sustainability

Article
Work from Home and the Use of ICT during the COVID-19
Pandemic in Indonesia and Its Impact on Cities in the Future
Rini Rachmawati 1, *, Ulfah Choirunnisa 2 , Zat Ayuningsih Pambagyo 3 , Yosi Atikah Syarafina 3
and Rizki Adriadi Ghiffari 1

1 Department of Development Geography, Faculty of Geography, Universitas Gadjah Mada,

Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia; [email protected]
2 Graduate School on Regional Development, Faculty of Geography, Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia; [email protected]
3 Graduate School on Environmental Science, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia;
[email protected] (Z.A.P.); [email protected] (Y.A.S.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in restrictions on activities involving physical contact,
such as working. Indonesia began to apply the system of work from home (WfH) to minimize the
spread risk of COVID-19 in March 2020. This research is aimed at finding out the coverage of WfH,
mapping changes of workplace, identifying the use of ICT to support WfH, and analyzing the concept
of workplace and work systems in future cities. The method used in this research is qualitative and
quantitative. A questionnaire (Google Form) was sent to different WhatsApp groups whose members



are experts in urban and regional planning, geography, the environment, smart cities, and IT, with


total of 176 respondents. The focus group discussion conducted online focused on the use of ICT to
Citation: Rachmawati, R.;
support WfH during the COVID-19 pandemic. The result of this research shows that even before
Choirunnisa, U.; Pambagyo, Z.A.;
the pandemic, both the government and private sectors had a plan to apply WfH. Because of the
Syarafina, Y.A.; Ghiffari, R.A. Work
from Home and the Use of ICT
pandemic, it became the catalyst for the implementation of WfH. The implementation of WfH has
during the COVID-19 Pandemic in changed workplace orientation. The use of ICT was a primary need in implementing WfH during the
Indonesia and Its Impact on Cities in pandemic. However, the WfH system implemented in the government sector has not been integrated,
the Future. Sustainability 2021, 13, and neither has the one in private sectors. WfH is seen to have been effective enough, but it still
6760. https://doi.org/10.3390/ needs lots of support from many sectors. In the future, WfH can still be maintained, along with
su13126760 working from the office (WfO). The WfH concept is highly recommended for big cities because it can
support reduced population mobilization, resulting in reduced congestion and movement costs, and
Academic Editor: Hyo Sun Jung improved efficiency of working time by reducing travel time. On the other hand, it can help in the
matter of limited of space that office buildings provide.
Received: 25 April 2021
Accepted: 8 June 2021
Keywords: work from home; ICT; COVID-19 pandemic; workplace; cities
Published: 15 June 2021

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
1. Introduction
published maps and institutional affil-
iations. On 3 March 2020, two Indonesian people were confirmed to be positive with COVID-
19 [1], and an increasing number of victims followed. On 16 March 2020, the Ministry of
Communication and Information began to apply the policy of work from home (WfH) for
echelon IV (a structural position at the lowest level) and non-echelon (non-civil servant)
officials who took public transport to work [2]. The concept of WfH is not a new one.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
It has in fact been in existence for the last 10 years [3]. The advances in ICT have given
This article is an open access article
the option to do work virtually, leading to more efficiency and the changing concept of
distributed under the terms and the workplace [4]. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, WfH needed to be applied in
conditions of the Creative Commons jobs to prevent COVID-19 from spreading [4]. The policy of WfH then followed in other
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// ministries, state-owned companies, private companies, universities and colleges, schools,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and other economic activities. The economic and social shocks resulting from the COVID-
4.0/).

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126760 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 2 of 17

19 pandemic have shaped the perceptions of individuals and organizations about work
and workers [5].
Working from home is defined as every paid job being done mainly from home and
is estimated to comprise at least 20 h weekly [6]. Policymakers and managers generally
have high interest in WfH [7]. Factors influencing WfH are skill in time management, the
possibility of working during the most productive hours, reduced time to communicate
with colleagues, the possibility of working from home when not in good health, trust from
superiors, support from supervisors, the possibility of saving on transportation costs, the
possibility of taking care of family members, the conformity of the workplace at home, and
the possibility of accessing the organizations’ documents from home [8]. In order to make
work activities run well, WfH needs several forms of support. The results of a survey of
over 369 mature people in 64 Chinese cities showed that 27% of them worked at the office,
38% preferred to work from home, and 25% of them preferred to quit their jobs because of
the pandemic [9]. One of the main supports was the availability of ICT, both hardware and
software and education related to how to apply WfH itself [10]. In addition, training that
is appropriately administered will eventually improve the skill of employees. It is very
important to tackle the existing and ongoing challenges for employees that are affected by
the COVID-19 pandemic [10].
The experience of WfH during the COVID-19 pandemic has led to challenges and
changes in the ways of working [11]. In addition, the policy of WfH is more flexible
and supports those facing obstacles, such as old people, disabled people, or those who
geographically live far from work [11]. In the research in relation to the use of ICT at work,
there are three conclusions that can be drawn [12]. They are (1) the use of technology
when working from home during off-job time provides significant and positive effects in
terms of time and psychological factors, (2) family support give positive relation in using
technology for work at home during off-job, and (3) family support affects employees to feel
less psychological detachment, thereby it decreases the level of work-family conflict [12].
Every employee who does WfH will be willing to work when the atmosphere is conducive
and supports working from home [13]. The opportunity for an employee to continue
working when not in good health will increase satisfaction for teleworkers [8]. However,
what may become an obstacle to WfH generally comes from personal responsibility and
family members [14].
Factors influencing the efficiency and quality of long-distance work required from
teleworkers depends on the gender, age, education, work experience, and experience with
telework [15]. In relation to age and gender, older female employees do not see the benefits
of telework as much [8]. Females are seen to have more appreciation for telework than
males [16]. Basically, women have more experience in WfH even though not all see it as
productive, valuable, and paid [11]. WfH may be able to offer more flexibility that enables
female employees to participate in various jobs on a larger scale [11]. Working from home is
of great help for women doing academic tasks so that fast and large growth can be achieved
by making use of video conferences [11]. When the pandemic is successfully resolved,
female academics will still need to keep involving themselves in dialogs on the experience
during the COVID-19 pandemic, opportunities to develop their careers, improvements to
participation in academic life, and their role in society on a larger scale productively and
sustainably, and encourage and maintain female academics for the next generation [11].
On the other hand, there is also a perception that male employees are more productive
than female ones [17].
The use of ICT as a means of supporting jobs leads to changes in work patterns [16,18].
These are shown in the changes in work methods from relying on face-to-face meetings
to ICT-based ones; changing to work hours that are more flexible, efficient, and faster;
and changing to locations that are flexibly chosen in any place or in one location with
several activities [16,18]. In addition to flexibility, employees who do WfH have more
advantages to be autonomous in making decisions, as well as cost efficient [19]. It is
obvious that mobility decreases because physical activity at work is replaced by making
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 3 of 17

