female
physicality and sexuality. In tabloid news reports of rape stories, men are described as a
lusting predator and often refer to his occupation and relationship to the victim – father,
employer, uncle, etc. These descriptions elevate the rapist into a position of power, referring
to him as the subject and the helpless female victim as the object. Women are depicted as the
object of a man’s passion and desire, making her female identity conditional to the
satisfaction male lust. Moreover, the stories interpret the single act of rape capable of making

21
a person lose or be alienated from all her worth. The stories illustrate “a personhood that is
constructed around the physical state of one’s body and the exclusivity of a man’s sexual
access to it” (Estrada-Claudio, 2002, p. 114).
Estrada-Claudio (2002) also found that the articles often describe rapists as
pathological or psychologically ill. This construction creates an unjust stereotype that
conceals the fact that normal men do commit rape. Additionally, rape victims are stereotyped
into behaving a certain way by detailing her body, her clothes, and her emotional and
traumatized state. However, not all rape victims express the same crying behavior expected
of them. Stereotyping such behavior and reactions could bring on more damaging effects on
the survivor, as “rape survivors take on cultural cues that victimize them and stigmatize
them” (Estrada-Claudio, 2002, p. 28). These cultural stereotypes promote feelings of shame,
dehumanization, and degradation, as depicted in the stories about rape.
Violence against women is a global problem with long-lasting consequences. The
existing studies, both in the Philippines and in different countries, all emphasize the crucial
role that social constructs and contexts play in the perpetration and prevalence of violence
against women. Age, economic empowerment, urbanization, and educational attainment
could be risk or protective factors for women who are victims of violence. However, social
and cultural beliefs also contribute to the tolerance of violence against women. Studies about
gender-based violence in the Philippines found that the roles and characteristics expected of a
woman, as well as the influence of the Catholic church on laws and values, are instrumental
in the persistence of violence against women and reporting behavior in the country. Although
violence against women is a global phenomenon, it must be studied from a local perspective
in order to address the root causes of the issue.

2.6. The Public Health Model

The Public Health Model by the Centers for Disease and Control Prevention (CDC)
(n.d.) is designed to address violence and health problems on a large scale. The public health
approach is rooted in a multi-disciplinary scientific base and encourages involvement from
various sectors such as health, education, justice, social services, and the private sector.
Cooperation from diverse stakeholders is crucial in addressing violence and providing the
most benefit for the largest number of people. The model has four steps: 1) Define and
monitor the problem, 2) Identify risk and protective factors, 3) Develop and test prevention

22
strategies, and 4) Assure widespread adoption (Centers for Disease and Control Prevention,
n.d.).
The first step is to define and monitor the problem. This step aims to understand the
who, what, when, where, and how of the issue. The data needed includes the trends and
frequency of the violence, where it occurs, and who the victims and perpetrators are. Such
data is usually sourced from police reports, hospital charts, registries, and population surveys
among others. The second step is to identify risk and protective factors. According to the
CDC (n.d), a risk factor is a “characteristic that increases the likelihood of a person becoming
a victim or perpetrator of violence,” but does not necessarily mean that they will always
cause violence. While a protective factor “decreases the likelihood of a person becoming a
victim or perpetrator of violence because it provides a buffer against risk.” Identifying the
risk and protective factors are important in order to focus prevention efforts. The third step is
to develop and test prevention strategies. Planning and designing prevention programs must
be evidence-based and drawn from research literature, assessment data, community surveys,
and stakeholder interviews. Afterwards, programs must also be evaluated in order to assess
their effectiveness. The fourth step is to assure widespread adoption. Once the prevention
programs have been determined effective through the third step, they must be implemented
on a broader scale. Widespread adoption could include training, networking, technical
assistance, and evaluation (Centers for Disease and Control Prevention, n.d.).

2.7.Integrated Ecological Model

Early theorists view gender-based violence as either caused by individual violence, or

social and political factors. However, later literature began to explore a more complete
understanding of GBV as caused by several factors on multiple levels (Heise, 1998). Heise
(1998) emphasizes the need to understand not just the violent behavior of men, but also why
women are often the target. Her Integrated Ecological Model helps organize and integrate
findings from the different disciplines that seek to explain the cause of GBV, and provides
the possibility of discovering a combination of variables that will help to understand the
varying trends of abuse in different settings (Heise, 1998).
Heise’s (1998) Integrated Ecological Model consists of four levels: 1) individual, 2)
relationships, 3) community, and 4) societal. The first looks at individual factors rooted in
one’s personal history. These are factors that an individual brings to their behavior and
relationships, such as experiences during the developmental years that shape their response to

23
the relationship and community stressors. Risk factors could be witnessing or experiencing
abuse as a child, age, education, or income. The second level is relationships or the
microsystem, which is the immediate context where abuse occurs. Risk factors for this level
are male dominance over the household economy and decisions, marital conflict, or alcohol
use. Marital conflict is often prompted by matters that throw off the existing power structure,
such as higher educational attainment of the wife, drinking habits of the husband, or division
of labor. Alcohol use can both be the reason of conflict and can increase the husband’s
aggressive behavior. The third level is the community or exosystem, which comprises of
formal and informal institutions and social structures. The risk factors include unemployment
or low socioeconomic status, social isolation, or living conditions. Lastly, the macrosystem
consists of the general views, attitudes, and beliefs in the surrounding culture. Risk factors
involve a notion of masculinity linked to dominance, toughness, and honor; rigid gender
roles; sense of male entitlement and ownership over women; and social acceptance of
punishment of women. This proposed ecological approach to GBV acknowledges the
interplay among social, situational, and sociocultural factors (Heise, 1998).
To build on the Integrated Ecological Model, Fulu and Miedema (2015) include a
fifth level of globalization. They stress that globalization is not just an economic
phenomenon, but also a gendered social transformation in which societies are affected
unequally. They propose the fifth level of globalization as the overarching context of the
model. Fulu and Miedema (2015) use two case studies from the Maldives and Cambodia to
illustrate how globalization leads to social change that influences risk and protective factors
for VAW. The case study on Maldives show how globalization is disintegrating the
traditional cultural protective factors for VAW. While in Cambodia, globalization has
strengthened the discourse on local legislation for VAW and increased local awareness.
Fulu and Miedema (2015) propose four thematic areas under globalization, namely:
global ideologies, economic integration, religious fundamentalism, and global cultural
exchange. The case studies present how the global ideologies of women’s rights and
democracy have both positive impacts and setbacks on the discourse of VAW in the two
contexts. The influence of economic integration is most obviously exemplified in women’s
economic empowerment through participation in the workforce, and economically motivated
migration and urbanization. Growing religious fundamentalism encourages conservative
religious trends, which in turn affects national laws on violence, divorce, and gendered roles
in the public sphere. Lastly, globalized cultural influences reshape ideas of masculinity and
femininity, and serve as a possible catalyst for promoting violent masculinities among men.

24
This shows how although GBV is highly contextual, it is no longer limited to national
borders. Global influences also affect the reshaping of risk and protective factors for GBV
and is therefore relevant in order to holistically understand the issue.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research questions

This study aims to answer the following research questions:

• RQ1: How do UN Women, relevant NGOs, academics, and government
services for GBV in the Philippines perceive gender-based violence?
o 1a) What data do the organizations have, what are their sources, and
how is it used to address GBV?
o 1b) What do they identify as risk factors, protective factors, and factors
that affect reporting behavior?
• RQ2: How do UN Women, relevant NGOs, academics, and government
services for GBV in the Philippines address GBV?
o 2a) What strategies and programs are the organizations doing to
address GBV and do they monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of
these programs?

It is important to note that this study focused on GBV against women and uses both
terms VAW and GBV.

3.2. Selection of Respondents

This study used a qualitative approach for a more in-depth analysis and understanding
of VAW in the Philippines. Due to time constraints, the interviews were limited within Metro
Manila, Philippines. There were two levels of sampling. The first level is the context, which
is UN, nongovernment organizations, government services, and academics in Metro Manila.
The second level is the individual organizations or participants that represent each category in
the first level. 11 units were originally selected based on the criteria that they 1) have an
office in Metro Manila, 2) advocate against VAW or GBV, and 3) have an ongoing or past
project working with VAW or GBV. The original selected participants are listed in Table 1
below:

25
Table 1

Participants Context
UN Women Philippines UN agency
Care Philippines International organization
Oxfam Philippines International organization
Saligan Local organization
WeDpro Local organization
Spark Local organization
Women’s Crisis Center Local organization
Philippine Commission on Women Government agency
Department of Social Welfare and Development Government agency
(DSWD) Protective Services Bureau
Miriam College Women and Gender Institute Academics
University of the Philippines Center for Women’s and Academics
Gender Studies

The fieldwork in Manila was planned for December 2019 to January 2020. I began
contacting the participants via email in June 2019. Out of the 11 selected participants, the
following were not interviewed because they could not be contacted, declined to be
interviewed, or could not find a common schedule for an interview: Care Philippines, Oxfam
Philippines, WeDpro, Women’s Crisis Center, Philippine Commission on Women, and the
University of the Philippines Center for Women’s and Gender Studies.
Because not all original participants could be interviewed, I re-selected additional
participants based on both the original criteria and using a snowball sampling method. The
list of participants is found in Table 2 below:

Table 2

26
 Participant Date and location Context
UN Women Philippines 10/12/2019 UN
Un Women Philippines office
Philippine National Police - 11/12/2019 Government agency
Women and Children Protection PNP WCPC office
Center
(PNP WCPC)
Quezon City Police District 17/12/2019 Government agency
(QCPD) - Women and Children QCPD office
Protection Desk
Department of Social Welfare 10/01/2020 Government agency
and Development DSWD office
Saligan 18/12/2019 Local NGO
Saligan office
Spark 09/01/2020 Local NGO
Spark office
Empower 01/02/2020 Local NGO
WhatsApp audio call
Embassy of Sweden 09/01/2020 International embassy
Embassy office
Miriam College Women and 16/12/2019 Academic
Gender Institute (WAGI) WAGI office
Lawyer 18/12/2019 Academic
Lawyer’s office

UN Women Philippines was selected to represent a UN body. UN Women Philippines

had a previous project on sexual harassment called Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces, and
has an ongoing project on VAW among migrant female workers called Safe and Fair.
Saligan, Spark, and Empower were selected to represent a diversity among local
NGOs. Saligan focuses on empowering women through the law and legal services. Spark
advocates for women’s rights and gender issues by engaging communities. Empower works

27
to eliminate GBV through education. Empower was also recommended by Spark for their
involvement in the #RespetoNaman campaign.
The PNP WCPC oversees the Women’s Desks found in every municipality around
the country. They were selected to provide a national or overall perspective of their function.
On the other hand, the QCPD Women and Children Protection Desk was recommended by
UN Women Philippines due to their previous collaboration on the Safe Cities and Safe Public
Spaces Project. The QCPD was also selected to provide a more local perspective on a city-
wide scale.
The Embassy of Sweden was selected for their involvement in the #RespetoNaman
campaign and active advocacy for gender equality. They were selected as an additional
international or outsider’s perspective. However, because no other international organization
was interviewed, the Embassy of Sweden serves as the only international organization in the
sample.
WAGI was selected because it is a research, training, and advocacy center for
women’s rights and gender equality. The lawyer was selected based on their legal, academic,
and organizational experience with family law and women and children’s rights.

3.3.Data collection

I conducted individual face-to-face semi-structured interviews with nine participants

between 10 December 2019 and 10 January 2020. An additional interview was arranged via
audio call on 01 February 2020. The interviews were held at a time, date, and location
convenient for the participants. The date and location of each interview is presented in the
table.
The semi-structured interview allowed flexibility for the discussion. An interview
guide (see Appendix A) was sent to the participants beforehand. The same interview guide
was used during the interviews. There were two different interview guides, one for
organizations and another for academics. The questions were derived from the main research
questions and theoretical frameworks. The interview guide contained questions about 1) data
and statistics, 2) laws and services for GBV, 3) factors that affect GBV, and 4) the
organization’s or the academic’s work on GBV. Additional questions were also asked during
the interview when deemed appropriate.
Although the interview guides were in English, the responses were in both English
and Filipino. This was not an issue as I am fluent in both languages. The interviews were

28
recorded using my personal smartphone with the participant’s consent. I also took down
notes for each interview. The interviews were then transcribed afterwards.
For future data collection, I recommend allotting sufficient time to obtain interviews,
especially for government agencies. Because I was not in the Philippines until the actual
fieldwork, it was difficult to get in touch with government agencies because they did not have
available or working emails available on their websites. If they did have contact details, it
was only a landline number, which was not possible to call from abroad. In addition, it took
several weeks of calling different sections of the government agencies before I was connected
to the right point person, and even more time afterwards before I could get an interview
schedule. As a result, although I originally planned four weeks for fieldwork, it took closer to
seven weeks to complete – and even then, I was not able to conduct all of the planned
interviews.

3.4. Ethical issues

The participants were informed of their rights and role in the study within adequate
time beforehand. The participants were sent a softcopy of the Information Sheet (Appendix
B) upon initial contact. This contained details of the study and the participant’s role in it.
Once the participant agreed to an interview, they were sent a softcopy of the Consent Form
(Appendix C) informing them of their role and rights in the study. During the physical
interview, I provided each participant with hardcopies of both the Information Sheet and two
Consent Forms, one for myself and one for the participant to keep.
The data collection process was approved by the Norsk senter for forskningsdata
(NSD) prior to the fieldwork. The participants’ personal identities are anonymized. They are
only regarded by their organization’s name throughout this study. All collected data are
stored securely on a private device with restricted access. All directly identifiable and
personal data are stored separately from the collected data. Personal data will be stored until
30 June 2021.

3.5. Data analysis

The data was analyzed using a combination of the Public Health Model and the
Integrated Ecological Model. The Public Health Model was used as an overarching tool to
assess the organizations’ data on GBV, how they perceive the issue, and how they address
GBV through their campaigns and strategies. As mentioned in Chapter 2.6, the Public Health

29
Model has four steps: 1) Define and monitor the problem, 2) Identify risk and protective
factors, 3) Develop and test prevention strategies, and 4) Assure widespread adoption. The
Integrated Ecological Model will be used for Step 2 of the Public Health Model for a more
in-depth analysis of the risk and protective factors identified. In addition to the risk and
protective factors, I included a separate category for factors that affect reporting behavior as
they did not fall under the two other categories. The Integrated Ecological Model was used to
organize the three different factors into five levels: 1) Individual, 2) Relationships, 3)
Community, 4) Societal, and 5) Global. These five levels allowed for a more in-depth
analysis and contextual understanding of the factors.

4. Findings

This chapter arranges the data collected from the interviews according to the structure
of the interview guides (see Appendix A and Appendix B). The interviews were conducted as
described in Chapter 3.3. Due to the semi-structured nature of the interviews, the questions
asked and the order of the questions varied for each interview. Other factors such as the flow
of the conversation and the limited time for some interviews also affected which questions
were asked. Despite this, all interviews covered the four main themes of 1) data and statistics,
2) laws and services for GBV, 3) factors that affect GBV, and 4) the organization’s or the
academic’s work on GBV.

4.1.Definitions and data

Question: What is your definition of gender-based violence (GBV)?

UN Women defined VAW as “acts of gender-based violence that results in physical,
sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion,
or arbitrary deprivation of liberty whether in public or private.” They use the definition found
in DEVAW. As a UN entity, their definition is aligned with the established normative
frameworks that define GBV and VAW.
The respondent emphasized the gendered aspect of the definitions of VAW and GBV
– that women are considered a vulnerable group because of their historical oppression and
unequal power relations that puts them at a disadvantaged position. Although GBV happens
globally, it must be understood in its specific context because it is within the society that the
structural inequalities, stereotypes, norms and attitudes towards gender play a specific role in
the issue.

30
 PNP WCPC, QCPD, and Spark also defined GBV as violence done against a person
specifically because of their gender. QCPD noted that although GBV could also happen to
men, majority of the victims are women and girls.
QCPD pointed out that GBV is one of the most notable human rights violations in any
society. UN Women highlighted that VAW and GBV are public issues and even a health
epidemic. This means that:
it’s not only an issue of women and girls, but it’s a societal issue. It’s an issue where
women and girls continue to be at risk, and also our men and boys continue to be at
risk as well for displaying these behaviors. And so the cycle of violence continues,
and it also figures in the different overarching structural violence like poverty,
criminality, [and] the way our society would define a public threat.
Spark highlighted the fact that the organization is specific about using the term GBV
instead of VAW because of the wider extent of GBV. Although they focused on sexual
violence at the beginning of their #RespetoNaman campaign, they have expanded the scope
to violence against the LGBT community as well.

Question: What are the different types of GBV?

