Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing

Rhetorical functions in academic writing: Arguing and discussing
Introduction
An essential part of critical writing is arguing and discussing.
In academic writing, arguing and discussing is often part of a larger piece of writing. In arguing and discussing, you are expected
to present two or more points of view and discuss the positive and negative aspects of each case. On the basis of your
discussion, you can then choose one point of viewand persuade your readers that you are correct. This means giving your
opinions (positive and negative) on the work of others and your own opinions based on what you have read and learned. You
need to evaluate arguments, weigh evidence and develop a set of standards on which to base your conclusion.
As always in academic writing, all your opinions must be supported - you should produce your evidence and explain why this
evidence supports your point of view. It is important to distinguish between (see Toulmin, 1958):
your claim (proposition, thesis, point, position) - your point of view, what you believe; your reason(s)
(explanations)- why you believe what you do;
your evidence (support or grounds) - the facts, data and examples that support your point of view; and
your argument (warrant) - how the evidence you have provided leads to the claim your are making. A simple example would
be:
your claim e.g. John is a good teacher;

your reasons e.g. He gets on well with his students;
your evidence e.g. I have seen him in class.
your argument Good rapport with students is essential for a good teacher.
There are two main methods of presenting an argument, and in general the one you choose will depend on exactly your task
(See Understanding the question and Organising the answer for more information).
Presenting an argument
a. The balanced view
In this case you present both sides of an argument, without necessarily committing yourself to any opinions, which should
always be based on evidence, until the final paragraph.
At its simplest your plan for writing will be as follows:
Introduce the argument to the reader.
e.g. why it is a particularly relevant topic nowadays

or refer directly to some comments that have been voiced on it recently.
Arrow
Reasons against the argument
State the position, the evidence and the reasons.
Arrow
Reasons in favour of the argument.
State the position, the evidence and the reasons.
Arrow
After summarising the two sides,
state your own point of view,
and explain why you think as you do.
b. The persuasive view

This second type of argumentative writing involves stating your own point of view immediately, and then trying to convince the
reader by reasoned argument that you are right. The form of the piece of writing will be, in outline, as follows:
Introduce the topic briefly in general terms,
and then state your own point of view.
Explain what you plan to prove in the essay.
Arrow
Reasons against the argument.
Dispose briefly of the main objections to your case. Provide evidence and your reasons. Arrow
Reasons for your argument
the arguments to support your own view,
with evidence, reasons and examples.
Arrow
Conclusion - Do not repeat your opinion again.
End your essay with something memorable
e.g. a quotation or a direct question.
Example
Read the following examples: Example 1, Example 2.
Exercise
Try this exercise: Exercise 1
Language
Presenting own point of view
There are many reasons why …
It is
important
true
necessary
essential
to
remember
bear in mind
point out
that
…
The first thing
First of all,
we have
I would like
to consider
is
The first thing to be considered is
It is a fact
There is no doubt
I believe
that
The first reason why … is …
First of all, …
The second reason why … is …
Secondly, …
The most important …
In addition, …
Furthermore, …
What is more, …
Besides, …
Another reason is …
A further point is …
Further details
Evaluating other points of view You will also need to present and evaluate other
people's points of view. See: Evaluating other points of view
Providing support
You need to provide evidence to support your points of view and conclusions. See: Providing
support
Illustrating and exemplifying ideas

You can use examples to support your conclusions.
See: Giving examples
Giving reasons and explanations

And you will always give reasons and explanations for your claims and points of view. See: Cause &
effect
Working with different voices

As you recognise and work with other people's points of view. Within all these opinions, you need tomake yours clear.
See: Working with different voices
Synthesising
You will need to summarise other people's ideas, combine them and come to conclusions. See: Reporting -
paraphrase, summary & synthesis
Taking a stance
You need to make sure that your point of view shows through clearly.
See: Taking a stance
Comparing & contrasting

You will compare and contrast differenet ideas and your own, discussing advantages and diasadvantage.
See: Comparing and contrasting
Generalising
In all cases, points of view may be qualified and generalisations may be made. See: Generalising
Expressing degree of certainty

You may also have different degrees of certainty about your claims.
See: Expressing degree of certainty
Drawing conclusions
At various stages during your argument, you will need to sum up and come to a conclusion. See: Drawing
conclusions

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Rhetorical functions in academic writing: Arguing and discussing

your claim e.g. John is a good teacher;

At its simplest your plan for writing will be as follows:

Introduce the argument to the reader.

e.g. why it is a particularly relevant topic nowadays

Reasons against the argument

State the position, the evidence and the reasons.

Reasons in favour of the argument.

State the position, the evidence and the reasons.

b. The persuasive view

Introduce the topic briefly in general terms,

and then state your own point of view.

Explain what you plan to prove in the essay.

Reasons against the argument.

Reasons for your argument

the arguments to support your own view,

with evidence, reasons and examples.

Conclusion - Do not repeat your opinion again.

End your essay with something memorable

e.g. a quotation or a direct question.

The first thing to be considered is

The first reason why … is …

The second reason why … is …

The most important …

Illustrating and exemplifying ideas

Giving reasons and explanations

Working with different voices

Comparing & contrasting

Expressing degree of certainty

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