use of ICT [18]. Other impacts of WfH include the feeling of loneliness, affected mental
health, a decrease in employees being active while WfO, and a decrease in the quality
of the work environment [19]. Teleworking may be able to give benefits in term of cost
reduction [4]. The disadvantage associated with flexible working arrangements is the
perception of worries about hindering careers [20–22]. Research results in Malaysia show
that it takes time to develop flexible work practices from home and make it technically
acceptable in society [22]. In this regard, the government has offered a flexible work policy
in the public sector [22]. Furthermore, based on the results of this research, both the positive
and negative impacts of WfH will also be discussed to complete the previous study.
Both the private and public sectors seem to be concerned with the impact of telework
in relation to employees’ performance [4]. Teleworkers have less opportunity to interact
and build relationships and physical closeness with other employees [13]. ICT becomes the
main factor in determining success [23]. Several supporting aspects of decreasing mobility
due to the use of ICT are also supported with the use of e-banking and e-shopping [18].
Both e-banking and e-shopping support the continuity of working at home, and it is also
possible to do those jobs from home. Such a situation is very meaningful for managers,
architects, planners, and policymakers in building facility networks in a city as well as
multifunction of city spaces [24]. The existence of ICT-based economic services causes
the orientation of the development of service locations and settlements to have been
decentralized to suburban areas [24]. It is possible that the phenomenon of WfH will be of
high interest. Working from home has so far currently been a common view. Therefore, it
is important for companies and the government to train their employees correctly so they
are able to WfH effectively and so their abilities and capabilities can be maintained [25].
Furthermore, this research is aimed at discovering the coverage of WfH, mapping
changes of workplace, identifying the use of ICT to support WfH, and analyzing the concept
of workplace and work system in future cities. This research is conducted in relation to
WfH during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, from this research it is also possible
to create a model to develop WfH in the future. The result of this research is expected to
become the input for reducing city problems and it can also become the recommendation
for developing sustainable cities in the future. The achievement of sustainable cities is
usually inseparable from environmental aspects, including the availability of green open
spaces, and low levels of pollution and congestion in cities. The WfH system will reduce
mobility, thereby reducing the use of space for movement, which results in reduced levels
of pollution and congestion on the road.

2. Materials and Methods

The method used in this research was quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative
method was supported by data that were taken by using a questionnaire in the form of
a Google Form that was sent to different WhatsApp groups whose members are mostly
experts in urban and regional planning, geography, the environment, smart cities, and IT.
The data were collected in 2020 using this questionnaire, with a total of 176 respondents.
In addition, the qualitative method was supported by data that were obtained from a
focus group discussion that was conducted online and was attended by several resource
persons, including, among others, the Ministry of State Apparatus Empowerment of the
Republic of Indonesia, the Ministry of Communication and Information of the Republic of
Indonesia, the Regional Government of the Special Region of Yogyakarta (namely, the Civil
Service Agency, and the Office of Communications and Information Technology) as well
as consultants specializing in IT in the city of Yogyakarta and GIS consultants in Jakarta.
Meanwhile, secondary data were taken from Google Community Mobility in 2021.
The technique used for analysis was spatial analysis trough maps, analysis using
chi-square assessment, and descriptive statistics. Spatial analysis was carried out using
maps to describe the distribution of workplace changes during the COVID-19 pandemic,
WfO before the COVID-19 pandemic, WfH during COVID-19 pandemic, and changes in
workplace occupancy during the COVID-19 pandemic. Meanwhile, a chi-square statistical
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 4 of 17