UN Women, Spark, PNP WCPC, and QCPD categorized VAW into four types:
sexual abuse, physical abuse, economical abuse, and emotional or psychosocial abuse. PNP
WCPC mentioned that VAW could be a range of different things, such as domestic violence,
public harassment, or rape. Spark believed that not enough attention is given to emotional
and economic abuse:
One of the most untalked about [forms of abuse] would be emotional abuse or verbal
abuse. We don’t even have data or statistics to back up how many women or how
many people experience verbal abuse in the Philippines because it’s not really
considered as abuse yet. One of the other things that isn’t normally talked about is
economic abuse – how women and girls really have less opportunities because of the
culture that we have.

Questions:
What statistics do you have of GBV?
Where do you obtain your data?
How is this data used by the organization?
Have the incidents increased or decreased over the years? Why?

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 All of the respondents derived their data from the National Demographic Health
Survey (NDHS) 2017 and or from the Philippine National Police. The NDHS data is
available online. The PNP data is not openly accessible to the public online and must be
requested from their office.
UN Women conducted a survey for their Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces program.
They found that three out of five women experience sexual harassment at least once in their
lifetime. They used the initial statistics to dig deeper into the existing norms and attitudes
surrounding the issue. This data was used to exhibit the pervasiveness of the issue, and to
analyze how it could be used for interventions that would prevent, respond, and hopefully
eliminate VAW.
Most of the respondents mentioned acquiring GBV data from the Philippine National
Police. The PNP WCPC confirmed that they are the repository for all of the national data
related to GBV. However, they only count the cases that were filed or elevated before the
court. They said that the data patterns are inconsistent and varies per region and per year. The
QCPD explained the process of consolidating data: the city’s police department collects the
data from Women and Children Protection desks located in every municipality. They submit
this data to the regional police department, who then forwards the data to the national police
department.
Locally, the QCPD uses the citywide data as a basis for their advocacy campaigns,
information sessions dialogues with the local communities about the rights of women and
children. They believe that the city has low figures on VAW, which could be attributed to the
strong support of the local government in creating local ordinances to protect women and
children. However, the respondent was aware of the double meaning behind the increase or
decrease of statistics. The decrease in number of reports could mean there are less incidents,
but it could also mean that victims choose not to report, while an increase in reports could
also mean that people are more aware of their rights and services.
The PNP’s data on VAW is not available online or for the public and must be
requested from their databank. I was able to obtain the data from 2017 to 2019, which
contains the number of VAW cases, categorized by region and by the type of case filed. The
number of filed cases decreased over the years, from 25,805 in 2017 to 18,699 in 2019. In all
three years, roughly 75% of the cases filed were violations of the Anti-VAWC Law (RA
9262). The second most reported cases (10-12%) in all three years were rape, followed by

32
acts of lasciviousness1 (8-10%). The type and number of reports vary per region throughout
the years, but it is interesting to note that the National Capital Region (NCR) – which is
where Metro Manila is located – is always among the top three regions with most cases
reported.
The DSWD also collects their own data but did not have accurate data about the
nationwide number of GBV cases. The data they collect is different from the PNP data
because they only count the cases based on those who have sought assistance from their
services. These services include psychosocial intervention, temporary shelter, or financial,
medical, or legal services. They shared their data with me from 2019, which had the number
of clients in their two shelters which house GBV victims. The data is also categorized by the
type of violation or abuse. The data shows that there is a total of 564 clients in the two
shelters in NCR, some of which are children. The majority of the clients are victims of
trafficking, followed by prostitution, and illegal recruitment.
Empower mentioned some statistics surrounding GBV:
One rape [happens] every 45 to 53 minutes depending on what source you go by. Our
conviction rate has been 3% for rape in this country. We have 75,000 children being
trafficked online every day and 750,000 pedophiles online every hour internationally
who are the customers for these children. … 75% of all rapes are for children under
the age of 14 here, [and] the age of consent is 12 years old.
They collect their data from various online sources, aside from using the data from PNP as
well. They use this data in forums to correct some belief patterns among the Philippine
society.
Empower believed that there is a general increase in GBV cases but said there is no
definite way to compare whether the situation is worse or not. They believed GBV has
increased since the rise of the internet because it has fueled online trafficking, and that “a
general apathy towards those kinds of things [and] of the rape culture there is in this country
– that nobody is really afraid of committing crimes because nobody’s gonna do anything
about it” also contributes to the prevalence of GBV.

1 Acts of Lasciviousness falls under Article 336 of the Revised Penal Code. It consists
of any lascivious act without sexual intercourse; uses force, threat, or intimidation; and the
victim is deprived of reason.

33
Question: Do the victims share common traits, demographics, personal history, etc?
All of the respondents did not feel that VAW victims could be categorized or shared
similar patterns or demographics. Spark expounded that based on their experience meeting
people through their campaign, VAW could happen to anyone and most of the time people do
not exhibit any signs that they have experienced it.

Question: Do the perpetrators share common traits, demographics, personal history, etc?
UN Women emphasized because VAW can happen anytime and anywhere, the
perpetrator can just as well be anyone – an intimate partner, an employer, an acquaintance, or
a stranger. They did not find any pattern of the perpetrator in their sexual harassment survey.
All types of boys and men admitted to committing sexual harassment, from professionals, to
college graduates, and unemployed. However, they noted that for sexual violence there is a
higher percentage that the perpetrator is someone the victim knows or trusts.
In their data, the PNP WCPC categorizes the perpetrators into a family member or an
outsider. They noticed that more of the perpetrators are family members of the victims. The
QCPD also noted that the perpetrators are often intimate partners or acquaintances of the
victims.

Question: Where does the abuse occur? Are there patterns in the context or situation of the
abuse?
UN Women emphasized that VAW can happen anytime, anywhere. Their previous
project Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces focused on sexual harassment that happens in
public spaces. They found that most of it takes place in public transportation and in the
streets. For their current Safe and Fair program, they focus on VAW that happens beyond the
Philippine borders. However, they believed that IPV and sexual violence mostly happen in
the victim’s home. QCPD also noted that majority of violence committed against women and
children happens within their households because the perpetrators are often someone they
know.

4.2. Laws

Questions:
Are you aware of the laws in the Philippines that address violence against women?
How effective are they?

34
How are they implemented?
Until 1997, the Philippine law considered rape as a crime against chastity. WAGI and
Empower pointed out that the laws have come a long way since then, because now it is
acknowledged as a crime against persons. The lawyer said that it is only the Philippines that
recognizes the battered woman syndrome. Although the laws have improved, Saligan pointed
out that some laws are still not gender-fair, such as the treatment of adultery and
concubinage, the absence of a divorce law, and the fact that the age for consent is 12. They
said that although we are slowly progressing, the cultural barrier remains an obstacle.

Question: Is CEDAW being used or implemented? If so, how?

UN Women works to ensure that a country’s policy frameworks are aligned with the
normative frameworks, such as CEDAW. They the substantive equality approach of CEDAW
as a basis for all their programs, whose end goal is to transform the relations of men and
women.
Saligan indirectly uses CEDAW as it is incorporated in the Magna Carta of Women,
which is its domestic translation.
Spark indirectly uses CEDAW in their #RespetoNaman campaign and hopes to use it
more for action-based movements.
WAGI incorporates CEDAW in their yearly International Human Rights and
Governance course.
QCPD uses CEDAW as a reference for their programs.

4.2.1. Strong policies and government support

Policies are crucial in changing people’s norms and behaviors. UN Women believed
that this can be achieved through working closely with public authorities. An example is their
work with Quezon City for UN Women’s Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces program. The
program enacted a local ordinance against catcalling, which catapulted into a national law
now known as the Safe Spaces Act or RA 11313. In relation, the QCPD believed that strong
support from the local government plays a huge role in implementing the laws. Women and
children’s rights has been a main advocacy of the current mayor, who was also previously the
vice mayor. It was during her term that projects surrounding women and children’s rights
were established and strengthened. This shows how much can be achieved if the government
prioritizes a certain issue.

35
 However, UN Women warned that laws are like a double-edged sword because:
we use policy frameworks for rights claiming – not only for rights claiming but
operationally as a basis for the programs and the projects, where funds and resources
are allocated for. But if we have laws that may reinforce these stereotypes or these
harmful beliefs, then it is also detrimental to women and girls.
WAGI stressed the importance of internalizing the law in order for it to be preventive
instead of responsive. People must understand that the law exists because VAW is morally,
ethically, culturally, and religiously wrong instead of simply acting against fear of
punishment.

4.2.2. Poor implementation of the law

Most of the respondents believed that the laws addressing GBV are great on paper,
but lack implementation and public awareness. The Embassy of Sweden stated that the lack
of implementation stems from the lack of trained service providers: “Our laws are quite good
actually, but they’re not implemented. There’s a lack of implementation, lack of trained
police officers, lack of trained social workers, lack of trained school faculty members, health
workers in this area.”
While the DSWD believed there are good laws in place to protect and promote the
rights of VAW victims, “what we are needing is more on advocacy so they can be aware of
their rights. I know that the law is strong, but we lack advocacy and implementation.”
Empower reiterated the fact that lawyers and judges themselves must also be aware of the
current laws: “we don’t have mandatory briefings for lawyers and judges. We’re still dealing
with ignorance from the people who are supposed to be dealing with the law, and that’s a big
problem.”
Saligan specified that “the problem with law-making is it’s done in the national level,
and then the implementation is expected at the local level. And then they expect the local
government to easily implement those laws.” However, there is often a gap in coordinating
and cascading information to the local governments on their roles in implementing laws. This
causes the local implementation to not be immediate and prone to misinterpretation.

4.2.3. Police officers’ fear of retaliation

The lawyer specified another issue in implementing the law is the police officers’ fear
of retaliation from the victims. Oftentimes, the victims report an incident and ask for the

36
perpetrator – who is often their husband or partner – to be arrested. However, when the time
comes to testify or go to a prosecutor, the complainant beg the police officer to release the
perpetrator and accuse the police of illegal detention if they refuse to release him from prison.
This has caused a negative attitude among police officers in taking and pursuing VAW cases.

4.3. Services

Questions:
What are the available services for GBV victims in the Philippines?
How accessible are these services for people in the cities and provinces?
Do you think these services are effective? Could they be improved? How are they
contributing to the increase/decrease of GBV statistics?

4.3.1. Undertrained, inefficient, and uncoordinated services

UN Women categorized the essential services for GBV into three areas: 1) health,
which comprises psychosocial, medical, and sexual reproductive health; 2) justice and policy,
which includes legal and police assistance; and 3) social support, which consists of shelters,
economic assistance, and counselling services. Although these programs exist in the country,
they are lacking coordination and efficiency. Service providers in the health, justice, police,
and social services sectors face several challenges. They are overworked, untrained, and have
to manage with limited facilities. Despite the mandated budget for gender and development
in each sector, reports show they are underutilized. The respondent felt that there must be
more effort to build the capacity of these government services as well as to effectively utilize
their budgets. The respondent also pointed out that gender equality and eliminating GBV are
not treated with enough public urgency. These issues are not priorities on the government’s
agenda or even integral in the country’s development agenda, which is why the programs for
these issues remain at the margins.
UN Women also stated that some service providers still embody a victim-blaming
stance. From their experience on the ground, police officers still tend to ask the victim what
she was wearing, how she acted, what time she was out – that although they need collect facts
of the crime, they still lack gender sensitivity training. This shows one of the main structural
challenges, that there is a lack of institutional recognition of VAW, which reflects on a
misalignment among its personnel.

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 Although all public hospitals are mandated to accommodate VAW victims, the PNP
WCPC believed that the DOH falls short on this role. Based on their experience, public
hospitals and doctors refuse to entertain some victims and refer them to the police instead.
They reason out the lack of rape kits, or that the incident has exceeded 24 hours, but the PNP
WCPC felt that the DOH would rather not get involved in the process of filing a case. In
addition, Spark mentioned that in order to pursue a rape case, the victim needs a medical-
legal examination which only few hospitals in the country have. PNP WCPC finds that the
DOH lacks commitment and proactiveness in addressing VAW cases. Another issue is that
most hospitals only think of maternity or OBGYN when considering women’s needs and are
not always equipped or prepared for VAW cases.
Multi-cooperation among the different government agencies is essential. The PNP
WCPC explained that once a VAW incident has been reported to the police, they are allowed
to carry out a warrantless arrest of the perpetrator up to three days after the crime was
committed. After the three-day period has passed, the report must undergo the regular filing
process, which is more inconvenient. The victim is referred to different agencies that can be a
hassle and discouraging to pursue. Some police officers also lack gender-sensitivity trainings,
which could lead to re-traumatization for the victims.
Saligan, Spark and WAGI believe that although services that cater to VAW victims
exist, they are not enough and not tapped into their full potential. Saligan finds that services
are still centralized in a sense that victims still need to travel to the main cities in order to
access them. Spark said that temporary shelters or rehabilitation centers for victims have
limited resources. They are at full occupancy and do not have the operational capacity to take
everyone who comes in, but are also unable to refuse someone who seeks help.
DSWD laid out the range of their services for GBV victims. They are mandated to
provide social protection for these victims and have both center-based and community-based
services. These include temporary shelters, financial, medical, legal, and psychosocial
assistance. The PNP WCPC mentioned that the social services are often insufficient. They
felt that social workers are overworked and there is a lack of infrastructure and shelters for
GBV victims.

4.3.2. One-stop shop protection center

On a different note, the QCPD exemplified how VAW services can be delivered
efficiently. They have a Quezon City Protection Center, which serves as a one-stop shop for

38
VAW victims. Here, the victim can find a social worker, doctors, a lawyer, and an
investigator. By centralizing the essential services, the victim goes through an easier and
smoother reporting process. According to the QCPD, though they have local city ordinances
for VAW, they choose to file a complaint that violates the national law instead. This way, the
perpetrator faces a higher penalty.

4.3.3. Local levels of reporting can be problematic

Although VAW services are made available at a very local level by having VAWC
desks in each district, Spark points out that this can sometimes be problematic especially for
tightknit communities. In such communities, people are familiar with each other and there is
bound to be gossip. Even worse, the perpetrator could be friends with the police officers or
someone in position, which could hold influence over those in charge of handling the reports.
So even though the Women’s Desks or VAWC Desks can be effective due to their near
proximity, it could also pose problems especially if the officers are not well-trained.

4.3.4. NGO services fill in the gaps

NGO services also serve an important role in filling the gaps of the government
services. The PNP WCPC confirmed that private NGOs, private donors, and foundations are
essential for GBV services. According to Saligan, the NGOs provide the expertise, capacity,
and resources to complement government services. This is because the government system is
devolved into smaller local governments, they often rely on help from NGOs. One example is
the Naga city government who has partnerships with different NGOs. This way, once a
victim comes in and is assessed, she can easily be referred to the appropriate NGO if the local
government service providers are unable to cater to the victim.
Another example of how NGOs work with government services is Empower and
Spark’s project to bring in more efficient rape kits. Empower mentioned how they
collaborated with the British Embassy for these rape kits and will train the PNP and NBI
officers who handle rape cases. Empower believed that there needs to be more effort from the
service providers to go against rape. The respondent felt that:
the departments that are in charge of taking care of these things are not being
supported enough or don’t get enough publicity. They need a bit more support, they
need a bit more help, they need a bit more strategy.

39
4.4.Awareness

Question: Do you think people are aware of the laws and/or services that address GBV?
All respondents acknowledged a lack of awareness about the issue, the laws, and the
services. WAGI stressed that:
I think if I had to zero in on the one thing that needs to be improved so these policies
can be more effective, it’s education and awareness at the cultural level. At the level
of the every day. … An effective law should be preventive of violence, not merely
responding to violence.
WAGI also noted that there is a coexistence in the country between communities with
high awareness on the issue, and more backward communities that still promote patriarchal
values. The PNP WCPC felt that despite their information drives and various campaigns, the
reach is limited, and a lot of people remain ignorant. People are not educated enough on the
fact that VAW is a public crime, and that there are laws to protect women against violence.
The QCPD believed that awareness of the laws should not only be among women, but also
among men and possible perpetrators. The men should also be aware that these acts are
against the law that have serious legal consequences.
One possible cause of the lack of awareness of VAW is due to the normalization of
violence in the culture. Spark explained that girls learn to live and cope with violence from a
young age because it is a normal daily experience. Based on Empower’s experience talking to
women in lower socioeconomic classes, oftentimes they do know what rape and sexual
harassment are, but simply accept them as a norm – partly because they do not know what do
about it, or because they fear victim-blaming.
According to Saligan, many of the population are unaware of the laws and their rights
because of the exclusivity of the law profession. In addition, many laws that address GBV are
still not mainstreamed in law school, which adds to the problem of the law practitioners being
unaware themselves.
Lack of awareness could stem from a gap in the basic education system. According to
DSWD, it is better that awareness about GBV issues and laws should start in school. DSWD
believed that other than a lack of awareness about the issue, there are also misconceptions
about what consists of GBV. People often associate GBV with the LGBTQI community.
However, people must be aware that other issues, from sexual harassment to trafficking, all
fall under the umbrella of GBV.

