Ms.

Rumi Roy

Asst. Prof

VSLLS

4th April, 2020

Unit III: Political Process

Topic- Pressure groups, elections

Time: 1hr.

Elections and Voting

Elections are at the very core of democracy. Even if democracy is conceived as involving much
more than elections, and even if an ideal democracy includes important forms of direct
participation by citizens in many aspects of public decisions, still the most basic constraint on
oppressive state authority that we have is the fact that we elect the decision makers and can get
rid of them if we dislike what they do. Any evaluation of democracy in America must include a
careful examination of its electoral system and how it works.

In case the voters choose a representative by their votes it is direct election. For instance, the
members of the British House of Commons, or Indian Lok Sabha. Different from this, when the
voters elect some persons who elect some other person, it becomes indirect election. The
intermediary body is called ‘electoral college’. For instance, the American voters elect the
electors who elect the President. It is however, a different matter that now on account of the role
of two parties, the election of the American President is said to have become direct.

Voting Behaviour

During election campaigns people are encouraged to vote by claims that “every vote matters,”
but this is plainly false. Voting matters and the aggregate of all votes matter, but each single vote
as such doesn’t “matter”, at least in the sense of really influencing the outcome of the election. If
people really behaved as simple self-interested rational actors making cost-benefit calculations in
the way that is described in the prisoner’s dilemma, then virtually no one would actually bother
voting. People are moral beings, not just self-interested actors, and for many people voting is
seen as an obligation, a duty. This sense of moral obligation can take different forms. One
possibility is that when people recognize that they care about the outcome of the election – they
believe that one candidate or party will be better than another –they then feel it would be wrong
to be a free-rider on the efforts of others. The issue is not simply that it is unfair to be a free-rider
on other people’s efforts, but it is a violation of one’s identity as a citizen not to vote. The fact
that people vote, then, reflects the presence of important morally-infused motivations. The
vitality of popular participation in elections, therefore, depends in significant ways on the way a
society nurtures or undermines these kinds of civic identities and moral sentiments.

Voting and Elections Rights

(1) Every adult citizen has the right to vote in elections, on a nondiscriminatory basis.

(2) Every adult citizen has the right to access to an effective, impartial and non-discriminatory
procedure for the registration of voters.

(3) No eligible citizen shall be denied the right to vote or disqualified from registration as a
voter, otherwise than in accordance with objectively verifiable criteria prescribed by law, and
provided that such measures are consistent with the State’s obligations under international law.
(4) Every individual who is denied the right to vote or to be registered as a voter shall be entitled
to appeal to a jurisdiction competent to review such decisions and to correct errors promptly and
effectively.

(5) Every voter has the right to equal and effective access to a polling station in order to exercise
his or her right to vote.

(6) Every voter is entitled to exercise his or her right equally with others and to have his or her
vote accorded equivalent weight to that of others.

(7) The right to vote in secret is absolute and shall not be restricted in any manner whatsoever.

Candidature, Party and Campaign Rights and Responsibilities

(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of their country and shall have an equal
opportunity to become a candidate for election. The criteria for participation in government shall
be determined in accordance with national constitutions and laws and shall not be inconsistent
with the State’s international obligations.
(2) Everyone has the right to join, or together with others to establish, a political party or
organization for the purpose of competing in an election.

(3) Everyone individually and together with others has the right: - To express political opinions
without interference; - To seek, receive and impart information and to make an informed choice;
- To move freely within the country in order to campaign for election; - To campaign on an equal
basis with other political parties, including the party forming the existing government.

(4) Every candidate for election and every political party shall have an equal opportunity of
access to the media, particularly the mass communications media, in order to put forward their
political views.

(5) The right of candidates to security with respect to their lives and property shall be recognized
and protected.

(6) Every individual and every political party has the right to the protection of the law and to a
remedy for violation of political and electoral rights.

(7) The above rights may only be subject to such restrictions of an exceptional nature which are
in accordance with law and reasonably necessary in a democratic society in the interests of
national security or public order, the protection of public health or morals or the protection of the
rights and freedoms of others and provided they are consistent with States’ obligations under
international law. Permissible restrictions on candidature, the creation and activity of political
parties and campaign rights shall not be applied so as to violate the principle of
nondiscrimination on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

(8) Every individual or political party whose candidature, party or campaign rights are denied or
restricted shall be entitled to appeal to a jurisdiction competent to review such decisions and to
correct errors promptly and effectively.

(9) Candidature, party and campaign rights carry responsibilities to the community. In particular,
no candidate or political party shall engage in violence.
(10) Every candidate and political party competing in an election shall respect the rights and
freedoms of others.

(11) Every candidate and political party competing in an election shall accept the outcome of a
free and fair election.

Forms and Methods of Voting

Two forms of voting have been devised.