test was carried out to show the correlation of the relation between the reduction in
mobilization and the increase in productivity during WfH.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Work from Home and Its Coverage
The COVID-19 pandemic has made a large number of Indonesian people experience
forced digitalization. It is a kind of phenomenon in which society is forced to suddenly
change from conventional habits to modern ones by making use of ICT. Those experiencing
this phenomenon include officers such as civil servants, private employees, business people,
etc. What is meant by the coverage of WfH here is related to the definition, system, and
activities done during WfH. Work from Home is a system applied in an institution/office
with the ability to connect in an electronic virtual way to create the best situation so that
office jobs do not need to be done in an office.
The policy implemented by the Ministry of State Apparatus Empowerment of the
Republic of Indonesia shows that the ministry began to apply WfH in March 2020, a time
when the COVID-19 pandemic began to hit in Indonesia. One of the duties that needed
to be done by the respective ministry during the COVID-19 pandemic was to make sure
that society remained productive, safe, and healthy in the middle of the pandemic through
responsive policies from the government by paying attention to what society demanded
and needed. At present, there has been a basic change in society in that they prefer to put
health and safety as the top priority by staying at home more while paying attention to
cleanliness, health, and the safety of the family.
The Ministry of State Apparatus Empowerment implemented a work system in line
with the policy made, namely, Circular Number 58 Year 2020 on the Work System of the
State Civil Apparatus during the New Normal Order. The arrangement includes, first,
adaptation to the work system (flexibility of place arrangement and work hours, arrange-
ment of WfH and WfO, implementation of effective public services, and limitation of
face-to-face meetings and official travels); second, support from the Human Resource
Management apparatus (evaluation of employees’ performance, monitoring and super-
vision, discipline of employees); and third, infrastructure support (preparing facilities in
workplaces, optimizing the use of ICT, and maintaining information and cyber security).
The coverage of WfH, according to the respective ministry, includes arranging pat-
terns and work locations in a flexible way by optimizing the use of ICT for increasing and
maintaining productivity and guaranteeing the persistence of task implementation and
functions of the civil administration authority. In relation to WfH and WfO, the Ministry of
State Apparatus Empowerment considers the criteria of location and work hours. The em-
ployees living in the area where PSBB (Pembatasan Sosial Berskala Besar/Social Restriction
in a Large Scale) is applied have to WfH completely. Meanwhile, for those living outside
the PSBB area, the authorities to which they belong need to determine which employees
have to WfH and WfO selectively and accountably and need to determine which tasks
need to be done by those WfH, in line with the criteria.
In relation to the employees who remain WfO, facilities such as modern working
rooms need to be prepared and need to be open and collaborative so that there are no
special private working rooms. Employees may choose a working room suitable for their
activities, such as areas for working, collaboration, socialization, etc. The purpose of
this is to build a collaborative working environment for the administration authorities or
agencies in the digital era, stressing the principles of result-oriented targets, a collaborative
environment, transparency, trust, and efficiency by optimizing the use of different facilities.
The resource person from the Ministry of Communication and Information stressed
that WfH comprises one of the digital transformation implementations in the adminis-
tration. This encompasses a bureaucracy that needs to be reformed, that is, that needs to
build relationship among the administration authorities or agencies, personnel, and the
government with society.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 5 of 17

The implementation of WfH in the Ministry of Communication and Information has

been dominant, with 20% of its employees still working at the office, irrespective of the
regulation of 50%. Work hours are divided into two shifts: mornings and afternoons. The
kinds of work that cannot be done by applying WfH are those in charge of document
acceptance, security, cleanliness, and technical work. In relation to the administration
management, apparatus empowerment such as bureaucratic activities also needed to
be changed, in addition to keeping distance and other health protocols. The target of
transformation that they plan to implement for adaptation is not only the mechanism but
also the technology. They will provide general application and integration. Their target is
to prepare two apps, one for the administration, and another for public services.
According to the resource person at the Secretary of Civil Affairs Board in the Spe-
cial Territory of Yogyakarta, in the environment of the respective regional government,
WfH is applied in line with the regulations stipulated by the central government. On 3
November 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic hit, the Deputy of Human Resource at the
coordinating meeting revealed that it was not necessary for civil servants to work in the
office. However, there was a different idea on the subject, saying that they had to work
in the office. COVID-19 has changed several systems about civil servants, from working
in the office to working from home. The Regional Government of the Special Territory
of Yogyakarta has gone over the system carefully to adapt itself to the conditions of the
COVID-19 pandemic. At present, 50% of the civil servants work from home, and another
50% remain working in the office, with health protocols taken into consideration.
In private sectors, a resource person stated that at the end of 2019, an IT consultant
in Yogyakarta-Gamatechno considered applying what is called “remote working” for its
employees. Because there were several constraints, the plan was postponed. Due to the
COVID-19 pandemic, Gamatechno was forced to implement what had been planned before.
Therefore, starting on 15 March 2020, Gamatechno has officially applied WfH. Meanwhile,
at the GIS-PT Waindo SpecTera Jakarta consultancy, working from the office has been
applied with a percentage of 50–70% since June 2020, with health protocols put into effect,
such as conducting rapid tests every other week and having to put on APD (Alat Pelindung
Diri/personal protective equipment) for its employees assigned to duties outside the area
of the company. In addition, online meetings and making use of social media such as
YouTube series or podcasts for marketing have often been done. Hopefully in the future, in
line with the same policy made by the government, private employees will also be able to
adapt to making use of technology to support their work.

3.2. The Spatial Trend of Workplace Occupancy Due to WfH during the COVID-10 Pandemic
A spatial analysis related to changes in the workplace due to WfH during the COVID-
19 pandemic was conducted in this study using Community Mobility data. The data were
obtained from the Google Community Mobility Report in CSV format per region (province)
for the country of Indonesia, from 15 February 2020 to 21 March 2021. In this report, data on
daily average mobility to work in a certain period were used to compare the mobility data
before the pandemic. Meanwhile, work from home activities were identified based on the
difference between the average daily mobility in the residential area during a certain period
during the pandemic against baseline and the data on mobility to the workplace before and
during the pandemic. A questionnaire survey through Google Forms targeting respondents
from various main cities was also carried out to detail data on mobility between residential
areas and workplaces, as well as WfH behavior during the pandemic.
The trend of changing patterns of working from office (WfO) to working from home
(WfH) started in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. Based on data
processed from Google Community Mobility data, there were six periods of change in
workplace occupation from the baseline, shown in Figure 1. During the early days of the
pandemic, since the first case of COVID-19 was confirmed on 3 March 2020, office activities
were still running as usual. Things started to change when the government announced the
first local transmission case in mid-March 2020, where the average workspace occupation
 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 6 of 17