40
4.5.Reporting

4.5.1. Inefficient reporting system and lack of gender-sensitivity training

There were several concerns regarding the reporting system and government services
for VAW victims. The victims either do not know where to report or get referred to different
agencies due to a lack of coordination among the different service providers. According to
UN Women, WAGI, Spark, the Embassy of Sweden, and DSWD - police officers and other
service providers lack gender-sensitivity training and still have a victim-blaming mindset that
could lead to further traumatization for the victim. The victim goes through a lengthy process
in order to file a case and often has to repeat her story several times to the different agencies.
This process leaves the victim feeling more disempowered and hopeless about attaining
justice. According to UN Women, “it also subjects women who are already suffering from
trauma or abuse to further re-victimization … it doesn’t help them recover when they cannot
access these services or when they’re having different problems in accessing these services.”

4.5.2. Fear of stigma and victim-blaming

One factor why women do not report is due to fear – of stigma, of being blamed for
what happened, and of being publicly shamed. According to Empower, “there’s still a victim-
blaming culture, so even if they are aware of the services, they don’t use them because they
know that they’ll get blamed for what happened to them and shamed.” The victim fears that
the community will talk about her and treat her differently. The victim could also be blamed
for letting the abuse happen and for not being able to keep the marriage or family together.

4.5.3. Perpetrator is a family member or husband/partner

The fact that the perpetrator is a family member or the woman’s husband/partner is
another crucial factor that hinders her from reporting, but for different reasons: fear of
retaliation, economic dependence, self-blame, or emotional attachment to the partner.
According to the PNP WCPC, QCPD, and the lawyer, the woman could be economically
dependent on their partner. She cannot afford to file a case or even live separately from him
because she has no means to support herself and her children.
Another hindrance is the woman’s fear of retaliation and power of the perpetrator.
The perpetrator could have more money, power, and connections that he could use to
influence the case. The woman also fears being hurt or violated even more once the
perpetrator finds out she reported him to the police.

41
 According to the lawyer, if the perpetrator is the woman’s husband or partner, her
love and emotional attachment to him could also hinder her from turning him in. She could
be afraid of losing him and hopes that he will change for the better, or believes that she still
sees the side of him she fell in love with, or accepts the beating as his way of showing love.
She could also be concerned about maintaining his reputation and keeping his job. The
woman might also blame herself for the violence – she thinks that she deserves the beating,
or that if she improves herself the violence will stop.

4.5.4. Lack of awareness and normalization of violence

According to Spark, sometimes the abuse is something that is already normalized in

the woman’s life that she does not even realize it is wrong. The lawyer states that the woman
could think of beating as a normal part of the marriage or is unaware that she has the right not
to be beaten. She could also have been raised to believe that the woman’s role is to please the
man or that IPV is a private matter that no one else should interfere with.

4.6. Economic empowerment

Question: Does economic empowerment affect GBV? If so, how?

Nearly all the respondents believed that economic empowerment plays a crucial role
in encouraging a woman to escape an abusive situation. Many women in the Philippine
society, especially in the lower socioeconomic status, are financially dependent on their
husbands/partners, which makes it difficult to leave the relationship if he is also the
perpetrator. The women have no means to support their children and have limited
opportunities to earn a living. According to UN Women, “economic empowerment is integral
in women finding their autonomy and being able to get out of the abusive situations.” Spark
believes this stems from the cultural notion that men are supposed to be the breadwinners:
We think that men are the ones who go out and get a living and that’s why we think
they’re the ones who should get an education. And it really limits the potential of girls
in that when they grow up to be, even if they grow up to becomes wives, they get
stuck in abusive relationships whether it be physical or emotional abuse BECAUSE
they have no economic capacity to fend for themselves.
Additionally, QCPD believed that it is in the culture for women to endure any type of
hardships for her children and family. So if the woman is completely dependent on her
abuser, then she will endure the suffering for her and her children’s survival.

42
 However, there is also a flipside to economic empowerment. According to WAGI,
“because you’re economically empowered, you can bolt out of your home and leave your
husband. But because you’re economically empowered, you have a face to keep, a social
status. So you can’t just bolt out of your home.” This is also one of the reasons why victims
in the higher socioeconomic status do not report or seek help.

4.7.Educational attainment

Question: Does educational attainment affect GBV? In terms of occurrence, risk, and
reporting? If so, how?
Spark believed that the lack of education can be a contributing factor to VAW. Less
educated people receive less economic opportunities, leaving them to remain in poverty. This
could lead people to monetize abuse out of desperation. The respondent stated that “it’s also a
consequence of poverty, … [and] it’s still intertwined with how the development of our
country has been slow and [how] the marginalized communities have been disregarded or left
behind.”
The QCPD said that they are unable to tell the educational attainment of the
perpetrators or victims. However, they assume that most of those who report VAW to the
police come from the middle or lower class because those in the upper classes will hire
private lawyers instead.

4.8.Socioeconomic class

Questions:
Does socioeconomic class affect GBV? In terms of occurrence, reporting, perception, etc?
What are the differences and/or similarities? If so, how?
Does educational attainment affect GBV? In terms of occurrence, risk, and reporting? If so,
how?
VAW cuts across all socioeconomic classes. However, there are differences in terms
of awareness and access of services, social reputation, powerful perpetrators, and the living
situations.
PNP WCPC felt that the socioeconomic status does not affect VAW in any way and
that it could happen to anyone.
The QCPD believed that VAW is more common among the lower SES because the
couples often fight about money, which then leads to violence.

43
4.8.1. Awareness and access to services

Women from the higher SES have more access and awareness to services. Saligan felt
that educational attainment affects VAW in relation to their social status. Based on their
experience, they noticed that women from both higher and lower SES are unaware of or
misunderstand the law. They also observed that women from higher SES do not consider the
financial cost of filing a case as a hindrance to reporting, while women from the lower SES
find it difficult to capture the length and expense of filing a case, and upon learning this
would rather not pursue it anymore. DSWD also noted that victims from the lower SES are
less knowledgeable of their rights, the process, and the available services.

4.8.2. Social reputation

Women in both the lower and higher SES are affected by the stigma of being a VAW
victim. However, UN Women, WAGI, the lawyer, and Empower all emphasized that victims
from the higher SES are more conscious about their social reputation. They have more to lose
and would rather not give up their lifestyle. As Empower put it, “in the upper class they don’t
talk about it as much – there’s this thing about keeping appearances, so they shun it and
pretend it didn’t happen.” On the other hand, women in the lower SES have less to lose, and
it is easier for those who are not legally married to separate their partners.

4.8.3. Powerful abusers

UN Women, WAGI, and Empower believe that women in the higher SES fear
retaliation from the perpetrator, especially if he is more powerful and influential. According
to Empower, “if your rapist has power, or if you’ve been raped by someone who has
connections, it’s very difficult to convict him.”

4.8.4. Living situation

Even though VAW happens in all SES, it is more hidden among the higher SES
because of their living situation. According to the lawyer, “you grow up with parents who to
the public eye are perfect, but at home you know that your mother’s being abused, except that
nobody hears it because you live in a big house with concrete walls.” WAGI says that in
richer communities, the abuse is more hidden because it happens in bigger houses in
exclusive gated communities. Unlike in poor areas, you can hear the shouting and beating

44
because people live in small, tight, shanty houses. Empower believed VAW is more
prominent in poor communities because of their living situations as well. People live in small
shacks where everyone sleeps in the same room, and kids openly witness their parents’ sex
life and violence.

4.9.Urban and rural settings

Question: Does the rural or urban setting affect GBV? If so, how? What are the differences
and/or similarities?
VAW happens in both the urban and rural areas. However, some respondents pointed
out the main difference is the access to services. UN Women, Saligan, and Empower stated
that the services are located in the city centers, which makes it difficult to reach for people
living in the outskirts and rural areas. VAW victims from the rural areas will have to travel
for several hours to reach the city center. Once they reach the city center they might have to
stay overnight and spend on food, turning it into a costly and time-consuming journey that
many poor people cannot afford.
Based on Spark’s experience reaching out to communities around the country, they
noticed that people in the rural areas asked more exploratory questions in terms of what they
could do within their community to address GBV. The respondent got the impression
communities in rural areas “know each other well enough to feel like they have a community
that they can develop or that they can work with or influence.”

4.10. Age

Question: Does age affect GBV? In terms of occurrence, risk, and reporting? If so, how?
Most respondents did not believe that the victim’s age affected the occurrence of
VAW. However, UN Women and Spark believed that there is a difference in terms of
reporting, as older women are more aware of the violation and have more opportunity to
report. Children, on the other hand, are the most vulnerable age group. According to UN
Women:
there is an observation that yes, adult women are more able to report, especially if
they’re more aware that it is a violation. But for younger girls, girl children, first it’s
really more on their awareness if … what is happening is a violation … In terms of
reporting as well, they are in the context where they would NEED someone else like
an adult, a family member would support them. But there is also a question whether

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 THEY would tell their parents or their adult family members – especially if the
perpetrator is also a family member.

4.11. Marital status

Question: Does marital status affect GBV? In terms of occurrence, risk, and reporting? If so,
how?
Saligan and QCPD did not think that marital status affects GBV or VAW. QCPD
noted that they receive reports from both married or unmarried couples and do not notice any
specific difference.
WAGI felt that marital status affects VAW in terms of their ability to leave the
relationship. The respondent pointed out that it is more likely that couples from the lower
SES are not married because maybe they are unable to afford a wedding celebration. This
means that they are only living in together, which makes it easier for them to separate or
leave the relationship because there is no formal commitment.
Spark mentioned how marital status affects GBV in different ways. Firstly, “people
still give primacy to virginity or ‘saving yourself’ for marriage,” so if an unmarried woman
gets pregnant, she is expected to marry the person who impregnated her. On another note, if
an unmarried woman gets raped, people might label her as damaged goods. Secondly, the
respondent believed that “women who are married and are in abusive relationships do suffer
more because they are trapped,” both due to the absence of a divorce law or economic
dependence on the husband. Lastly, some communities do not consider marital rape wrong
because of the belief that “just because you’re married you can do whatever you want
[because] the husband owns the wife.”

4.12. Globalization

Question: Does globalization affect GBV? If so, how?

Globalization creates more opportunities for women, more freedom of movement,
more avenues for self-expression and public participation, and more access to information.
Yet respondents mentioned two issues that have globalized violence: technology and
overseas workers.

4.12.1. Technology and the internet

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 Technology and access to the internet has been a useful tool for information
dissemination. The PNP WCPC uses technology for advocacy work and raising awareness in
communities. The internet has also fueled Spark’s advocacy because people are more aware
of global issues:
We jumped off of the culture that is already post-#MeToo, so people were more
accepting of what we have to say and everything we put out there. And it’s also a way
of people to get more engaged and more aware of the issue.
Despite that, the internet has become a tool for globalizing violence. PNP WCPC and
DSWD emphasized that the internet contributes to the growing incidents of online
trafficking, child pornography, and mail-to-order brides. The PNP WCPC added that the
internet allows too much access for anyone, especially children. It pollutes the minds of the
younger generations and sometimes leads them to become perpetrators themselves or create
their own scandals.

4.12.2. Overseas Filipino Workers

Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) are a big part of the Philippine economy. But
VAW among OFWs is not given enough attention. Spark believed that “this is also an aspect
of GBV that isn’t usually talked about … especially with our context in the Philippines, that
we send out so [many] but we can’t assure their safety.” WAGI felt that GBV has become
globalized because the government has not shown its political will to address it at the
national, regional, or global levels:
Overseas workers are supposed to be … a major pillar of our foreign policy, right?
And one of the major issues of OFWs is GBV. So we hear from the service providers
and we hear stories from the returnee migrant workers that the support is never
enough. At the end of the day I think it’s because of this very lack of political will …
coming from both the sending and the receiving countries of OFWs. Yet, we’re
everywhere. I think we are still more concerned about the remittances than we are
about the number coffins that come back.
Based on WAGI’s work with this issue, domestic helpers going abroad are warned
about things they should avoid doing to lessen the chances of getting raped or abused during
their orientation – implying a victim-blaming stance that women do things to bring the
violence on themselves.

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 UN Women sees this as a critical issue and has an ongoing program for women
migrant workers called Safe and Fair:
It has this unique element to it because we are looking at violence against women that
happens beyond our sovereignty … That is why we look at the different roles of the
government, civil society, the labor union, the private sector, employers’
organizations, recruitment agencies, migrant groups communities – to be able to
provide a response. … We’re looking at strengthening the coordination of all these
services. Should there be abuses or violations against women migrant workers, they
will be able to access not only any kind of service, but more coordinated services.

4.12.3. Broadens perspectives

Empower pointed out how globalization could broaden one’s perspective on GBV.
The respondent felt that Filipino women who work or travel abroad have more exposure to
sexual education and a better understanding that VAW is wrong. The women could also see
how other countries address VAW through their culture and policies and realize the
difference of the situation in the Philippines.

4.13. Religion

Question: Does religion in the Philippines affect GBV? If so, how?

4.13.1. Political influence

Despite the Philippines being secular, the Catholic church still holds significant
influence over local policies and values. Spark believed that the Catholic church has had a
hand in the general fight for women empowerment in the Philippines because “the state and
the church has been too intertwined … when it comes to policies [for] women.” The Embassy
of Sweden also noticed the presence of the Catholic church: “I think the Philippines stands
out a bit because … the Catholic church is so strong here, and that … hinders broader and
deeper education on sexual education and matters related.” UN Women believed that the
Catholic church’s strong opposition to certain issues reflects the strong patriarchy within the
institution:
The fact that we don’t have a divorce law because of the conservative and religious
fronts that oppose it, [and that] our laws on sexual reproductive health rights … also

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 faced a lot of resistance … These are just essentially patriarchal institutions. We can
see that these institutions are gatekeeping certain values … that pose harm to women.
The Catholic church remains a barrier due to its strong political and moral influence, despite
the evolution of other factors. According to WAGI:
We know [the church is] very much against a lot of laws like the RH (Reproductive
Health) law, divorce, even the SOGIE (Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Expression) equality bill. But what was amazing to me in the research I did was it was
an unwavering block. It didn’t matter whether we didn’t [have international
conventions] at one point but we do now – the Catholic block was strong. It didn’t
matter whether public awareness was low and then after ten years it became high – the
Catholic block was still unwavering. It didn’t matter that we had no legislators
supporting it and then ten years later we had legislators supporting it – the Catholic
block was still an unwavering block. So … everything improved but that block.

4.13.2. The absence of a divorce law

Divorce continues to be illegal in the Philippines. Spark believes this has a significant
effect on married women suffering from IPV because they become trapped in the abusive
relationship. DSWD finds that this stems from the Catholic teachings that marriage is a
religious sacrament that cannot be broken.

4.13.3. Catholic values and teachings

Saligan pointed out that even the marriage itself, from the pre-cana sessions to the
vows and readings during the ceremony promote patriarchy:
Even the pre-cana isn’t gender sensitive … It’s a process before the wedding in
church, [and] it’s like a talk [that says] women should give in, should be more patient.
Even [during] the wedding ceremony, the readings … [are] extremely gender
insensitive.
Empower felt that many women are still traditionally raised by their parents to follow
the teachings in the bible: “Even in the bible – you should obey your husband, you should
agree with him – your right to think is completely thrown out the window because according
to God, you must pleasure your man.” DSWD found that the disconnect between the Catholic
teachings and the more open-minded legislations causes confusion among people:

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 The church has different ideas, the legislators have different ideas. The legislators are
becoming more open-minded, but [religion says] these have been the historical
teachings from the start, these are what we must obey, and we are committing a sin if
we don’t follow them.

4.14. Culture

Questions:
Does the Philippine culture affect GBV? If so, how?
Do gender roles and stereotypes in the Philippines affect GBV? If so, how?

4.14.1. Culture of silence

There is a strong culture of silence in the Philippines that prevent women from
reporting GBV. UN Women believed the silence is rooted in “the predominant view of
looking at GBV as a family [matter] or private issue.” The PNP felt that people did not want
to bring shame to themselves and their family, which is why they choose to remain silent.
Saligan believed that the silence stems from social expectations that women should be strong,
should stay silent, or that they brought the violence upon themselves.

4.14.2. Victim-blaming

Empower emphasized the widespread victim-blaming culture exists in the Philippine

society. Victims still fear getting blamed and shamed for the incident. DSWD noted that
many women still get harassed because people misinterpret how they dress or how they
interact with others – which should not be a hindrance for the woman because there should
not be any victim-blaming.

4.14.3. Family value

The family is highly valued in the Philippine culture. Respondents felt that this
hindered women from reporting abuse, especially for IPV. Saligan said that “the Philippine
culture imposes that you try to keep the family intact. … So you’ll try all possible remedies
to the situation.” The absence of divorce, the difficulty of getting an annulment, and a
woman’s economic dependence on her husband adds pressure to keep the family together.
According to Spark, “women who are married and are in abusive relationships do suffer more
because they are trapped. Either because they can’t file for divorce or annulment, or because

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they’re economically attached to the husband and they feel like their kids wouldn’t have a
future if they leave so they just take it and live with it.”
However, the strong family value has the potential to break down traditional gender
stereotypes. Spark observed that in the urban poor areas, people are less inclined to care
about traditional roles expected from a man and woman. Couples are starting to realize that
during the hard times, both the man and woman must work in order to support their family.