First, in case the voters vote in a way that their choice becomes clear for all to see as by raising
their hands or by saying aye. It is called open or public voting. It is very old practiced in Greek
city states and Denmark till 1901. In Nigeria, open ballot system, also known as Option A4, is a
voting method in which voters vote openly by queuing or otherwise, indicating the candidate of
their choice. This is as opposed to a secret ballot, where a voter's choices are confidential.

Second, the secret ballot is a voting method in which a voter's choices in an election or a
referendum are anonymous, forestalling attempts to influence the voter by intimidation and
potential vote buying. The system is one means of achieving the goal of political privacy.

The ways of voting are many and they may be enumerated as under:

Majority Vote System: Also known as plurality of votes system, it means that a candidate
securing largest number of votes is declared elected without considering the percentage of votes
he gets.

Second ballot system: The two-round system (also known as the second ballot, runoff voting or
ballotage) is a voting method used to elect a single winner, where the voter casts a single vote for
their chosen candidate.

Alternative Vote system: The Alternative Vote (AV) is a preferential system where the voter
ranks the candidates in order of preference.

Each voter has one vote, but rather than an X, they put a '1' by their first choice a '2' by their
second choice, and so on, until they no longer wish to express any further preferences or run out
of candidates. Candidates are elected outright if they gain more than half the votes as first
preferences. If not, the candidate who lost (the one with least first preferences) is eliminated and
their votes move to the second preference marked on the ballot papers. This process continues
until one candidate has half of the votes and is elected.

Pressure Groups

A pressure group is a group of people who share one or more interests or concerns, and who try
to influence the course of public policy in relation to their interests. Pressure groups are similar
to political parties because their members share a political aim. However, pressure groups differ
from political parties in two main ways: A pressure group usually has a narrow program dealing
only with its own particular interests, while a political party usually deals with a wide range of
issues. A pressure group very rarely nominates candidates for elections to public office, while
this is one of the main activities of political parties. Pressure groups vary in size and
organisational structure, which may not necessarily represent the amount of influence exerted
upon a government’s policies. It is obvious that trade unions, business organisations and
professional associations can exert considerable pressure upon governments. On the other hand,
a small ad hoc committee, established because of a local issue, may rally sufficient supporters for
mass demonstrations or marches, and thus, pressure a government into quickly altering its
policies.

There are two types of pressure groups:

1. Sectional: Sectional Lobby Groups This includes self-interest groups such as: trade unions;
business and farming associations; churches; ethnic associations; pensioner groups; and returned
service personnel

2. Promotional: Promotional Lobby Groups This category promotes particular causes, beliefs or
values such as: conservation; women’s issues; Aboriginal; civil; or moral rights.

Difference between political parties and pressure groups

While the Pressure groups seek to exert influence, political parties seek to win power The
members of a pressure group have shared interests and common causes. They may have different
ideologies and party preferences despite being members of same group. The political parties are
associations of individuals sharing common values and preferences.
Pressure groups are formed to solve their immediate problems. Political parties are formed on
ideological lines and they continuously engage in mobilisation of the masses with aim to capture
the power and consolidate their position to attain or realize their ideological goals. While the
pressure groups have narrow issue focus, most political parties have broad issue focus as well as
a vision for the future.

Pressure groups are relatively temporary than the political parties. Pressure groups remain
confided to a select group of people, unlike political parties which engage in mass mobilization.
The operation of pressure groups

Pressure groups seek to influence government policy by lobbying. This means that they attempt
to gain support for their cause by presenting their case to those who have the power to decide
government policy, such as ministers, bureaucrats, political parties, members of Parliament and
the public in general.

Lobbying can occur through formal submissions and participation in official bodies, and through
informal contacts. At times (usually when other means of access have failed to bring about the
desired result), pressure groups seek to influence public opinion through publicity campaigns.

How do Pressure Groups enhance the political system?

1. Pressure groups are a vital link between the government and the governed. They keep
governments more responsive to the wishes of the community, especially in between
elections.
2. Pressure groups are able to express the views of minority groups in the community who
might not otherwise receive a hearing.
3. Pressure groups are able to use their expertise to provide the government with important
information. It is also applicable to issues such as Indigenous reconciliation.
4. Pressure groups offer an alternative source of advice to the government, separate from
that coming from the Public Service.
5. Pressure groups generally promote opportunities for political participation for citizens,
without the need to join a political party. Moreover, they allow for the democratic rights
of freedom of speech, assembly and association to be upheld.
How do Pressure Groups exert their influence?

Pressure groups may use a variety of methods to pursue their requirements. These include –
(1) lobbying state members and the Parliament via petitions, letters and deputations;

(2) consulting with ministers or senior public servants;

(3) hiring professional lobbyists;

(4) taking legal action through injunctions or appeals to higher courts;

(5) campaigning for, or opposing, certain candidates at elections;

(6) demonstrating outside Parliament and government offices or marching in the streets; and
(7) using the industrial muscle of strikes for political purposes.