pandemic, since the first case of COVID-19 was confirmed on 3 March 2020, office activi-
ties were still running as usual. Things started to change when the government announced
the first local transmission case in mid-March 2020, where the average workspace occu-
fell to −fell
pation 28.33% from the
to −28.33% baseline
from and was
the baseline replaced
and by a trend
was replaced by aoftrend
working from home.
of working from
Then, to control the infection rate, the government implemented the
home. Then, to control the infection rate, the government implemented the PSBB from 10 PSBB from 10 April
to 4 June
April to 42020
Junein2020
various cities cities
in various and provinces
and provincesin Indonesia.
in Indonesia.AtAt that time,
that time,workspace
workspace
occupation was successfully suppressed, reaching − 34.97% from
occupation was successfully suppressed, reaching −34.97% from the baseline. Then, the baseline. Then,a
agradual
gradualeasing
easingwaswascarried
carriedout out starting on 5 June 2020 until the new
starting on 5 June 2020 until the new normal phase wasnormal phase
was entered
entered on 10onJanuary
10 January
2021, 2021, resulting
resulting in an increase
in an increase in workplace
in workplace occupationoccupation to
to −23.78%.
−The
23.78%. The results of the evaluation in early January saw an increase in positive
results of the evaluation in early January saw an increase in positive cases, so the Java- cases,
so thePSBB
Bali Java-Bali PSBB was
was enforced enforced
between between
11 January 1125
and January
Januaryand 25where
2021, January 2021, where
workplace occu-
workplace occupation continue to fall to − 31.42%. After that, the
pation continue to fall to −31.42%. After that, the PSBB method was replaced with Micro PSBB method was
replaced with Micro PPKM to control specific areas as needed. This
PPKM to control specific areas as needed. This phase took effect from 26 January 2021, phase took effect
from
and 26madeJanuary 2021, and made
the workplace the workplace
occupation started tooccupation
increase tostarted
−28.79%. to increase
However, to − 28.79%.
the work-
However, the workplace occupation pattern had not yet returned to its
place occupation pattern had not yet returned to its baseline condition from before the baseline condition
from before pandemic.
COVID-19 the COVID-19 pandemic.

Figure1.1. Diagram
Figure Diagram ofofpercent
percentchange
changeofofworkplace
workplaceoccupancy
occupancyduring
duringthe
theCOVID-19
COVID-19pandemic
pandemic
(source:[26]
(source: [26]and
anddata
dataprocessing).
processing).

Thechanges
The changesininworkplace
workplaceoccupancy
occupancy also
also differed
differed in each
in each province
province in each
in each period.
period. In
In general,
general, thethe
trendtrend of working
of working from
from home
home had
had moremore impact
impact onon theformal
the formalsector
sectorininurban
urban
areas. Therefore,
areas. Therefore, provinces
provinces with withhigh
highpopulation
populationdensity
densityandandmore
morecities
citieshad
hadaagreater
greater
percentageofofreduction
percentage reduction in in workplace
workplace occupancy.
occupancy. The The distribution
distribution of workplace
of workplace occu-
occupancy
in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia is shown in Figure 2. Most2.
pancy in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia is shown in Figure
Most provinces
provinces still hadstill had workplace
workplace occupancy occupancy
as usual,asexcept
usual,forexcept for Bali province,
Bali province, with a
with a leading
leading economic
economic sector inwhich
sector in tourism, tourism,lostwhich lost its occupancy
its occupancy when the started
when the pandemic pandemic started
to spread
to spread
beyond beyond
China China
to other to other countries.
countries.
The
Theearly
earlydaysdaysofofconfirmed
confirmedpositive
positivecases
casesdueduetotolocal/community
local/communitytransmission
transmissionput put
aagreat
greatdeal
dealofofpressure
pressureon onthe
theoccupancy
occupancyofofthe theworkplace.
workplace.Although
Althoughthere thereisisno
noofficial
official
WfH
WfHpolicy
policyfromfromthe thegovernment,
government,severalseveralprivate
privatecompanies
companieshave havedonedoneso sowith
withthe
theaim
aim
of
ofprotecting
protectinghumanhumanresources,
resources,ororhave
havebeenbeenforced
forcedtotoclose
closedue
duetotoloss
lossofofconsumers
consumersasasaa
result
resultofofreduction
reductionininpopulation
populationmobility.
mobility.The Thepressure
pressureon onworkplace
workplaceoccupations
occupationsgrew grew
even
evenmore
morewhen whenthe thegovernment
governmentofficially
officiallyissued
issueda alarge-scale
large-scalesocial
social restrictions/PSBB
restrictions/PSBB
policy,
policy,asasshown
shownininFigureFigure2.2.TheTheimplementation
implementationwas wasstarted
startedininthe
thecapital
capitalterritory
territoryofof
Jakarta, and was followed by other provinces in the following days.
Jakarta, and was followed by other provinces in the following days. However, there However, there are two
are
provinces that did not apply the PSBB officially, but saw a decrease
two provinces that did not apply the PSBB officially, but saw a decrease in workplace in workplace occupancy
by more thanby
occupancy 35%:moreBali and35%:
than the Special
Bali andRegion of Yogyakarta.
the Special Region ofThese two provinces
Yogyakarta. These twoare prov-
very
dependent on thedependent
inces are very tourism sector,
on the where domestic
tourism sector,tourists
wheremainly cometourists
domestic from provinces that
mainly come
implemented
from provinces thethat
PSBB officially, sothe
implemented thePSBB
decline in occupancy
officially, so the in the two
decline provinces had
in occupancy a
in the
double meaning due to public awareness and pressure on the tourism industry.
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 7 of 17

two provinces had a double meaning due to public awareness and pressure on the tourism
industry.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Distribution
Distribution of
of percent
percent change
change of
of workplace
workplace occupancy
occupancy during
during the
the COVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic
pandemic (source:
(source: [26]
[26] and
and data
data
processing).
processing).