4.14.4. Stoical Filipino woman

A unique stereotype and expectation of Filipino women is to be stoic. Several

respondents used the Filipino word “matiisin,” which could be roughly translated to self-
sacrificial or forbearing, but a more accurate equivalent would be stoical. The QCPD
believed that Filipino women are known to be stoical and patient. This expectation, combined
with the family value, encourages women to endure absolutely anything for their children and
family. Women prioritize the life and future of their children over their own. However,
Saligan noticed that women also highly value keeping the relationship or marriage intact.
Based on their experience, women often tolerate economic or physical abuse, but only start to
seek help when the partner cheats on her – thus threatening the unity of the relationship.

4.14.5. Gender stereotypes

Traditional gender stereotypes also exist in the Philippine culture where certain roles
are expected of men and women. DSWD pointed out that the Philippine culture still
encourages gender biases that women are supposed to remain at home, while men are
supposed to be breadwinners. The lawyer felt that from birth, “the girl is raised to look after
everyone, the boy is raised to be the leader of the family.” Parents have little expectations for
the girl’s career and have more ambitions for the boy. Therefore, they use all their resources
for the boy’s education and limit the opportunities for girls. Spark re-affirmed this idea by
explaining that
women and girls really have less opportunities because of the culture that we have.
We think that men are the ones who go out and get a living and that’s why we think
they’re the ones who should get an education. And it really limits the potential of girls
in that … even if they grow up to becomes wives, they get stuck in abusive
relationships whether it be physical or emotional abuse [precisely] because they have
no economic capacity to fend for themselves.

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 On the contrary, QCPD and Spark felt that the traditional gender stereotypes are
slowly changing. QCPD mentioned how all the laws created for women has had an influence
on the changing roles. The respondent noted that women can also do what men do, and that
many mothers have jobs. They also gave an example of the increasing number of women
police officers.
Spark noted that the roles have also been changing in more metropolitan cities and
urban areas. More people are starting to realize that it does not matter what men and women
are expected to do, and both have to work in order to provide for their families. In addition,
the rise of women working overseas can reverse the roles – some men stay at home and look
after the family while the women are abroad working. However, the respondent felt that
although there are small improvements, the traditional gender roles remain prominent in
many communities.

4.14.6. Patriarchal society and macho culture

Respondents felt that the Philippine society is still predominantly patriarchal. UN

Women stated that the patriarchy is “anchored on gender-based stereotypes [and] traditional
norms or attitudes towards gender, [which] contributes [to] the perpetration of violence
against women.” Spark felt that society still gives primacy and more leniency to men.
Empower said the lack of education in the country fuels the existing patriarchy: “That’s part
of the problem, they’re so used to it [because] they grow up with it. It’s like terrible
Stockholm syndrome, everybody has accepted patriarchy for so long that it’s just the way it
is.”
In addition to patriarchy, the macho culture also sets certain expectations for men.
PNP WCPC believed that some perpetrators do not necessarily commit VAW out of sexual
craving, but to prove that he is stronger and more powerful than the woman – precisely
because of this macho image that is expected of men. The macho culture is not just about
physical strength, but also about sexual triumph. According to Empower, the notion that “the
more women you have sex with, the better [because] you’re more of a man” contributes to
VAW. WAGI refers to this as toxic masculinity and emphasized that it is one of the main
culprits of VAW. Both WAGI and QCPD believed that this toxic masculinity affects men as
well, because it hinders them from reporting violence done to them. WAGI said that violence
against men is also an issue because “men are not supposed to experience violence …
because they’re supposed to be macho, always strong, never weak.” QCPD explained that

52
men choose not to report such incidents because have to protect their status and image as a
strong man.
WAGI stressed that toxic masculinity is a gender stereotype that needs to be
problematized and understood even more, because men must “realize that they are hanging
on to the same stereotype that puts them in positions not just as perpetrators, but also as
victims.” WAGI pointed out that at least women are aware of the misogyny and are fighting
against it. But if men want to get involved, they must look at themselves and re-define
masculinity. Otherwise, people will continue to look down on them and think: “they just have
no self-control, they’re like animals, they’ll do it anywhere, their brains are in their penis,
they can’t help it.”

4.14.7. Purity and conservativism

A woman’s virginity is highly regarded in Philippine culture. Women are encouraged

to abstain from sex until marriage. WAGI noted that this emphasis on purity and
conservativism contributes to VAW. Spark pointed out that a common idea in the Philippines
is “saving yourself for the person you marry. [But] if someone who isn’t married [gets] raped,
people think she’s damaged goods.” Empower also said that “if a woman has sex [and] gets
pregnant, [she] has to marry that guy, or she gets shamed and bullied into thinking she a slut,
she’s a whore, [and] nobody wants her.” Empower believed that this stems from the idea of
Maria Clara, which is a local term that refers to a traditional, ideal, pure woman.
Furthermore, Empower mentioned that “the Philippines is the top on Pornhub for
watching virginity porn for 19 and under. There’s a thing here about being able to take the
virginity [or] chastity of a woman … because it’s honed by our culture.”

4.14.8. Normalized violence

Sometimes women are unaware that the violence committed against them is wrong
because it has been normalized in their lives. Spark noted that “sometimes it’s just something
that girls learn to live with, or learn to cope with. [It’s] something normal that they
experience every day.” Empower noted that sometimes people do know what rape and sexual
harassment is, but simply accept it as a norm. According to the lawyer, if a child witnesses
violence between her parents and even experiences violence herself, she grows up believing
that it is normal behavior.

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4.14.9. Beso culture

In the Philippine culture, acquaintances often greet each other with a light kiss on the
cheek. In Filipino, this gesture is called beso, which is similar to the French gesture bise of a
platonic cheek-to-cheek touch. Children are taught to practice this gesture from an early age
because it is seen as a sign of respect when greeting someone older. Interestingly, two
respondents mentioned how this gesture could lead to a tolerance of GBV. According to the
lawyer, pedophilia and incest begin when parents force their children to hug or kiss an adult.
If the child refuses to do so but the parents insist, the child’s instinct for danger disappears
because they are taught to obey and tolerate something they are not comfortable with. Spark
warns parents that “[they] shouldn’t force kids to hug. Ask permission, give them body
autonomy, teach them that they get to decide who touches them.”

4.14.10. Sex as a taboo subject

Talking about sex is extremely taboo in the Philippine culture. People are not
receiving enough or appropriate sexual education neither at home nor in school. Saligan said
sexual education is an important factor in GBV
because they don’t know if it’s wrong or right. In fact, what’s funny about Philippine
culture is we don’t talk about it at all at home, and it’s taboo in Catholic schools. So
you learn it by experience [and] you talk about it among your peers who also don’t
know anything.
Empower felt that religion is a contributing factor to sex being a taboo subject:
[The church doesn’t] want sexual stuff being spoken about, so we’re basically living
in a culture where people are watching sex all the time … but there’s no sex
education. So you’re teaching people about the bad stuff, not the good stuff …
Nobody’s guiding them, there’s no teachers who can tell them about sex, … families
refuse to talk about sex with their kids [because] it’s so taboo. You’re not allowed to
have sex and you’re not supposed to talk about it, but then you’re supposed to get
married to the first person you date, you’re supposed to have kids and have sex – but
you don’t know anything about it. So a lot of people are being abused and molested
because they don’t even know … what’s happening.
Sexual education must also include gender-based violence. The lawyer believed that
protection and prevention must be taught in school. According to WAGI:

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 One of the scripts that is missing – I call it an invisible script – is the script about
violence … especially in a sexual context. What do you do when … a boy insists [on
doing something] you don’t want? … Your parents don’t tell you anything, your
teachers don’t talk about it, so it’s an invisible script. … No one’s ever prepared for it.
No wonder [in] the literature that talks about [this] fight or flight mode that women
have, they’re freezing – [they say] “I just froze,” right? Why do you think they freeze?
Because no one talks about it. Nobody’s prepared for it.

4.14.11. Cycle of violence

According to Saligan, the fact that gender-based violence is not discussed in schools
contributes to the cycle of violence. If the child grows up witnessing abuse between the
parents, they will think it is normal because no one is teaching them otherwise. The lawyer
stressed that other than the lack of sexual education, the concept of a good relationship must
also be taught in school:
What is not taught in school is the concept of love and trust within a relationship. Be
it male, female, or same sex. If you grow up parents with a good marriage, then you
imbibe it. But if it’s a bad marriage, then you don’t have a clue. So you end up
probably with an abusive man.

4.14.12. Traditional education

In the Philippines, majority of the private schools are separated by gender – there are
different schools exclusively for boys and exclusively for girls. The lawyer felt that creating
this distinction between genders shapes the notion of gender-based violence:
When you were in preschool, the teachers wouldn’t separate you … boy or girl was
irrelevant. They don’t think about sex, they don’t care. So boys play with barbie and
girls play with trucks. They don’t do that anymore once you get to grade school. It’s
traditional education which creates all these obstacles in a person’s mind. Because
gender-based violence, it doesn’t exist before 6. But at 6, they know the difference
[because] they see it practiced.

4.15. Organizations’ work in addressing GBV

Questions:
What are your current or recent projects on GBV?

55
How and why were these projects formed?
How is the project organized?
What is the goal of the project?
Who are the stakeholders in the project/s?
Who is involved in implementing the project?
Who is the target audience of the project?
How do the victims know about the project? How are they protected?
Was the project evaluated? How?
Did the project end or continue? Why? How has the project grown since?

4.15.1. UN Women

UN Women Philippines is a project office that implements programs from the

headquarters and ensures that the country adheres to the normative frameworks. They work
with the government, civil society, and various stakeholders by providing technical guidance
and capacity building. To complement those efforts, they also work with local communities
by supporting and assisting them in rights claiming by engaging the government. Their
previous program was the Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces initiative whose goal was to
prevent and respond to sexual harassment and violence in public spaces. Currently, they have
the Safe and Fair program which falls under the overarching program of Ending Violence
Against Women. The program focuses on ending violence against women migrant workers
by engaging various stakeholders. The program is currently on the second out of five years.
The Safe and Fair program is a collaboration between UN Women and the
International Labour Organization. The project engages a tripartite structure of the
employers, the government, and the workers. The project also involves women’s groups,
NGOs, and communities that work on GBV issues and women’s rights. Through this, it
brings together the different migration sectors and VAW service providers.
The program has three objectives: 1) to strengthen the labor migration governance by
making it more gender responsive, 2) to reduce the risk of VAW through coordination of
quality services, and 3) promote data and knowledge on VAW migrant workers.
The program addresses the invisible status of VAW among migrant workers in the
overall VAW data. The respondent pointed out the consequences of not segregating VAW
according to migratory status:

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 [for] those who are leaving the country, we don’t see that angle of that information
about why they leave the country. This could be driven by VAW experience [but]
these are not documented at all. So when they leave the country, we see that this
woman is already experiencing violence, and we didn’t even provide services for her.
So for example, this same migrant women worker would work and experience sexual
abuse, which compounds her trauma, and then she returns home and [is still] faced
with a very violent situation in her family or in her household.
The respondent also noted how OFW domestic workers are being treated is largely
unrecognized. On top of that, these women stay silent about experiencing VAW abroad
because they fear being blamed or stigmatized, and bringing shame into their family.
Therefore the project aims to challenge these behaviors and views.

4.15.2. Government services

The Philippine National Police’s Women and Children Protection Center (PNP
WCPC) is the unit that supervises the Women’s Desks around the country. Each police
station in every municipality is mandated to have a Women’s Desk that caters to GBV issues.
The WCPC was formed as a separate operational unit in 2012, but the Women’s Desks in
every police station was mandated in 1998 through the RA 8551. The PNP WCPC is also the
repository for all the data of the GBV reports.
The main function of the Women’s Desk is to handle reports on GBV. PNP WCPC
explained the process for different types of reports. If a rape is reported to them, they
immediately refer the woman to a doctor for genital examination in the crime lab. The
respondent noted that there should be at least one doctor in the crime lab of each province.
The police can carry out a warrantless arrest on the perpetrator within three days of the crime.
On the other hand, if a sexual harassment is reported, the person has to fill out forms with
information about the incident. The police has to get a sworn statement of the acuser, of other
witnesses, and will try to locate and arrest the perpetrator if possible. The reporting process
also involves the different government services such as the DSWD, DOH, DOJ, etc.
However, the respondent mentioned the lack of coordination among the services, and the lack
of capacity of some of the other services to cater to all the cases they receive. In addition, the
respondent noted that although they conduct information drives, many are still unaware of the
reporting process.

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 The Quezon City Police District’s (QCPD) Women and Children’s Protection desk
manages the Quezon City Protection Center. The center contains all the services needed by a
VAW victim such as doctors, a social worker, a lawyer, and an investigator. The Protection
Center was established in 2011 under the term of the then-Vice Mayor, who is now the
current mayor. The Mayor would like to put up more protection centers in the city.
QCPD also refers to the number of VAWC reports as a basis for how effective their
activities and protection center are. However, the respondent was aware of the double
meaning of an increase or decrease in reported cases – an increase could mean more people
are aware and avail of the services but it could also mean there are more incidents, while a
decrease could mean there are less incidents or just that less people are reporting.
In addition, QCPD works with the 142 barangays or local villages within the city.
Their goal is for people to understand that the local government is on the side of the women
in fighting against the abuses committed against them. They also encourage women to report
abuses against them by creating an easy walk-in and referral system. They conduct capacity
building seminars and train the local officials and VAW Desk officers on how to address
complaints. Every training session is evaluated by giving the participants a form to fill out.
QCPD also tries to make the walk-in reporting system in the local villages as simple and
smooth as possible by working with NGOs and shelters for their referral system.
The Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) is mandated to provide
social protection for victims of abuses, including GBV. They provide rehabilitative services
for victims including temporary shelter, financial aid, medical and legal assistance, and
livelihood trainings. After discharge, the victims are handed over to the local government for
aftercare. In NCR, they have one shelter that caters to women victims of RA 9262 violations,
illegal recruitment, and trafficking. Although they have a set package of services, they can
tailor the services based on individual need. Every year, they conduct a Performance
Implementation Review to evaluate their programs. They have a workshop to discuss what
has been done in the previous year and what can be improved for the upcoming year. The
respondent felt that they have some services that need to be re-evaluated and established. For
example, the respondent felt the need for a stronger strategy in order to ensure the aftercare of
the victims. The respondent felt that they need to improve the networking and coordination
among other agencies that can employ the victims once they are discharged from the centers.

4.15.3. NGOs

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 Saligan is a legal resource NGO that advocates for legal empowerment. They believe
in working with the law for the benefit of women and GBV victims instead of the laws being
used against them. They have four core programs that integrate women’s rights: litigation,
legal education, advocacy, and research and publication. They offer limited litigation services
because of certain criteria, but they open their doors to free legal consultations for victims of
GBV. For the legal education program, they conduct campaigns and paralegal training
programs with community leaders and government agencies, such as police officers and the
DSWD. To complement this, they also conduct research and publication to create materials
and translate the laws. In addition, they do policy advocacy work wherein they look into how
the laws can be improved. They have two evaluation systems: one is an internal evaluation
mechanism conducted twice a year, and they have an external evaluator every three years to
study the impact of their work.
Saligan was established in 1987. Since then, two additional branches have been
established in Bicol and Mindanao. The respondent noted how the organization has grown
thematically: they have moved away from advocating solely for women into gender identity
and the LGBTQI community; from responding to violence, they expanded to women’s
participation, and then to gender-responsive local policies.
Spark was established in 2012 as an organization that worked on gender and
development training for government agencies. From then, it has grown into doing different
things, including economic empowerment, girls rights and education, and advocacy and
campaigns. It has also expanded from advocating for women and girls to including LGBT,
and will soon delve into sexual and reproductive rights.
Spark is currently running a campaign called #RespetoNaman, which can be
translated to “respect, please.” #RespetoNaman started during the 2018 18-Day Campaign to
End VAW. From there, it grew into a year-long nationwide campaign that is still ongoing.
The campaign started in Metro Manila but has expanded to different parts of the Philippines
such as Cagayan de Oro, Cebu, Dumaguete, and Naga. The main feature of the campaign is
the Don’t Tell Me How to Dress Exhibit. This was inspired by an exhibit in Thailand by
Cindy Bishop, which displayed clothes people were wearing when they were sexually abused
or assaulted.
Spark partnered with Cindy Bishop and brought their own version of the exhibit to the
Philippines. They collected stories from different women and girls by conducting a focus
group discussion with a psychologist to find ways on how to present their stories. They also
lifted a few stories from news articles. They display the exhibit in different cities around the

59
country, often in public spaces such as universities, shopping malls, and city halls. Alongside
the exhibit, they conduct forums and talks about GBV, which include medical and legal
professionals to speak about different aspects of the issue.
The target audience of the project, aside from the general public, is younger
generations including high school and university students. Spark believes that it is important
to raise awareness among the younger generations. Their partners for the project are UN
Women, the Office of the Vice President, Empower, the Embassy of Sweden, the British
Embassy, Terres des Hommes Netherlands, and local partners in every location they visit.
As the campaign is still ongoing it has not yet been evaluated, but Spark intends on
getting an external evaluator to conduct an impact study. For the upcoming year, Spark will
use the campaign towards establishing policies and concrete actions towards the issue.
Empower is an NGO that stands for the compassionate education of the Filipino
people. They are currently working on the #RespetoNaman campaign with Spark. Empower
serves as a resource speaker and conducts forums in schools and in different locations around
the country alongside the Don’t Tell Me How To Dress exhibit. The respondent did not
elaborate on the #RespetoNaman campaign because they were aware of my previous
interview with Spark and believed they provided enough information about the campaign.
Separate from the work with Empower, the respondent also personally works with different
government agencies to improve the rape services and systems.
The Embassy of Sweden has worked with Spark on the #RespetoNaman campaign
and Don’t Tell Me How To Dress exhibit from the very beginning. The idea of the campaign
started when the respondent met a member of Spark and discussed why the #MeToo
movement did not take off in the Philippines as it did in other countries. They felt the need to
address the issues of sexual abuse and harassment in the country, and soon came up with the
#RespetoNaman campaign. Because of the Swedish government’s Feminist Foreign Policy,
the embassy is proactive in pushing for women’s rights and equality. The embassy has been
supporting the project by helping organize events. The ambassador also acts as a front figure
for the campaign by giving speeches and raising public interest.