The
Thetransition
transitionfrom fromWfOWfOtotoWfH WfH also
alsoinfluenced
influenced patterns
patterns of movement
of movement between
betweenre-
gions and within regions. Working from home contributes to reducing
regions and within regions. Working from home contributes to reducing traffic congestion, traffic congestion,
as
aswell
wellasasmoving
movingwork workactivities
activitiesfrom
fromoffice
office areas
areas or or business
business centers
centers to to residential
residential areas
areas
in
in the
the suburbs
suburbs and and rural
rural areas.
areas. Based
Basedon on the
the results
results ofof aa survey
survey that that was
was conducted
conducted with with
176
176 respondents
respondents in in 55
55 cities
cities and
and regencies,
regencies, whichwhich are are shown
shown in in Figures
Figures 3–5,3–5, there
there was
was aa
decrease
decrease in the number of of people
peoplestill
stillworking
workinginintheir theirformal
formalworkplaces
workplaces and
and choosing
choosing to
to WfH
WfH in in surrounding
surrounding cities/regencies.
cities/regencies.
Before
Before the
the COVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic,
pandemic,as asshown
shownin in Figure
Figure 3,3, aa large
large number
number of of commuter
commuter
movements
movementsoccurredoccurredin in Greater
Greater Jakarta
Jakarta and and Greater
Greater Yogyakarta.
Yogyakarta. In In Greater
Greater Jakarta,
Jakarta, the
the
main commuter movement
main movementcame camefromfrom Bogor
Bogor Regency
Regency andand
the the
CityCity of Depok to work-places
of Depok to work-
in five in
places cities
fivelocated in the capital
cities located in theterritory of Jakarta.
capital territory ofMeanwhile, in Greaterin
Jakarta. Meanwhile, Yogyakarta,
Greater Yog- the
main commuter
yakarta, the mainmovement
commutercame from Bantul
movement cameRegency
from Bantuland Sleman
Regency Regencyto
and Sleman workplaces
Regen-
in the
cyto city of Yogyakarta.
workplaces in the city This commuterThis
of Yogyakarta. movement
commuter caused
movementtraffic congestion
caused traffic at peak
con-
hours on the main connecting roads between cities. However, the
gestion at peak hours on the main connecting roads between cities. However, the situation situation changed during
the COVID-19
changed duringpandemic,
the COVID-19 as shown in Figure
pandemic, 4. As ainresult
as shown Figure of4.theAsimplementation
a result of the imple-of the
WfH policy,
mentation ofthere
the WfH was apolicy,
change in workplace
there was a change occupancy, which shifted
in workplace occupancy,to WfH whichactivities in
shifted
peri-urban
to areas such
WfH activities as Sleman
in peri-urban and such
areas Bantul. The flexibility
as Sleman of WfH
and Bantul. The also makes workers
flexibility of WfH
less makes
also attracted to the city
workers lesscenter where
attracted their
to the original
city centerworkplaces
where theirisoriginal
located,workplaces
thereby reducing
is lo-
urban mobility.
cated, thereby reducing urban mobility.
Furthermore,the
Furthermore, thedetails
detailsof ofchanges
changesin inworkplace
workplaceoccupancy
occupancyare areshown
shownin inFigure
Figure5.5.
The decline in the number of workers in Central Jakarta City, West
The decline in the number of workers in Central Jakarta City, West Jakarta City, and North Jakarta City, and North
Jakarta City ranged from − 90% to − 130% compared to the
Jakarta City ranged from −90% to −130% compared to the baseline before the pandemic.baseline before the pandemic.
On the
On the other
other hand,
hand, WfH WfH activities
activities increased
increased significantly
significantly (>200%)
(>200%)in in surrounding
surrounding cities,cities,
such as Bogor, Depok City, Bekasi City, Bekasi, and South Tangerang City. The same thing
also happened in Greater Yogyakarta, where WfH activity increased in Bantul Regency.
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 8 of 17

such as Bogor, Depok City, Bekasi City, Bekasi, and South Tangerang City. The same thing
such as Bogor, Depok City, Bekasi City, Bekasi, and South Tangerang City. The same thing
such as Bogor, Depok
also happened City,Yogyakarta,
in Greater Bekasi City,where
Bekasi,WfH
and activity
South Tangerang
increased City. The same
in Bantul thing
Regency.
also happened in Greater Yogyakarta, where WfH activity increased in Bantul Regency.
also happened in Greater Yogyakarta, where WfH activity increased in Bantul Regency.

Figure 3. Distribution
Distribution of working
working from the office (WfO) before the
the COVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic
pandemic (source:
(source: questionnaire survey
Figure 3. Distribution of working from the office (WfO) before the COVID-19 pandemic (source: questionnaire survey
Figure
through3. Distribution
Google
through Google Forms,of working
2020). from the office (WfO) before the COVID-19 pandemic (source: questionnaire survey
through Google Forms,
Forms, 2020).
2020).
through Google Forms, 2020).

Figure 4. Distribution of working from home (WfH) during the COVID-19 pandemic (source: questionnaire survey
Figure 4. Distribution
Figure 4. Distributionofofworking
working from
from home
home (WfH)
(WfH) during
during the COVID-19
the COVID-19 pandemic
pandemic (source:(source: questionnaire
questionnaire survey
survey through
Figure
through4.Google
Distribution
Forms, of working
2020). from home (WfH) during the COVID-19 pandemic (source: questionnaire survey
through Google
Google Forms, Forms, 2020).
through Google2020).
Forms, 2020).