4.15.4. Academic work in the field of GBV

Questions:
What is your field of expertise in GBV?
What is the current research in your department on GBV?

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What is GBV studies in the Philippines lacking?
How are you or your department bridging the gap between the academics and practical
application of addressing GBV in the Philippines?
Do you have any publications, articles, or reports related to GBV?
The respondent works in the fields of sexual rights, collaborative governance, and
social movement building. WAGI focuses on the practical application of addressing GBV by
integrating the issue in all their work, including the school’s curriculum and employees,
programs in the local community, projects with partners, and annual training courses. WAGI
has an annual Mid-year Training Institute where they run courses on different topics,
including Gender Fair Education, Gender Sexuality on Student Youth Well-Bring,
International Human Rights and Governance, Gender Responsive Budgeting and Planning,
and Migration. Currently, they are working with UN Women for the Safe and Fair program.
Their role is to train the service providers for OFWs on case management for the whole
process, from the worker’s pre-departure to the return. The respondent felt that GBV studies
in the Philippines lacks problematizing masculinity. The respondent noted that the field of
GBV research needs to understand the problem more before jumping into solving the
problem.

5. Discussion

This chapter discusses GBV in the Philippine context based on how the findings relate
to the existing literature. This section answers the two main research questions: 1) How do
UN Women, relevant NGOs, academics, and government services for GBV in the Philippines
perceive gender-based violence? And 2) How do UN Women, relevant NGOs, academics,
and government services for GBV in the Philippines address gender-based violence?
This chapter is organized according to the steps of the Public Health Model. Part 1
discusses the current situation of GBV in the Philippines based on the existing statistics,
laws, services, and reporting behavior. Part 2 discusses the risk factors, protective factors,
and factors that affect reporting behavior. These factors are categorized using the Integrated
Ecological Model’s five levels: individual, relationships, community, societal, and global.
Part 3 discusses what the different actors are doing to address the issue and the factors
identified in Part 2. Lastly, Part 4 discusses this study’s limitations and recommendations for
future research.

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5.1.Step 1: Define and monitor the problem

The Public Health Model (Centers for Disease and Control Prevention, n.d.) calls for
cooperation from various stakeholders in order to address violence and health problems on a
large scale. The model has four steps: 1) Define and monitor the problem, 2) Identify risk and
protective factors, 3) Develop and test prevention strategies, and 4) Assure widespread
adoption.
The first step to define and monitor the problem aims to understand the current
situation of the issue. This includes data regarding trends and frequency of the violence,
where it occurs, and who the victims and perpetrators are. This section defines GBV and
VAW, and discusses the current situation in the Philippines – including VAW statistics, laws,
and services based on this study’s findings and existing literature.

5.1.1. Definition

Gender-based violence is “any harmful act directed against individuals or groups of

individuals on the basis of their gender” (United Nations, 2014). Although both men and
women experience GBV, most of the victims are women and girls (European Institute for
Gender Equality, n.d.). The UN defines violence against women as “any act of gender-based
violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or
suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of
liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life” (United Nations, 1993).
VAW includes physical, sexual, and psychological violence that occur within the
family, community, or condoned by the state. These include but are not limited to sexual
abuse, battering, marital rape, sexual harassment, trafficking and forced prostitution, FGM,
dowry-related violence (United Nations, 1993). WHO estimates one out of three women have
experience physical or sexual violence in their life. 30% of women worldwide reported
experiencing physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner.
VAW is a form of discrimination that inhibits women from enjoying their
fundamental rights and freedom. It is a public health problem and a public crime that affects
not just women, but their families and communities as well. CEDAW’s General
Recommendation No. 45 emphasizes that VAW is a human rights violation rooted in
structural discrimination, which states are legally and morally obliged to address through
legislative, administrative an institutional measures (OHCHR, n.d.).

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5.1.2. Statistics

The most recent Philippine National Demographic Health Survey (Philippine

Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018) was conducted in 2017. The survey is mainly used to
monitor the country’s population and health situation. The survey sample composed of
25,074 women between the ages 15-49. The sample population includes women from both
rural and urban areas, and from each of the 17 regions. The survey (ibid.) categorizes
violence into three: spousal violence, which includes emotional, physical, and sexual
violence by a husband/partner; physical violence by a non-partner; and sexual violence by a
non-partner.
The NDHS (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018) indicates that 19% of
all women, both ever-married and never-married, have experienced sexual or physical
violence in their lifetime. Among married women, 24% have experienced spousal violence
by their current or former partner, while overall 17% have experienced physical violence and
5% have experienced sexual violence by a non-partner. The National Capital Region, where
Metro Manila is located, is among the regions with the lowest rates of all three spousal,
sexual, and physical violence.
Of the 24% of women who have experienced spousal violence, the most common
experience is emotional violence (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018).
Despite the prevalence of emotional violence, Spark noted how it is the most undiscussed
form of violence – including both economic and verbal abuse. Perhaps unlike physical or
sexual violence, emotional violence is often intangible and psychologically manipulative.
This makes it more difficult to realize the abuse by the victim herself, and more difficult to
grasp because of the lack of physical evidence.
All three categories of violence showed that women in the lower quintiles are more
likely to experience them compared to those in the wealthier quintiles (Philippine Statistics
Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018). However, the findings from the interviews show that VAW
cuts across all social classes. Yet it could be less reported among the higher SES out of
concern for maintaining a certain image and fear of powerful perpetrators. Reporting
behavior in relation to SES will be discussed later in Chapter 5.2.
The NDHS (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018) found that the most
common perpetrators for physical violence among never-married women were a parent or
step-parent. This reflects on how the Philippine culture and laws still tolerate corporal
punishment. The Family code Art 220 (8) indicates that any parental authority over children

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may “impose discipline on them as may be required under the circumstances.” ("The Family
Code of the Philippines," 1987). In 2019, the country’s current president Rodrigo Duterte
vetoed a proposed bill ‘An Act Promoting Positive and Nonviolent Discipline, Protecting
Children from Physical, Humiliating, or Degrading Acts as a Form of Punishment,’ arguing
that using corporal punishment to discipline children has its merits (Ranada, 2019). This is a
clear violation of the country’s commitment to CEDAW, as it continues to promote cultural
norms and policies that allow violence against not just women and girls, but children in
general.
The PNP data on VAW from 2017-2019 showed that around 75% of the cases filed
were violations of the Anti-VAWC law. However, the data does not specify the category of
the violence, whether it was physical, emotional, sexual, or economic abuse. The broad range
of the law encompasses different types of abuse from rape to stalking. The lack of specificity
in the data makes it difficult to address the issue. The PNP data also shows the second most
reported number of cases were rape, followed by acts of lasciviousness throughout the three
years. Acts of Lasciviousness fall under Article 336 of the Revised Penal Code, consists of
any lascivious act without sexual intercourse; uses force, threat, or intimidation; and the
victim is deprived of reason.
The PNP data also shows that the National Capital Region is among the top three
regions with the most number of reports throughout the three years. On the contrary, the
NDHS (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018) shows that NCR has some of the
lowest incidents of spousal, physical, and sexual violence. This contradiction could indicate a
higher awareness of the violations and of reporting mechanisms in NCR, or more
accessibility of reporting mechanisms. The findings from the interviews show that reporting
services are more accessible in urban areas, which supports the theory that there is a higher
number of reported cases in NCR because Metro Manila, which is the urban capital of the
country, makes up majority of NCR. Although urban centers or big cities are still present in
other regions, it is most concentrated in NCR.
The 2019 data provided by DSWD states that they have two shelters in NCR for
women and children victims of GBV with a total of 564 clients. The most number of clients –
219 out of 564 – are victims of trafficking. However, the PNP data from NCR in 2019 only
shows 3 reported cases under the Anti-Trafficking of Persons Act, and 40 total reports
nationwide. Although the second most reported number of cases to the PNP were rape (348
reports in NCR and 2,227 nationwide – possibly excluding rape that falls under Anti-VAWC
law committed by intimate partners), the DSWD shelters only house a total of 25 victims of

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rape. Similarly, Acts of Lasciviousness which is the third most reported crime in 2019 (410 in
NCR and 1,872 nationwide – again, possibly excluding acts of lasciviousness that falls under
Anti-VAWC law committed by intimate partners), the DSWD shelters only house two
victims of this crime. This discrepancy in the data makes it difficult to know the difference as
to why people access DSWD services but do not report the case to the police and vice versa.
In addition, the PNP data is difficult to compare throughout the years because of the
differing categories. In the 2017 and 2018 data, there was a separate category for “Rape,”
“RA 8505 or Rape Victims Assistance and Protection Act,” and “Abuses against chastity.”
However, rape has no longer been considered against a crime against chastity since 1997. It is
also unclear if this data counts rape that falls under the Anti-VAWC law committed by an
intimate partner. In the 2019 data, the “rape” and “RA 8505” categories were removed, and
two new ones added: “Anti-Rape Law of 1997 or RA 8353” and “Rape with homicide.” This
could indicate the inconsistency of how reports are categorized in the different regions and
within the PNP system itself.
There is no central data bank that consolidates the reports from the various
government agencies and that indicates the overlaps and gaps in the data. This shows the
separate data collection mechanisms of the different government agencies, and the absence of
a central data bank to consolidate the different data. Santos (2009) also highlighted the
difficulty of consolidating and comparing VAWC data precisely because of this. The lack of
a standard national monitoring and documentation mechanism makes the various data
collection prone to inaccuracies and overlaps. This makes understanding the overall national
situation on VAWC difficult, which is necessary in order to deal with the problem and
improving the services.
The data shows that VAW is still prevalent in the Philippines. One out of five
unmarried women experience physical or sexual violence, and one out of four women
experience IPV. Despite this, there is limited data available on VAW in the Philippines. The
National Demographic Health Survey, which is what many respondents use because it is
openly available to the public, is only conducted every five years. Although the PNP WCPC
and DSWD collect their own data, there seems to be no centralized national data bank or
collection means for VAW cases among the government agencies.

5.1.3. Laws

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 The Anti-VAWC law or RA 9262 is the main law that addresses violence against
women in the Philippines. It recognizes VAW as a public crime, which allows any citizen
with knowledge of a crime to file a complaint. Its broad coverage criminalizes most acts that
can be done against a woman – including marital rape, economic abuse, and emotional abuse
– as well as offers various services to victims of VAWC. This is a big step from rape being
acknowledged in the law as merely a crime against chastity. Yet the Anti-VAWC Law has its
limitations – it is only applicable to intimate partnership. This means that the violence must
be perpetrated by a current or former husband, partner, or anyone the woman has had
romantic or sexual relationships with.
Additionally, the findings from the interviews show poor implementation and lack of
public awareness of the laws. Despite the numerous laws that address different GBV issues,
the general public often remain unaware of their rights. The findings from the interviews and
the study by Santos (2009) point out that some of the service providers – even lawyers and
judges – are unaware or misunderstand the laws. Furthermore, many service providers are not
properly trained, especially with gender sensitivity. The laws then become useless when it is
poorly implemented by those who are supposed to carry out its provisions and is combined
with lack of public awareness of these laws.
Strong policies backed up by government support is crucial for effective
implementation of laws and programs. This is seen in the UN Women’s Safe Cities and Safe
Public Spaces program which enacted a city ordinance in Quezon City against catcalling. The
success of this ordinance made Quezon City a benchmark for other cities that followed soon
after, and that eventually turned into the national law RA 11313 or the Safe Spaces Act. The
Quezon City Protection Center also serves as an example of how VAW services can be
improved if prioritized by the government. This will be discussed further in Chapter 5.3.2.
Santos (2009) mentioned the existence of cultural notions that hinder the
implementation of the laws and that continue promote VAW. Yet both CEDAW and the
Magna Carta of Women or RA 9710 – which is the domestic translation of CEDAW –
indicate the state’s responsibility to address social and cultural norms that foster
discrimination against women. Chapters 5.2 and 5.3 will discuss the cultural factors in
relation to VAW, and what different stakeholders are doing to address them.
There are several laws in the Philippines that address different GBV issues. However,
the findings show that they lack implementation and public awareness. Strong policies should
go hand in hand with strong government support, as this is what can catapult action and
effective implementation.

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5.1.4. Services

The findings from the interviews show that despite the availability of services for
GBV victims, they are often inefficient, uncoordinated, and undertrained. UN Women noted
how some service providers lack gender sensitivity training and have a victim-blaming
mindset. An example is how police officers ask the victim what she was wearing or how she
was acting, implying that they could have done something to provoke the violence. Santos
(2009) also found that sometimes police officers dismiss cases due to the absence of physical
evidence from injuries, or advise women to make peace with her abusive partner and that his
anger will eventually subside. Such behavior shows insufficient knowledge and
implementation of the law by the service providers, leads to re-traumatization of the victim,
and causes discouragement and distrust of the laws and reporting system.
Both the findings from the interviews and Santos (2009) found the lack of resources
and services for rape victims in public hospitals. Not all public hospitals have rape kits, and
the few rape crisis centers are located in larger hospitals. Some hospitals only consider
maternity or OBGYN services for women, and are not equipped to take in VAW cases. In
addition, the hospitals that do have the facilities to cater VAW victims, as well as other
services, are mostly located in city centers. This indicates how services are not devolved
enough, which makes it difficult to access for those living in more far-flung rural areas.
The service providers are uncoordinated, and the victim goes through a lengthy and
complicated process when reporting a VAW incident. The victim gets referred back and forth
between different service providers (e.g. police, social services, hospital). Again, this can add
to the confusion and frustration that discourages the victim to pursue the case. As previously
mentioned, the Quezon City Protection Center illustrates how services can and should be
centralized that will make the reporting process as convenient and as smooth as possible. The
Quezon City Protection Center houses all the necessary services providers for a VAW victim
– a police officer, a lawyer, a social worker, an investigator, and doctors. The victim only has
to go to one place to report and does not have to waste any more time shuttling between the
different service providers. This could encourage more victims to report and seek the help
and justice they deserve.
The findings from the interviews show how police officers’ fear of retaliation can
impede them from taking in VAW cases. Police officers have reported how some victims
who make a complaint against their abusive partners rescind their complaint, and beg the

67
police officers to release them from prison or accuse the police officers of illegal detention.
Santos (2009) also found that police officers get countercharged by the victim for trespassing
or arresting without a warrant. These experiences cause a negative attitude among police
officers in pursuing VAW cases. Yet the Anti-VAWC law states that anyone who acts in
accordance with the law to intervene in VAWC cases will not be held criminally, civilly, or
administratively liable. Therefore, police officers should not let fear of retaliation hinder
them from doing their duty in responding to VAW cases.
The Magna Carta of Women requires every district to have a VAWC desk managed
by the local district officials, and every municipality to have a Women and Children’s
Protection Desk managed by the police. These lower levels of reporting make it more
accessible for victims. However, findings from the interviews show how this can be
problematic because people are more familiar with each other in smaller, more tightknit
communities. People could gossip about the incident, or the perpetrator could use his
connections to sway the officials to his side. An example in Santos (2009) study shows how
the local officials favored the perpetrator, who is the victim’s husband, because they were
friends with him and got free services in his vulcanizing shop. This is a reflection of the
country’s culture and tolerance of corruption. This proves how crucial it is to have well-
trained service providers, across all levels, and across all services.
Santos (2009) and Foundation for Media Alternatives [FMA] and Association for
Progressive Communication [APC] (2013) found that non-government organizations and
women’s rights advocates are instrumental in addressing VAWC. The findings from the
interviews reaffirm the complementary role of NGOs for the shortcomings of the government
services. NGOs, foundations, and advocates provide expertise, trainings, capacity, and
resources to government services. This will be discussed further in Chapter 5.3.
Although different services for VAW victims exist, the findings show several
shortcomings. The service providers are uncoordinated, undertrained, and have limited
resources. NGO services are also crucial in supplementing the deficiencies of the government
services by providing expertise and resources. The poor government services for VAW could
affect the victim’s reporting and help-seeking behavior.