Figure 5. Change in workplace occupancy during the COVID-19 pandemic (source: questionnaire survey through Google
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Change
Change in
in workplace
workplace occupancy
occupancy during
during the
the COVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic
pandemic (source:
(source: questionnaire
questionnaire survey
survey through
through Google
Google
Forms, 2020).
Forms, 2020).
Forms, 2020).
3.3. The Use of ICT to Support Work from Home during the COVID-10 Pandemic
3.3. The Use of ICT to Support Work from Home during the COVID-10 Pandemic
3.3.
3.3. The
The Use
Use of
of ICT
ICT to
In Government to Support
Support Work
Work
Regulation from
21Home
from
No. Year during
Home during
2020 onthe COVID-10
theSocial
COVID-10 Pandemic
Pandemic
Limitation at a Large Scale,
In Government Regulation No. 21 Year 2020 on Social Limitation at a Large Scale,
In
In Government
neither the minimumRegulation
Government No.
No. 21
nor the maximum
Regulation 21Year
age
Yearof2020 on
those
2020 Social
onwho Limitation
have
Social to applyat
Limitation WfH
at aa Large Scale,
are stated.
Large Scale,
neither the minimum nor the maximum age of those who have to apply WfH are stated.
neither
neither the
the minimum
minimum nor nor the
the maximum
maximum ageage of
of those
those who
who have
have to
to apply
apply WfH
WfH areare stated.
stated.
However, several institutions such as the Ministry of Industry and State-Owned Companies
suggest that those above 45 years old should apply WfH. The results of survey showed
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 9 of 17

that 57% of 176 respondents were between 23 and 44 years old. Meanwhile, the rest were
between 45 and 64 years old. Therefore, they were advised or even obliged to apply
WfH. For young people, home is an increasingly important place to use information and
communication technology (ICT) and to acquire new digital skills, especially on an informal
basis [27]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, people in the productive age group carrying
out WfH inevitably learned about using ICT to work at home.
The rule on the implementation of WfH is varied in practice between government
and private sectors. As many as 69% of the respondents applied WfH in March, 48%
in April, 2% in May, and 1% in June and July. Activities belonging to WfH are mostly
similar, namely, running and joining meetings, doing administrative work such as making
reports and doing things related to promotions for higher positions, teaching, becoming
a resource person for webinars, becoming a webinar participant, doing things related to
research, developing digital products, monitoring activities, examining students, doing
research studies, analyzing data and publications, and making website content. Meanwhile,
in general, those 176 respondents agreed that WfH means bringing office work home
individually to avoid physical contact. Employees may still be able to run meetings
with their colleagues by making use of ICT and applications or other available platforms.
Meanwhile, the use of platforms for meetings and messaging such as Zoom, Google
Hangouts, Webex, and WhatsApp are intended to maintain the system of WfH. In relation
to the media that the respondents follow to update information from their workplace
during the implementation of WfH, 35% of the respondents used WhatsApp, 24% used
email, 18% used Instagram, 15% used Facebook, 5% used Telegram, 2% used Line, and 1%
used internal applications.
Teleworkers need technology and communication, besides needing space and time to
work [28]. This was especially true for those who carried out WfH during the COVID-19
pandemic. In the context of the use of ICT, it includes the use of hardware, software,
and the Internet. Based on the results of survey, 95% of the respondents used laptops
and cell phones as their hardware to support WfH. Only 5% used PCs, tablets, and home
telephones. Even though that hardware has to be available at home, the fact is that 83%
of the respondents stated that they were their personal belongings, not ones provided by
their office. The difference in hardware quality affects the performance of employees due
to slow response, quick heating, etc. Those factors can be a constraint on jobs since they
cannot be carried out optimally. Besides, some of the respondents felt that WfH made them
lose focus on what they were doing because of slow Internet connection and insufficient
facilities. At least 60% of the respondents revealed that they agree, internet connection
could be a constraint and that they could not focus on work during WfH. In relation to
working from home (work–home) and the use of ICT, another study showed that the use
of ICT related to work outside work hours is really useful as a tool to balance work and
a better personal life [29]. The more people make use of ICT to do work at home, the
better they regard work/their family limits as flexible and permeable. Low flexibility and
high permeability from the use of ICT at home is much more influential in increasing
family–work conflict [30]. The use of mobile ICT is also able to support work wherever
one wants to do it, meaning that work can be done anywhere a mobile phone signal is
available [31]. Yet, in relation to WfH during the COVID-19 pandemic, it focuses more on
employees with office work done at home by using mobile ICT.
In addition to hardware, software is also of primary importance in WfH, such as
messenger and virtual conference applications to enable people to meet online. Good
Internet access is necessary to support the performance of both the hardware and software.
The fact is that those who have to do WfH mostly rely on WiFi, followed by Internet access
using mobile data and tethering. However, 20% of the respondents felt that the cost of their
mobile phone payment and Internet during WfH increased sharply and they could hardly
pay. Meanwhile, 70% of the respondents felt that the cost of their mobile phone payment
and Internet also increased, but that the increase was still in the proper limit, and 10% of
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 10 of 17