5.1.5. Reporting

Palermo et al.'s (2013) analysis of reporting behavior in 24 developing countries

found that only seven percent of GBV victims reported to a formal source, while 40%

68
disclosed the incidence to someone. In the Philippines, the figures are even lower – 41% have
never sought help or told anyone, 25% disclosed the incident to someone but did not seek
help, 34% sought help to stop the violence, and only six percent sought help from the police,
despite 80% awareness of the available services and reporting mechanisms (Philippine
Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018). This implies a possible distrust in the formal
reporting system and public authorities (Bøås et al., 2016; Palermo et al., 2013).
Bøås et al. (2016) found that people in Ganta, Liberia distrust the formal institutions
because of the legal justice system was ineffective and resolution was not immediate.
Similarly, the findings from the interviews show several issues regarding the formal reporting
system and services for VAW victims in the Philippines. The reporting process is
uncoordinated and time-consuming that leaves the victim feeling more disempowered and
discouraged about attaining justice.
Other common reasons for not seeking formal help include: shame and fear of stigma,
self-blame, unawareness or inaccessibility of services, financial barriers, fear of the abuser,
cultural beliefs, or being pressured by others to make peace with the abusive partner (Palermo
et al., 2013; Santos, 2009). The findings from the interviews also show various factors that
could affect reporting behavior, and a general lack of awareness surrounding VAW. Many
remain unaware of the issue, the laws, and the available services. These suggest that the high
levels of unawareness could stem from the lack of education and cultural norms, that could
lead to misconceptions or normalization of violent behavior.
Although the NDHS shows that 80% of Filipino women are aware of the available
services and reporting mechanisms, the findings suggest otherwise. Nevertheless, the low
numbers of help-seeking behavior could indicate a distrust in the public system, unawareness,
or cultural and societal factors that hinder women from reporting. These factors will be
discussed in following section Chapter 5.2.

5.1.6. Summary

VAW is a prevalent issue in the Philippines. Although there are laws and services to
address VAW, there is high unawareness and they are poorly implemented. This affects the
help-seeking behavior of VAW victims, in combination with cultural factors that hinder them
from seeking help. However, there is limited VAW data available because there is no central
data bank to consolidate the reports from different the government services. As Step 1 of the
Public Health Model indicates, defining and monitoring the problem is critical in order to

69
effectively address the problem. Not having centralized national data makes it difficult to
grasp the full extent of the issue.

5.2.Step 2: Identify risk & protective factors

The second step of the Public Health Model (Centers for Disease and Control
Prevention, n.d.) is to identify risk and protective factors. This step incorporates the
Globalized Integrated Ecological Model (Fulu & Miedema, 2015; Heise, 1998), which
provides a scale for these factors. A risk factor “increases the likelihood of a person
becoming a victim or perpetrator of violence,” while a protective factor does the opposite by
providing “a buffer against risk” (Centers for Disease and Control Prevention, n.d.).
In addition to risk and protective factors, I included a separate category for factors that
affect reporting behavior. Several factors from the findings are unique because they are
neither risk nor protective factors – rather they hinder victims from reporting the violence or
seeking help. This means that they have already experienced violence, so the factors do not
increase their risk or protection from becoming a victim of violence.
The risk factors, protective factors, and factors that affect reporting behavior are
arranged according to the Integrated Ecological Model’s five levels: 1) Individual, 2)
Relationship, 3) Community, 4) Societal, and 5) Global. The Integrated Ecological Model
allows a more contextual understanding of GBV. It is important to understand the three
factors in this light so that prevention efforts can appropriately address the root of the
problem. A table that categorizes the factors into the five levels can be found in Appendix D.

5.2.1. Individual level

The individual factors consist of one’s personal history that affect how an individual
responds to relationship and community stressors or to a violent situation. In the Philippine
context, protective factors on the individual level are increasing age and economic
empowerment, higher SES; risk factors are younger age, the cycle of violence, low
educational attainment, the segregative educational system, and the beso culture; and factors
that affect reporting behavior are both high and low SES.
Age can be both a protective and risk factor for VAW. Increasing age is a protective
factor, while younger age is a risk factor. The literature found that increasing age both
decreases the risk of IPV, and increases the likelihood of formal reporting (Dalal, 2011;
Palermo et al., 2013; Sambisa et al., 2011). The NDHS (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA

70
& ICF, 2018) shows that only 12% of older women (40-49 years old) experienced spousal
violence in the past year in contrast to the 23% of younger women (15-24 years old) that did.
The literature suggests that this is due to more autonomy, less dependence on their partners,
more experience to avoid situations that elicit abuse, and more support from the family and
community, which decreases their exposure to IPV. The findings from the interviews also
show that older women are more aware of the violation and have more opportunity to report.
In contrast, younger age is a risk factor because younger girls are less aware of the violation
and of their rights. Minors are also reliant on an adult to report the incident and to take formal
action. This could be an added risk, especially if the perpetrator is a family member or
acquaintance, and if the guardian of the child does not believe them.
The cycle of violence is a risk factor. The literature and findings from the interviews
show that women who witnessed spousal violence between their parents are more likely to
experience spousal violence themselves (Philippine Statistics Authority - PSA & ICF, 2018).
The findings from the interviews indicated the connection of the cycle of violence to
education – if GBV and the concept of a good relationship are not taught in school, then
children who grow up in violent homes might normalize the behavior because no one is
teaching them otherwise.
The beso culture is a risk factor. Beso is a common gesture in the Philippines where
people greet each other with a cheek-to-cheek touch. This is a risk factor because when it is
taught from a young age, a child learns to obey and tolerate something they are
uncomfortable with. This affects their instinct for danger and carries on to how they
internalize body autonomy later on in life.
Economic empowerment is both a risk and protective factor for VAW. The UN and
WHO promote economic empowerment as one of the key protective factors from VAW.
Both the literature and the findings from the interviews show that economic empowerment
increases a woman’s financial independence (Dalal, 2011; UN Women, 2017; World Health
Organization, 2017). This could increase their bargaining power and status within the
household, which could decrease their vulnerability to abuse. It could also increase their
ability to leave abusive relationships. However, Vyas and Watts (2009) noted that economic
empowerment could be a risk factor for VAW. It could challenge the power balance and
status quo within households and communities, which could lead to adverse reactions
especially in more conservative settings with traditional gender norms.
Economic empowerment in relation to socioeconomic status affects reporting
behavior. The literature found that increased wealth and higher SES can be a protective factor

71
from IPV (Sambisa et al., 2011; Vyas & Watts, 2009). Palermo et al. (2013) also found that
higher wealth increased a woman’s probability of formal reporting in Africa. The findings
from the interviews show that women in the higher SES have more resources to pursue a
legal case against the perpetrator. However, the findings from the interviews also suggest
some factors that prevent Filipino women in the higher SES from reporting. Vyas and Watts
(2009) noted how victims from the higher SES are less likely to report IPV due to stigma.
Similarly, the findings from the interviews show that women in the higher SES are more
conscious about their social reputation and keeping appearances, which hinders them from
disclosing and reporting the violence. In addition, another hindrance is that women in the
higher SES fear retaliation from powerful perpetrators. As mentioned in the previous section
Chapter 5.1.4, this is applicable for both higher and lower SES, especially in the Philippine
culture where corruption is widespread and tolerated. Another risk factor among higher SES
is their living situation. In the Philippines, people from the higher SES live in bigger houses
and gated communities. This seclusion allows VAW to remain more hidden.
There are also different factors that hinder victims in the lower SES from reporting.
Victims in the lower SES might be less aware of their rights and of the full extent of the
reporting process. On top of that, they might not have the time and money to report the case.
For IPV, this is also related to a woman’s economic dependence on her abusive partner –
although this could also be applicable for women in both lower and higher SES which will be
discussed in Chapter 5.2.2.
Lower educational attainment could be a risk factor for VAW. The literature says that
educational generally decreases the risk of IPV (Dalal, 2011; Sambisa et al., 2011; Vyas &
Watts, 2009). The findings from the interviews show that one possible reason is the lack of
education leads to less economic opportunities. This could result to people monetizing abuse
by participating in cybersex crimes or online sex trafficking out of desperation or simply not
knowing any better.
In relation to education, the segregative educational system in the Philippines could
be a risk factor for VAW. One of the respondents mentioned how separating schools for boys
and girls introduces a gender distinction from a young age, which could indirectly dictate
gender stereotypes.

5.2.2. Relationship level

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 The second level looks at the microlevel or relationships. This includes the immediate
context of the abuse, and the meanings assigned to an individual’s interactions with close
relationships. In the Philippine context, a protective factor at the microlevel is joint decision-
making; a risk factor is if only the husband or the wife dominate household decision-making;
while factors that affect reporting behavior are marital status, and if the perpetrator is the
woman’s husband or partner.
For the context of IPV, decision-making between couple can be both a risk and a
protective factor. The study by Hindin and Adair (2002) in Cebu, Philippines found a U-
shaped pattern for household decision-making. Couples who practice joint-decision making is
a protective factor, but when the man or the woman individually dominates household
decisions, the risk for IPV increases (Berbarte et al., 2018).
The fact that the perpetrator is the victim’s husband or partner can affect reporting
behavior. The findings from the interviews show factors that could hinder the woman from
reporting her abusive partner are fear of retaliation, economic dependence, self-blame, or
emotional attachment. The woman could fear physical retaliation from the husband, or that he
could influence authorities using his power, money, and connections. It is also more difficult
for the woman to report the perpetrator and leave the abusive relationship when she is
economically dependent on him. This economic dependence is fueled by macro level factors
such as the patriarchal culture and persistence of traditional gender stereotypes that limit a
woman’s educational and economic opportunities. On the contrary, the woman could still be
emotionally attached to her partner and hopes that he will change for the better or think that
she deserves the beating.
A woman’s marital status affects IPV reporting behavior both ways. The literature
found that never-married women are less likely to report to a formal source than currently
married women, and formerly married women were the most likely to report (Palermo et al.,
2013). However, the findings from the interviews show that in the Philippines, it is easier for
women who are not married to leave the abusive relationship because there is no formal
commitment. While it is more difficult for married women to leave and report the abusive
relationship, partly because of the absence of a divorce law in the country. The value given
on marriage, and the discouragement of pre-marital sex also affects rape victims in a sense
that if an unmarried woman gets raped, she could be perceived as damaged goods. In relation,
if an unmarried woman gets pregnant, her family and society expect her to marry the father of
the child. This illustrates how the culture puts emphasis on marital status.

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5.2.3. Community level

The third level is the community or exosystem. This includes the immediate context
of the abuse, including formal and informal social structures that affect it. In the Philippine
context, protective factors in the exosystem are urban settings and tightknit communities; the
urban setting is also a risk factor; while both the rural and urban settings are factors that
affect reporting behavior.
The urban setting can be a protective factor, a risk factor, and affects reporting
behavior. Literature shows that living in urban areas increases the likelihood of formal
reporting (McIlwaine, 2013; Palermo et al., 2013). The literature and the findings from the
interviews suggest that formal reporting mechanisms and services are more available and
accessible in the urban setting. In addition, more women could be economically and socially
independent, that allows them to report the violence. As a protective factor, the urban setting
can challenge and breakdown patriarchal structures and gender ideologies, that could also
lead to a lower tolerance of GBV. Yet this could also turn it into a risk factor, as men might
feel threatened by the power imbalance and result to violence to prove or regain their
masculinity. This is linked to gender stereotypes in the macro level to be discussed in the next
section Chapter 5.2.4. Another reason the urban setting could be a risk factor is because the
poor living conditions and certain occupations could aggravate stress-induced VAW.
The study by Dalal (2011) in India found that more women from rural areas
experienced sexual violence, while more women from urban areas experienced emotional
violence and less severe physical violence. However, NDHS (Philippine Statistics Authority -
PSA & ICF, 2018) shows less than a 2% difference in the experience of physical, sexual, and
spousal abuse between rural and urban areas in the Philippines. The findings from the
interviews also show how the rural areas can be a protective factor, but also a hindrance to
reporting and help-seeking behavior. A respondent noted how communities in the rural areas
are more tightknit, and express more willingness to address and eliminate GBV within their
community. Still, formal reporting mechanisms and services are less accessible and available
for those living in rural areas because the services are centralized in city centers.

5.2.4. Societal level

The fourth level is the societal or macro level. This includes cultural values and
beliefs that influence the lower levels. In the Philippine culture, protective factors at the
societal level are strong policies, government support, internalizing the law, and family value;

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risk factors are the Catholic church’s influence on policies and morality, the emphasis given
on a woman’s virginity, and traditional gender stereotypes in relation to patriarchy, macho
image, and women assuming a caring role; while factors that affect reporting behavior are the
stoical stereotype of a Filipino woman, high valuation of family, the culture of silence, and
sex as a taboo subject. Many of the factors at this level also affect factors at the lower levels.
The Catholic church is a risk factor for VAW because of its influence over local
policies and values. Both the findings from the interviews and the literature emphasize how
the Catholic church has opposed several issues that affect policies for women, such as
divorce, reproductive health rights, abortion, sex work, and gender identity recognition
(Manalastas & David, 2018; Nguyen, 2019; Yarcia et al., 2019). The Catholic church’s
teachings liken such acts to be immoral, sinful, and unnatural. It also promotes patriarchal
values from the bible and incorporates these into the marital process, by encouraging women
to obey their husband, to be patient, to give in, and the like. The absence of a divorce law,
which is related to the Catholic church’s strong opposition to it, also affects reporting
behavior and poses an additional risk because it makes it more difficult for the woman to
leave an abusive relationship.
The cultural emphasis on a woman’s purity or conservativism is a risk factor for
VAW. Both the findings from the interviews and the literature prove that there is still a
dominant notion in the Philippine culture that women should remain a virgin until marriage
(Manalastas & David, 2018; Nguyen, 2019). This notion stimulates the objectification of
women in two ways: a woman’s virginity is regarded as a prize for men, and that if a woman
gets raped or pregnant before marriage she is regarded as damaged goods. These ideas imply
that a woman’s worth lies on her virginity, physical body, and sexual experience rather than
on her character or achievements (Estrada-Claudio, 2002). This also ties back to the Catholic
religion wherein the Virgin Mary is an icon for the ideal woman. The Philippine culture also
has a local version for the ideal Filipino woman called Maria Clara, who is a character from
a local novel that portrays her as a demure, innocent, and chaste woman. Putting these figures
on a pedestal encourages Filipino women to embody such virtues, and for men to expect a
certain version of the ideal woman. However, they could be encouraging values that tolerate
and even promote VAW.
Traditional gender stereotypes are a risk factor for VAW. Such stereotypes that give
power to men such as patriarchy and macho culture increase the risk of VAW (Berbarte et al.,
2018). The literature shows how stressful situations could trigger violent behavior towards
women because of the expectations of such gender roles (Molin, 2018; Nguyen, 2019). The

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findings from the interviews show that these social structures give primacy and leniency to
men, which puts women at a disadvantage because it limits their educational and economic
opportunities. In addition, the macho image expected of men, which connotes physical
strength and sexual triumph, encourages violent behavior among men and could lead to the
objectification of women. This also puts men at risk as victims because men are expected to
be strong and not show weakness. Additionally, this macho image constructs a stereotype of
a perpetrator as a strong, violent sex-maniac, that also conceals the fact that any type of men
can be perpetrators (Estrada-Claudio, 2002). This macho image, also referred to as toxic
masculinity, not only puts women at risk for VAW, but is also harmful for men themselves.
On the other hand, the stereotypes expected of a Filipino woman is a risk factor and
affects reporting behavior. As mentioned previously, because men are expected to be the
breadwinners and leaders of the family, women are then expected to assume caring roles
within the household. This limits their economic and educational opportunities that could
serve as protective factors, and also leads to women’s economic dependence on their
husbands. Another expectation of Filipino women in is to be stoic. The literature suggests
that the caring roles expected of women are attributed to being self-sacrificial, altruistic,
silent, and non-complaining. These characteristics make Filipino women ideal domestic and
care worker, but also affect how women respond to violent situations (Nguyen, 2019; Santos,
2009; Tanyag, 2018). The findings from the interviews show that this expectation of women
to be matiisin or stoic encourages women to endure hardships and difficulties without
complaining. This is related to other factors that affect women’s behavior such as family
value and the culture of silence, which will be discussed later on. This stoical expectation of
women could also be drawn from the cultural and religious icons for ideal women mentioned
earlier of the Virgin Mary and Maria Clara.
The high valuation of family in the Philippine culture is a protective factor and affects
reporting behavior. It can affect reporting behavior in connection to the stoical expectation of
Filipino women in the context of IPV. Both the findings from the interviews and the literature
show that women stay in abusive relationships for a combination of reasons: for the sake of
their children, because culture and society insist the woman is responsible for keeping the
family together and that a broken family is not ideal, and or because the woman is
economically dependent on her husband and will have no means to support herself and
children (Santos, 2009). The findings from the interviews also show that the difficulty of
getting the marriage annulled and the impossibility of divorce can be an additional hindrance.
Once again, this is tied to the teachings of the Catholic church that the marriage is a sacred

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institution thus claiming that divorce is immoral. Women are more likely to report the abuse
or leave the relationship if her children are at risk or if her life is at stake. Conversely, the
findings from the interviews show that family value can be a protective factor for VAW.
Because the family is very important for society, it has the potential to breakdown harmful
traditional gender roles. A respondent observed that couples are starting to realize that they
must do whatever they can to support their family, even if it means that both the husband and
wife work, or that the wife has to work while the husband stays at home to care for the
children.
Another cultural notion that affects reporting behavior is the culture of silence. Many
victims of VAW do not disclose or report the incident for various reasons: both the public
and service providers are unaware that IPV is a public crime (Santos, 2009), believe that it is
a private matter, and believe IPV is normal in relationships; women are expected to be stoic;
a victim-blaming mindset (by both the victim and society) that the woman brought the
violence upon herself; or women fear the shame and stigma of being a victim, or the backlash
for not being able to save the marriage.
Sex as a taboo subject is a risk factor and promotes a culture of silence. The findings
from the interviews show that talking about sex is taboo in the Philippine culture. People do
not receive sexual education at home nor in school, and pre-marital sex is discouraged by
society and by the Catholic church. Therefore, people do not know wrong from right which in
turn affects their response to situations of sexual violence.
Strong policies, government support, and internalizing laws can be protective factors
for VAW. The findings from the interviews show that policies are crucial in changing norms
and behaviors, but must be backed by strong government support. Government support can
catapult policies and programs to address different issues effectively. In addition, a
respondent stressed how laws must be internalized by the general public in order to be
preventive and not just responsive. People need to realize that the laws are in place because
VAW is morally wrong, and not simply fear punishment.

5.2.5. Global

The fifth level is the global level. This looks at how globalization affects social
changes that impact VAW. In the Philippine context, protective factors on the global level are
the internet and technology, women OFWs, and working or studying abroad; similarly, risk

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factors are the internet and technology and women OFWs. No factors were found to affect
reporting behavior.
Technology and the internet can be protective and risk factors. As a protective factor,
they are useful tools for advocacy and information dissemination for stakeholders raising
awareness about different issues, women’s rights, and the like. Information is now easily
accessible for almost anyone with a smartphone and connection to internet. It also allows
people to become more interconnected with and updated on global issues. However, as a risk
factor, technology and the internet have also catapulted online and global GBV. The
respondents noted how the internet has made online trafficking, abuse, and harassment easier
than ever.
The increase of women overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) can be both protective and
risk factors. It is a protective factor because women become more economically empowered.
It can also breakdown traditional gender roles, as some wives work abroad to provide for the
family while the husbands stay at home to take care of the children. However, it also puts
women at risk for VAW outside Philippine sovereignty. It is a growing issue that Filipino
women working abroad are being abused by their employers. Yet the respondents felt that
there is not enough political will from the Philippine government and from the receiving
countries to address the issue and assure the women’s safety.
In relation, working or studying abroad can become a protective factor for VAW. It
can broaden one’s perspective as to how other countries are address GBV. Women can learn
about their rights and the violations, and realize the difference between how the issue is
addressed in the Philippines and in other countries.

5.2.6. Summary

Culture is a combination of ideas, norms, and behavior unique to a specific group of

people. These factors specific to the Philippine context are not isolated within each level.
Rather, these factors affect each other and at times, are also a combination of being a risk
factor, a protective factor, and affect reporting behavior. Sorting these cultural factors into the
five different levels and into the three categories gives a clearer understanding of how to
address each factor and on what scale. By pinpointing the risk factors, protective factors, and
factors that affect reporting behavior, stakeholders can create specific campaigns and
projects, and improve laws and services to eliminate VAW. The next section will discuss
how various stakeholders are addressing the factors identified in this second step.

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5.3.Steps 3 & 4: Develop and test prevention strategies, assure widespread adoption

The third step of the Public Health Model is to develop and test prevention strategies,
and the fourth step is to assure widespread adoption. These strategies must be based on the
data collected from steps 1 and 2. This section discusses what actions the different groups of
stakeholders – UN Women, NGOs, academics, and government services– are taking to
address VAW, how these actions are evaluated and eventually adopted into a larger scale.

5.3.1. UN Women

UN Women’s Safe and Fair program addresses the issue of VAW among OFWs. As
mentioned in Chapter 5.2.5, VAW among OFWs is largely unrecognized and lacks political
action. What complicates the issue even more is that the violence happens outside of
Philippine sovereignty, which means there needs to be international coordination between the
sending and receiving countries. The role of UN Women is to ensure that governments
adhere to normative frameworks by providing technical guidance and capacity building.
UN Women’s Safe and Fair program addresses the poor services and reporting system
for VAW among OFWs. The program aims to strengthen the coordination among the
different stakeholders involving OFWs, as well as training service providers on how to
address VAW with gender sensitivity. In this situation, UN Women seems the most equip to
lead such a project because they have the capacity and resources to involve various
stakeholders, including international entities such as the ILO. At the same time, UN Women
must be at the forefront of implementing women’s rights and CEDAW. As the project is still
ongoing, it is not yet evaluated. However, it is also being implemented in other ASEAN
countries.
By strengthening the VAW services for OFWs, it also encourages women’s economic
empowerment, which is a protective factor against VAW. This indirectly leads to breaking
down traditional gender stereotypes and allowing women to be more participative in the
workforce. More accessible and coordinated VAW services also encourages women to speak
out and addresses factors that affect reporting behavior, such as the culture of silence, fear of
shame and stigma, and the stoical stereotype expected of Filipino women.

5.3.2. Government services

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 The services of PNP WCPC and DSWD are mandated by the law. For PNP WCPC,
this means managing the Women’s Desk in every police station nationwide. This makes
reporting services more accessible at a local level. For DSWD, this means providing social
assistance for VAW victims.
It is interesting to note that there is a relatively small number of victims in the DSWD
NCR shelters, despite the statistics from the PNP having some of the most VAW reports from
NCR. Although not all victims need to be relocated to shelters, there could be another list of
the victims who seek assistance but choose not to avail of the temporary shelter. Yet this
could also indicate a lack of awareness of their services, or a lack of resources from DSWD
to take in more victims. One of the respondents mentioned the lack of infrastructure and
shelters of the DSWD, which is why private foundations and organizations that run shelters
are just as essential. However, another respondent also mentioned how these private shelters
lack the operational capacity and resources to take in more people. This shows that there is a
demand for these services, and that the supply – both public and private services – is not
enough to meet this demand. Although the DSWD conducts a yearly evaluation on their
services, they admitted that their services are insufficient to meet the demand, and that there
are other services that still need to be re-evaluated, strengthened, and established. On top of
that, there is a lack of awareness about the services and rights of the victims – which means
that there could even be a greater demand for it.
The findings also show some shortcomings of other service providers. Some police
officers fear retaliation and are hesitant to accept cases. Both the police and other service
providers continue to have a victim-blaming stance and gender insensitivity when handling
VAW cases. There is also a lack of medical services in many areas. Moreover, the findings
from the interviews seem to consistently point out the lack of coordination among service
providers which makes it even more difficult for victims to seek the help they deserve. This
could lead to distrust in the public system, affect reporting behavior, and hone the persistence
of negative stereotypes and risk factors for VAW. However, the government services – more
than anyone else – should be at the forefront of implementing laws and protecting human
rights.
QCPD proves how government services can be improved. Although QCPD falls
under the PNP, the local police and government have taken their own initiative to provide
better services for VAW victims by creating a central Protection Center where the reporting
process is streamlined and all the essential services are available. QCPD leads an example for

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other cities to follow. In order for widespread adoption, other local governments need to take
the same initiative in improving their local services.
The interviews with the government services reaffirm the fact that government actions
are not enough. Both respondents from PNP WCPC and DSWD admit the shortcomings of
their services and other government services, which points to the fact that addressing GBV
does not seem to be the government’s priority. From my interviews with the respondents
from the government services, only the respondent from QCPD seemed proud to share that
GBV is a priority of the local government, that it is being taken seriously, and that they are
actually taking action to address it.

5.3.3. NGOs and academics

The #RespetoNaman campaign, which Spark, Empower, and the Embassy of Sweden
are all involved in, aims to educate and raise awareness about GBV. The campaign’s Don’t
Tell Me How To Dress exhibit targets the general public in the areas it is displayed, but the
campaign also conducts forums for university and high school students.
Because the campaign is currently ongoing, it is still in the process of developing and
testing its strategy. However, the campaign has already grown since it started. It was
originally part of the annual 18-Day Campaign Against VAW in 2018, but carried on being a
year-long campaign that is still ongoing. It has also expanded its location to different cities
around the Philippines. Furthermore, the campaign is growing thematically from raising
awareness to more concrete actions that can influence and improve policies. Spark intends to
conduct an external evaluator to analyze the effectiveness of the campaign later on.
The #RespetoNaman campaign addresses the lack of awareness and education on the
issue, laws, and services for GBV. By targeting both the general public and younger
audiences, it addresses the negative cultural factors that contribute to GBV, such as the
notion that VAW is a private matter, the victim-blaming culture, the culture of silence, sex as
a taboo subject, and the traditional gender stereotypes. It also influences reporting behavior
through its forums and exhibit by showing the prevalence of GBV and breaks down
stereotypes of who the victims and perpetrators could be.
The campaign has two notable aspects on how it uses protective factors to its benefit.
The first is how it targets younger audiences. This makes it more feasible to address the
negative aspects of the Philippine culture that contribute to the prevalence and risk of GBV
because it is changing the mindsets of the younger generations. The second notable aspect is

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how the campaign uses technology and the internet as a protective factor. The campaign
started after the global #MeToo movement, which helped the #RespetoNaman campaign gain
online traction. Apart from the Don’t Tell Me How To Dress exhibit and forums, the
campaign uses online platforms to raise awareness, engage the public, and help people realize
that they are not alone in experiencing GBV. Furthermore, the campaign has a publicly
available database with a list and map of hospitals that cater to abuse victims. Although the
database is limited for the time being, Spark intends to develop it further by adding other
types of services available, such as mental health facilities and halfway homes.
Saligan is an NGO that focuses on legal empowerment. Their goal and programs
specifically address the lack of awareness and misconceptions surrounding the laws for and
the rights of GBV victims. They have programs that target victims, service providers,
government agencies, local governments, and community leaders. It is important that they are
educating both those who should be implementing the law, and the women who should be
aware of their rights. In addition, their advocacy program looks into how the laws can be
improved, while their research and publication programs translate laws so that they can be
easily understood. This is important because it complements their other efforts which
strengthen the implementation of the laws. Moreover, many of the cultural factors that
contribute to the persistence of GBV are rooted in misunderstandings or unawareness of the
laws and people’s rights – not just of the public, but of those implementing the laws
themselves.
Similar to NGOs, academics plays a complementary role in addressing VAW in the
Philippines. WAGI works with students, service providers, local communities and other
organizations for their different expertise on gender topics, where GBV is always
incorporated. WAGI’s role in their current project with UN Women for the Safe and Fair
program is to train service providers on how to handle GBV cases.
NGOs and academics play a crucial role in addressing VAW. Despite the fact that the
government services are mandated to carry out their services for VAW victims, their actions
seem to only be responsive but not preventive. Both the original document and the most
recent General Recommendation No. 45 of CEDAW stress the need – and legal obligation of
the state – to address cultural norms, stereotypes, practices, and beliefs that promote
discrimination against women. Yet both the literature and the findings from the interviews
emphasize how NGOs fill in the gaps where the government services are lacking.
NGOs and academics provide expertise and resources for government services
through different means – by providing various training sessions, creating programs,

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improving current services, etc. A concrete example is how Spark and Empower teamed up
with the British Embassy in Manila to source better rape kits from the UK for the local
government services that handle rape cases. Although this aims to improve government
services, it shows how the initiative to do so comes from the NGOs.
It seems as if government services simply do what they are required – which is mostly
to provide reactive services – while NGOs are more proactive in taking preventive measures.
CEDAW’s General Recommendation No. 45, and their concluding observations on the 7th
and 8th periodic reports of the Philippines, highlight how critical it is to address cultural and
social factors that promote VAW – specifically the dominant stereotype in the Philippines of
women’s primary caring role, which is encouraged by culture and religion.
The findings from the interviews show that little has changed from Santos (2009)
study on the implementation of the Anti-VAWC law that was published 11 years ago. VAW
data of the different government services are still not uniformed or centralized, and
government services remain uncoordinated and inefficient. Although my interviews with
some government services showed that the respondents were familiar with the different GBV
laws, the respondents from the NGOs mentioned their experience on the ground of service
providers still not being fully aware of the laws or not properly implementing them.
Furthermore, the findings from the interviews reaffirm the fact that some service providers
are undertrained, lack gender sensitivity, and continue to have a victim-blaming stance. In
addition, many of the general public remain unaware about VAW – that it is a public crime,
and there are laws to protect women from it, and laws to provide services for victims. One
point that seems to have improved from Santos (2009) study then and now is the cooperation
between the government services and NGOs. The findings from the interviews show that
although government services are reliant on the help of NGOs and academics, there is an
effort to work together to address the issue. Both the respondents from the NGOs and the
government services mentioned different programs or services that the two sectors
collaborate on.
The findings from the interviews reveal several aspects of the Philippine culture that
contribute to the persistence and tolerance of VAW. The fact that talking about sex – at
home, in school, or among friends – is taboo in the Philippine culture could contribute to high
unawareness about the issue and the laws surrounding it. The findings from the interviews
also point out the fact that although GBV services exist, they are still centralized and not
easily accessible for those living in far-flung rural areas. This could be due to the geography

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of the country being naturally spread out. Therefore, there must be more of an effort by the
government to ensure accessibility of the services in all parts of the country.
Many of the respondents focused the discussion on their experience with VAW cases
perpetrated by a husband or partner. This could indicate the high occurrence of IPV in the
country, which confirms the NDHS results that one out of four women experience spousal
violence. This is tied to other cultural factors, such women’s economic dependence on their
husband, the unawareness of IPV being a crime and of the laws, the strong patriarchal
culture, and the stoical expectation of Filipino women. On the same note, the stoical
expectation of Filipino women is also rooted in other cultural factors, such as the Catholic
church’s teachings, the caring roles expected of women, and the value society puts on a
marriage and the family.
The findings from the interviews also bring new insight on how factors related to
globalization – such as technology and the internet, and women OFWs – affect GBV both in
a positive and negative light. Although OFWs have been an integral part of the Philippine
society and economy for many years, little attention has been given to women OFWs
experiencing GBV.

5.4.Reflections, limitations, and recommendations

The factors identified in Step 2 paint a negative image of the Philippine culture. The
goal of this study is to understand how the Philippine culture affects the persistence of VAW
in the country. The Philippine culture, just like any other culture, plays a role in shaping
people’s behaviors and beliefs. In this case, the study identifies the aspects of the culture that
promote GBV. This study validates the significance of understanding GBV in relation to a
specific context. However, it is recommended that future studies look into how the culture
can be positively used to eliminate VAW.
In addition, the Philippine culture is deeply intertwined with Catholic values and the
country’s colonization periods. The Philippines was a colony of Spain for over 300 years –
which is the reason for the strong presence of Catholicism, followed by over 40 years as an
American colony. I recommend future research to study how the cultural factors and values
are rooted in these aspects of the country’s history, either in relation to or independent from
the Catholic influence. It would also be interesting to explore GBV and the oppression of
women throughout history, from pre-colonization to present day.