the respondents felt that there was no increase in their mobile phone payment and Internet
during WfH.
In this case, every administration authority is required to pay attention to what its
employees need to access the Internet, like an Internet quota. Based on the survey results,
27% of the respondents stated that they received some aid for an Internet quota from their
office, 13% of the respondents received some funds for their mobile phone payments, and
59% of the respondents did not receive anything from their office. This should be taken into
consideration for the office where they work, since most of the cost for WfH is allocated to
Internet quotas and mobile phone payments (98%).
The application of the WfH system using ICT also affects employees’ increasing
electricity bill. A total of 71% of the respondents admitted that their electricity bill increased
but was still in the proper limit and payable, 19% revealed that their electricity bill sharply
increased and it was hard to pay, and 10% of the respondents said that there was no increase
in their electricity bill. Nevertheless, WfH still makes employees focus on their work even
though they are not in the office, but not all employees feel there is an increase in the
productivity of their work.
In relation to the application of the WfH system and non-optimal work due to bad
Internet connection, the survey results showed that 36% of the respondents did agree that
the application of a WfH system made them lose focus on their work because of bad Internet
connection. Meanwhile, 24% of the respondents considered that they really depended on
the situation and condition that made them lose focus on their work due to a bad or slow
Internet connection. On the other hand, 40% of the respondents revealed that they did not
agree with the statement that the application of a WfH system made them lose focus on
their work due to Internet connection. When WfH is applied with ICT support for a bad
Internet connection, there are, in fact, several other obstacles faced. They are, for example,
limited funding for an Internet quota, limited ICT hardware, and tiredness because of
spending too much time on the gadget. WfH can also cause employees to experience
problems related to the implementation of ICT [15]. In addition, other problems related to
WfH include communication and collaboration with other employees [15]. However, ICT
is seen as making it easy to communicate. The same is the case for the use of social media.
There are two sides to the application of WfH: positive and negative. The positive side
is cost efficiency and the negative side is changeable work hours. According to a resource
person from the Ministry of State Apparatus Empowerment, using an online working
system makes work hours longer and makes employees overloaded with different kinds of
work. This in fact results in budget efficiency for costs and services, and even the budget in
Ministries/Institutions has been cut to handle the pandemic.
Private sectors prefer to use ICT in their work so it is possible to do work wherever
and whenever they want. Those with positive opinions about the application of WfH
thought that WfH offers effectiveness, efficiency, time savings, productivity, a comfortable
atmosphere, and high flexibility. Meanwhile, WfH was considered negative by some of
the respondents because they become bored easily, they need a special policy for it, their
electricity and Internet bills increase, they cannot work optimally because of not being in
the office, and it takes time to adapt to a new habit. The findings related to WfH improving
productivity were proved with statistics [8].
In this research, the positive side was also shown with the idea that WfH is seen to
be efficient, as stated by 60% of the respondents. Meanwhile, 40% had a different opinion.
Most of the respondents who agreed with WfH were those working as private employees
whose work does not make direct contact with others. However, they hoped for additional
facilities from their office to support WfH. Meanwhile, those who did not think WfH is
efficient were those working as government employees whose work requires them to make
direct contact with others (such as public services and others). They were also worried that
their work was affected. Furthermore, both positive and negative impacts of WfH as stated
by the respondents are summarized in Table 1 below.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 11 of 17

Table 1. Positive and negative impacts of working from home.

Classification of Impacts of WfH Opinions about WfH

Effective, efficient, time saving, controllable,
Positive
productive, comfortable atmosphere, high flexibility
Bored, in need of special policy, higher bill (electricity,
Negative Internet), not optimal at work because of not being in an
office, need more time for adaptation
Source: questionnaire survey through Google Forms, 2020.

WfH is seen to give more benefits, such as cost efficiency, reduced allowance, efficiency
in office expenditures (electricity, paper, ink, etc.), reduced pollution, reduced garbage
production, and reduced risk of traffic accidents and disease spread. In addition, improving
harmony in families can also be created. The performance of government employees is
measurable because all those working with technology are recorded and attached with
a log that is also measurable. On the other hand, the reduced time to communicate with
colleagues is expected to be able to increase employees’ productivity at a distance. This will
be achieved with WfH because the work is done without help at home. Meanwhile, from
the company’s perspective, cost efficiency can really be achieved by hiring individuals
willing to work from home [32]. This may be due to the potential for efficiency by not
providing office space for those working from home. The changing opinions on the use
of ICT as a means of accessing the Internet for consumptive to productive needs was
presented by one of the resource persons from the GIS consultancy in Jakarta.
According to resource person from the Civil Affairs Board in the Special Territory
of Yogyakarta, the aspects that need attention are the work structure (human resource,
provision, and cost) and suprastructure, such as the need for SPJ (Surat Pertanggungjawa-
ban/document stating responsibility). For example, because an electronic autograph still
cannot be accepted in several fields, an authorized official still needs to come to the office
to sign certain documents. There are several strategies and adaptations to support WfH
or new habits. The first is related to structure. There should be more IT technicians, a
process of “change management” with human resources specially assigned to keep up
with changes and the implementation of WfH, and budget support for any cost related
to changes. Suprastructure includes a policy supporting the implementation of several
applications, especially ones involving OPDs (Organisasi Perangkat Daerah/Organization
of Regional Units) in the Special Territory of Yogyakarta, city/regency government, and
stakeholders of Pentahelix, the collaboration of academics, businesses, communities, gov-
ernment, and media. The presence of a manual for work process changes internally applied
in the Provincial Government of the Special Territory of Yogyakarta is, for example, related
to the implementation of smart offices. Infrastructure includes increased capacity of the
server belonging to the provincial government of the Special Territory of Yogyakarta for
online services in the internal provincial government (applications, services for online
meetings, e-learning, etc.), from which there are 90 applications for public services. There
should be more infrastructure for Internet connection for society, businesses, education,
and other activities related to the economy.
The use of ICT, both hardware and applications, to support the effectiveness of WfH
is a necessity because it is seen as being able to facilitate employees. A total of 70% of the
respondents agreed that the use of ICT made their work easy to do from a distance and
they did not face any obstacles. Meanwhile, the rest of the respondents (30%) faced some
constraints due to bad Internet signal, and they relied on ICT to complete their work.
Efficiency in travel costs and travel hours was a positive opinion about WfH. Working
from home is considered to reduce travel, which results in reduced costs and time to travel.
Those involved in WfH are from various kinds of occupations. In this survey, they were
government employees (73%), private employees (16%), academics (4%), businesspeople
(2%), those working for the government but considered non-government employees (2%),
and those working for BUMN (state-owned enterprises) and BHMN (state-owned legal
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 12 of 17