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 This study touches on how poverty affects some of the factors identified – mostly,
how it affects women’s economic empowerment, education, and living situations. There is no
way to ignore that poverty is rampant in the Philippines, and that it affects and is linked to
several issues. However, as a Filipino woman myself, I believe that most of the other factors
identified are applicable to all social classes, although they could be manifested in different
ways. While I am not a victim of GBV, I understand and have experienced negative aspects
of the Philippine culture, and several factors mentioned in this study.
This study points out shortcomings of the government services. Having grown up in
the Philippines myself, it comes as no surprise to find that government services are lacking
and unreliable. This could stem from the country’s slow development and widespread
corruption. Focusing on the government services in relation to the Philippine culture is
recommended for future studies.
The study shows that Filipino women are not unempowered. Rather, the culture
encourages women to be strong but in a negative way. Filipino women are expected to be
stoic – to endure hardships without complaining. This is one of the main factors that applies
to many of the other factors that affect reporting behavior. This stoical characteristic exhibits
strength, and although it is admirable, this study shows how it can also be detrimental for
women – especially for victims of GBV.
This study mentions how the beso culture could be a risk factor. The beso culture is
not unique to the Philippines and variations (such as hugging or kissing the cheek) are done
in other cultures. It could be a starting point for future studies to explore the significance of
those gestures in relation to psychology or child psychology, and how this could affect a
person’s response mechanism to abusive or violent situations.
This study reveals how some factors about the culture can be a combination of being a
risk factor, protective factor, and affect reporting behavior. One example is family value –
because the family is highly valued, it can hinder a woman from reporting her abusive
husband because the culture gives emphasis on keeping the family together for the sake of the
children. On the other hand, because family is important, it could breakdown traditional
gender stereotypes because both the husband and wife are willing to do anything to support
the family. Another example is how the rise of women OFWs can be both risk and protective
factors – women are economically empowered because they are able to work and earn an
income, but it also puts them at risk for GBV abroad. Because factors can both positively and
negatively affect GBV, it shows the possibility of turning negative factors around to become
protective factors instead. I would recommend future studies (or anyone who wants to use

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this study for their campaign, project, or program) to look into two things: 1) how the
identified risk factors can turn into protective factors, and 2) how the protective factors can
be made widespread.
In relation to how the rise of women OFWs can be both a risk and protective factor, it
would be interesting for future studies to delve deeper into how their experience abroad
shapes them. Specifically, how their family dynamics and values change upon returning to
the Philippines. It could also be studied in relation to the country or region they worked in.
Several respondents mentioned the rise of GBV against the LGBTQI community in
the Philippines. The focus of this study is limited to GBV against women. However, it is
recommended for future studies to look into GBV against the LGBTQI community in relation
to the Philippine culture and global movements.

5.4.1. Methodology limitations and recommendations

The sample population of this study’s methodology has some limitations. First, the
study did not adequately represent all the government agencies of the Inter-Agency Council
on Violence Against Women and Children as listed in Chapter 2.3. Only two (PNP and
DSWD) out of the twelve government agencies were interviewed. There are other key
government agencies that address VAW, such as the Philippine Commission on Women
(who declined participation), Department of Health, Department of Justice, and Department
of Interior and Local Government that could have provided broader insight on the
government’s actions.
Second, the study was not able to interview some of the originally planned
participants. The study was not able to adequately represent international organizations and
academics. The intended participants to represent the international organizations were Care
Philippines and Oxfam Philippines. However, Oxfam Philippines was unresponsive, and Care
Philippines had to cancel the planned interview. In addition, the interview with the second
academic (University of the Philippines Center for Women’s and Gender Institute), did not
push through due to a schedule mismatch.
I recommend future studies that would like to focus on government action to
interview more or all government agencies under the Inter-Agency Council on Violence
Against Women and Children. I also recommend interviewing more government agencies,
academics, and private foundations and shelters for GBV victims.

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 In relation to government services, I recommend future studies to interview GBV
victims on their experiences of accessing the available services. This could include their
awareness and understanding of the services, their feelings during the reporting process, how
they were treated at each stage, and the follow through.

6. Conclusion

VAW is a widespread issue in the Philippines. Although there is poor data on the
prevalence of VAW, the existing data shows that it affects women of all ages, socioeconomic
status, and all regions of the country. This qualitative study answers the two main research
questions 1) How do UN Women, relevant NGOs, academics, and government services for
GBV in the Philippines perceive gender-based violence? and 2) How do UN Women,
relevant NGOs, academics, and government services for GBV in the Philippines address
gender-based violence? This study conducted semi-structured, in-person interviews with 11
respondents to represent the various stakeholders. The data was then analyzed using a
combination of the Public Health Model and the Integrated Ecological Model.
The country has several laws and services to address VAW and various GBV issues.
However, the poor implementation and high unawareness of laws and government services,
in combination with cultural factors, affect the help-seeking behavior of VAW victims and
can pose as risk factors for VAW rather than protective factors. Moreover, the VAW data is
limited, erratic, and unreliable because there is no central data bank to consolidate the reports
from the different government services. This makes it difficult to grasp the full extent of the
issue throughout the country.
There are numerous aspects of the Philippine culture that are risk factors, protective
factors, and factors that affect reporting behavior. 1) At the individual level, protective
factors are increasing age and economic empowerment, higher SES; risk factors are younger
age, the cycle of violence, low educational attainment, the segregative educational system,
and the beso culture; and factors that affect reporting behavior are both high and low SES. 2)
At the relationship level, a protective factor is joint decision-making; a risk factor is if only
the husband or the wife dominate household decision-making; while factors that affect
reporting behavior are marital status, and if the perpetrator is the woman’s husband/partner.
3) At the community level, protective factors are urban settings and tightknit communities; a
risk factor is the urban setting; while both the rural and urban settings are factors that affect
reporting behavior. 4) At the societal level, protective factors are strong policies, government

87
support, internalizing the law, and family value; risk factors are the Catholic church’s
influence on policies and values, the emphasis given on a woman’s virginity, and traditional
gender stereotypes in relation to patriarchy, macho image, and women assuming a caring
role; while factors that affect reporting behavior are the stoical stereotype of a Filipino
woman, high valuation of family, the culture of silence, and sex as a taboo subject. 5) Lastly,
at the global level, protective factors are the internet and technology, women OFWs, and
working or studying abroad; similarly, risk factors are the internet and technology and
women OFWs.
The identified factors are not isolated within each level. Using the Integrated
Ecological Model revealed how the factors affect each other in different levels. The Public
Health Model shows how some factors are a combination of a risk factor, a protective factor,
and a factor that affects reporting behavior. Using the two models to categorize the factors
provides a clearer understanding of how to address each factor and on what scale. Pinpointing
these factors also allows stakeholders to address specific issues through programs, laws, and
services in order to efficiently eliminate VAW.
The laws mandate appropriate government agencies to provide services for VAW
victims. The PNP WCPC oversees the Women’s Desk in every police station nationwide,
which makes reporting services more accessible at the local level. DSWD provides social
assistance through various means. However, the study reveals that the different government
services – not limited to the PNP and DSWD – are uncoordinated and the personnel
undertrained, which affects reporting behavior, leads to a general distrust in the public
system, and hones the persistence of negative stereotypes and risk factors for VAW. The
QCPD provides an example of how government services for VAW can be improved with the
help of strong policies and government support.
There are NGOs that focus on different aspects of VAW. The #RespetoNaman
campaign by Spark, Empower, and the Embassy of Sweden raises awareness by educating
the public and the youth, and addresses negative stereotypes in the Philippine culture that
affect GBV. Saligan focuses on legal empowerment through their programs, while WAGI
works with students, service providers, local communities, and other organizations using
their academic expertise. Additionally, UN Women ensures that the government adheres to
normative frameworks by working with the local government and civil society, and by
providing technical guidance and capacity building. Their current Safe and Fair program
sheds light on a largely unrecognized issue of VAW among OFWs.

88
 The country’s commitment to CEDAW underlines the government’s role to address
cultural and social factors that promote VAW. Although various services exist to address
VAW, it seems that government services are only responsive to VAW. NGOs and academics
fill in the gaps of where the government services are lacking by providing expertise and
resources, and by taking the lead in preventive action against VAW.
Despite this study’s limitations in terms of scope and methodology, it opens up
several starting points for future research. This study focused on the cultural aspects that
negatively affect GBV in the Philippines, either as risk factors or factors that affect reporting
behavior. However, it shows how aspects of the culture can also serve as protective factors.
Moreover, this study provides cultural factors specific to the Philippines that can be used by
various stakeholders in addressing GBV through campaigns, programs, policies, and services.

89
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 Appendix A

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ORGANIZATIONS

Tria Marie R. Garcia

Master’s thesis, 30 ECTS
Master of Science in International Development Studies
Norwegian University of Life Sciences

GBV data, statistics, patterns

1. What is your definition of gender-based violence (GBV)?
2. What are the different types of GBV?
3. What statistics do you have of GBV?
a. Where do you obtain your data?
b. How is this data used by the organization?
4. Have the incidents increased or decreased over the years? Why?
5. Do the victims share common traits, demographics, personal history, etc?
6. Do the perpetrators share common traits, demographics, personal history, etc?
7. Where does the abuse occur? Are there patterns in the context or situation of the
abuse?
8. What are the available services for GBV victims in the Philippines?
a. Do you think people are aware of these services?
b. How accessible are these services for people in the cities and provinces?
c. Do you think these services are effective? Could they be improved? How are
they contributing to the increase/decrease of GBV statistics?
9. Are you aware of the laws in the Philippines that address violence against women?
a. How effective are they?
b. How are they implemented?
10. Does socioeconomic class affect GBV? In terms of occurrence, reporting, perception,
etc? What are the differences and/or similarities? If so, how?
11. Does the rural or urban setting affect GBV? If so, how? What are the differences
and/or similarities?
12. Does economic empowerment affect GBV? If so, how?
13. Does the Philippine culture affect GBV? If so, how?
14. Does religion in the Philippines affect GBV? If so, how?
15. Do gender roles and stereotypes in the Philippines affect GBV? If so, how?
16. Does globalization affect GBV? If so, how?
Organization’s work in addressing GBV
17. What are your current or recent projects on GBV?
a. How and why were these projects formed?
b. How is the project organized?
c. What is the goal of the project?
18. Who are the stakeholders in the project?
a. Who is involved in implementing the project?
b. Who is the target audience of the project?
c. How do the victims know about the project? How are they protected?
Was the project evaluated? How?
19. Did the project end or continue? Why? How has the project grown since?

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 INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ACADEMICS

Tria Marie R. Garcia

Master’s thesis, 30 ECTS
Master of Science in International Development Studies
Norwegian University of Life Sciences

GBV data, statistics, patterns

1. What is your definition of gender-based violence (GBV)?
2. What are the different types of GBV?
3. What statistics do you have of GBV?
a. Where do you obtain your data?
b. How is this data used by the organization?
4. Have the incidents increased or decreased over the years? Why?
5. Do the victims share common traits, demographics, personal history, etc?
6. Do the perpetrators share common traits, demographics, personal history, etc?
7. Where does the abuse occur? Are there patterns in the context or situation of the
abuse?
8. What are the available services for GBV victims in the Philippines?
a. Do you think people are aware of these services?
b. How accessible are these services for people in the cities and provinces?
c. Do you think these services are effective? Could they be improved? How are
they contributing to the increase/decrease of GBV statistics?
9. Are you aware of the laws in the Philippines that address violence against women?
a. How effective are they?
b. How are they implemented?
10. Does socioeconomic class affect GBV? In terms of occurrence, reporting, perception,
etc? What are the differences and/or similarities? If so, how?
11. Does the rural or urban setting affect GBV? If so, how? What are the differences
and/or similarities?
12. Does economic empowerment affect GBV? If so, how?
13. Does the Philippine culture affect GBV? If so, how?
14. Does religion in the Philippines affect GBV? If so, how?
15. Do gender roles and stereotypes in the Philippines affect GBV? If so, how?
16. Does globalization affect GBV? If so, how?
Academic work in the field of GBV
17. What is your field of expertise in GBV?
18. What is the current research in your department on GBV?
19. What is GBV studies in the Philippines lacking?
20. How are you or your department bridging the gap between the academics and
practical application of addressing GBV in the Philippines?
21. Do you have any publications, articles, or reports related to GBV?

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 Appendix B

INFORMATION SHEET

Tria Marie R. Garcia

Master’s thesis, 30 ECTS
Master of Science in International Development Studies
Norwegian University of Life Sciences

Problem Statement
Gender-based violence (GBV) is a widespread human rights and public health issue. It has
profound social, economic, health, and familial consequences on the survivors and their
families. While the Philippine excels on the gender equality charts, its situation on gender-
based violence says otherwise. According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (2018), 17%
of Filipino women still experience GBV, and only 34% report the abuse. There is limited
information and academic literature on the topic of GBV in the Philippines. The existing
studies, both in the Philippines and in other countries, all emphasize the crucial role that
social constructs and contexts play in the perpetration and prevalence of GBV. Thus, a more
context-specific approach is needed to better understand the nature, extent, risks, and effects
of the issue due to the varied cultures and social contexts in developing countries.

Objective of the study

This study aims to contribute a more contextual understanding of GBV and to improve the
understanding of current actions being done by different organizations to address the issue.
This increased knowledge could then encourage more effective programs that would reduce
GBV in the Philippines.

Research design
This study will use a qualitative approach, including a literature review and interviews with
key informants such as yourself. The key informants have been strategically selected from
different sectors, such as UN and international organizations based in the Philippines, local
NGOs, and academics. The data will be analyzed using content analysis guided by the Public
Health Model and the Globalized Integrated Ecological Model. An interview guide will be
sent at least one month prior to the scheduled interview.

Why you have been selected

The organization you work for matches the pre-determined criteria of respondents for this
study. Your professional background and experiences will contribute valuable knowledge and
insights to this study.

Anonymity, recording, usage and storage of data, results, and publishing

Your personal identity will be concealed and will remain anonymous. Interviews will be
audio recorded. Data collected (audio recordings and transcripts) will be stored securely and
will be accessible only to the researcher. Data collected will be used only for this study. A
separate Consent Form will be provided.

You will receive a copy of the final draft of this study before it is published, and the final
copy after it is published. The published version of the study will also be available in Brage,

95
NMBU’s open digital research archive. The study may also be used for additional
publications such as relevant academic journals.

We will only use your personal data for the purpose specified in this information letter. We
will process your personal data confidentially and in accordance with data protection
legislation (the General Data Protection Regulation and Personal Data Act).

Your rights
So long as you can be identified in the collected data, you have the right to:
• access the personal data that is being processed about you
• request that your personal data is deleted
• request that incorrect personal data about you is corrected/rectified
• receive a copy of your personal data (data portability), and
• send a complaint to the Data Protection Officer or The Norwegian Data Protection
Authority regarding the processing of your personal data

We will process your personal data based on your consent.

Based on an agreement with NMBU, NSD – The Norwegian Centre for Research Data AS
has assessed that the processing of personal data in this project is in accordance with data
protection legislation.

About the researcher

My name is Tria Garcia and I am doing my master’s degree in International Development
Studies at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences. I am from the Philippines and I am
passionate about development issues. I obtained my bachelor’s degree in Communication
Studies from Ateneo de Manila University in 2015. My previous experiences include
working in the marketing, education, and nonprofit sectors in the Philippines. In Norway, I
did an internship with the Norwegian Refugee Council. I am currently completing the last
year of my postgraduate studies.

Contact information
Email: [email protected]
Mobile (Viber/Whatsapp/Telegram): +47 41106504
Skype: triagarcia

NSD – The Norwegian Centre for Research Data AS:

[email protected] / +47 55 58 21 17

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 Appendix C

CONSENT FORM

Participant:

____ I have read and understood the Information Sheet provided

____ I have been given opportunities to ask questions about the study
____ I have been given adequate time to consider my decision
____ I agree to take part in this study out of my own free will
____ I agree to have my interview audio recorded
____ I agree to the use of anonymous quotations in this study with attribution to my
organization
____ I understand that my personal details will be kept anonymous
____ I understand that I can withdraw from the study at any time

Name of participant: _____________________________

Signature of participant: ____________________________

Date: _______________

Researcher:

____ I have thoroughly explained the purpose of this study and the role of the participant to
the best of my ability.

Name of researcher: _____________________________

Signature of researcher: ____________________________

Date: _______________

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 Appendix D

FACTORS SORTED BY TYPE AND LEVEL

Protective factors Risk factors Factors that affect

reporting behavior
Individual • Increasing age • Younger age • Higher SES
• Economic • Cycle of violence • Lower SES
empowerment • Low educational
• Higher SES attainment
• Segregative
educational system
• Beso culture
Relationship• Joint-decision making• Only husband or wife • Marital status
dominates decision- • Perpetrator is husband
making

Community• Urban setting • Rural setting

• Tightknit communities • Urban setting
Societal • Strong policies • Catholic church’s • Stoical stereotype of
• Government support influence women
• Internalizing the law • Emphasis on a • High valuation of
• Family value woman’s virginity family
• Traditional gender • Culture of silence
stereotypes • Sex as a taboo subject
• Patriarchal society and
macho image
• Women’s caring role
Global • Internet and • Internet and
technology technology
• OFWs • OFWs
• Working or studying
abroad

98