entities) (1%). As many as 105 respondents admitted that they agree that WfH can save
travel hours to the workplace. Therefore, they can spend their reduced time doing other
work. In addition, WfH can also reduce travel costs to the workplace [8]. Efficiency in
travel cost to the workplace was revealed by 143 respondents.
Even though WfH is certainly done at home, it does not reduce the principle of
professionalism of the work itself. This is because the administration authority applied
work hours as long as 6–9 h during the implementation of WfH. This was shown by the
respondents, 83% of whom revealed that their work hours last between 6 and 9 h, 4% of
whom revealed their work hours last between 10 and 12 h, and 1% of whom revealed that
their work hours last for more than 12 h. Meanwhile, those who revealed that their work
hours last between 2 and 5 h were 12%. From the data processing of the questionnaire
results, it can be concluded that the application of the WfH system can reduce mobilization
from the workplace to the home or otherwise. This can be seen from the questionnaire
answers, where 27% of the respondents agreed and 63% of the respondents strongly agreed
that the application of WfH system can reduce mobilization from the workplace to the
home or otherwise.
As many as 176 respondents agreed that their mobilization to the office was in-
deed decreasing because of WfH during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, there were
52 respondents whose mobilization was only to the workplace or office, and 126 respon-
dents gave double answers. They included mobilization to the office and to the shopping
center and food court, which received decreasing visits during WfH (Table 2).

Table 2. Places with decreasing mobilization during the pandemic.

Places with Decreasing Mobilization during the Pandemic Number of Respondents

Office 52
Office and shopping center 10
Office, shopping center, and market 7
Office, shopping center, market, and food court 107
Source: questionnaire survey through Google Forms, 2020.

One of the factors causing decreasing mobilization during pandemic was that the
respondents began to get used to using online services to fulfill their needs during WfH.
This was stated by 79% of the respondents. Meanwhile, 21% of the respondents did not
make use of online services. There are several daily needs available online to support WfH
for employees. They include, for example, rice, vegetables, side dishes, vitamins, and fruits.
In addition, they are also in need of writing books, printers, hard disks, and Internet quotas.
Because of the reduction in mobilization, the productivity of WfH tended to increase. To
find out whether there is a correlation between reduced mobilization and productivity, a
chi square statistical assessment was conducted (Table 3).
The hypothesis determined in this assessment is as follows:

Hypothesis 1 (H1). There is no relation between the reduction in mobilization and the increase in
productivity during WfH (p > 0.05).

Hypothesis 2 (H2). There is a relation between the reduction in mobilization and the increase in
productivity during WfH (p < 0.05).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 13 of 17

Table 3. Correlation of the relation between the reduction in mobilization and the increase in
productivity during WfH.

Correlations
Productivity Mobility
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 0.2900 **
Productivity Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000
N 176 176
Kendall’s tau_b
Correlation Coefficient 0.290 ** 1.000
Mobility Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000
N 176 176
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 0.326 **
Productivity Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000
N 176 176
Spearman’s rho
Correlation Coefficient 0.326 ** 1.000
Mobility Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000
N 176 176
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Source: researchers’ analysis, 2020.

The value of significance described is 0.000, where x = 0.95 and p < 0.05. Thus, H0
was declined and Ha was accepted. The conclusion is that there is correlation between
the reduction in mobilization and increase in productivity during WfH. The strength of
correlation can be obtained from the value found for the correlation coefficient in the
Kendall’s Tau and Spearman’s Rho columns, as well. The values described were 0.290 and
0.326, respectively, and therefore it can be concluded that the reduction in mobilization and
increase in productivity during WfH are closely related. WfH can in fact increase work
productivity because of the reduced mobilization. The time that should be used to travel to
a workplace can be used to do other work.
Meanwhile, at the Ministry of State Apparatus Empowerment, ICT support was im-
plemented through the application of an SPBE (Sistem Pemerintah Berbasis Elektronik/
electronic-based administration system) in the new work system and Human Resource
Management apparatus. The electronic administrative services provided by the govern-
ment include e-office applications, communication and collaboration applications, and
other supporting applications. There are applications related to planning, personnel, elec-
tronic manuscripts, and complaints from society. There was a call center for complaints
from society and it became the center for all government authorities. In this ministry, a
paperless system that could make dispositions from anywhere was applied. Like what has
been applied at the Ministry of State Apparatus Empowerment, the management related to
employees at the Ministry of Communication and Information also uses the official website
gate, where video conferences and meetings using Simaya can be found. In the ministry,
the application generally used is an online internal application with which its employees
are familiar, and electronic autographs have also been implemented. The hardware used
includes smartphones, tablets, and PCs.
According to resource person from IT Consultant-Gamatechno, one of the WfH chal-
lenges is related to the work process of every employee. In addition to paying attention to
the desk of every employee, there are also several weaknesses, such as internal coordination
that should be done in the office, the channel of the documentation process (compiling,
revising, reviewing, and validating), problems with work units and infrastructure, and
external interaction because the output of their work cannot be separated from interaction
with external parties. In general, the policy of WfH that Gamatechno presented has several
points, namely, full WfH is applied to management and engineering, half WfH is applied
to non-engineering, and scheduling for employees on duty in the office is also applied. In
relation to target-based activity, there are several points, namely, the policy of having to be
present is not applied, transport benefits are accumulated into the monthly salary, and the
schedule of virtual coordination for every coordinating level is implemented.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 14 of 17

Then, in relation to the use of applications, Gamatechno is a firm specializing in the

field of IT and is used to using various kinds of application in its activities. The applications
used are the result of development by Gamatechno itself to support its work. In addition to
initially using Zoom, Gamatechno also uses a platform that it developed called AWOR. Like
the one the Ministry of Communication and Information uses, the platform Gamatechno
has developed is aimed at saving costs and replacing Zoom. The company even offers this
platform to the public to support WfH.
In addition to AWOR, which it uses to replace Zoom, Gamatechno also developed
Gtcrm for the interest of marketing. There is also a platform called Pakaryo, which is
used to give assignments to staff members whose duties are mobile outside the office.
Gamatechno also uses other applications called GTFinance and Lunaz. Thus, in general,
it is not a big problem for Gamatechno to do work in a remote manner. Gamatechno
made some initial policies, such as flexi working hours (the implementation of a flexible
work scheme for schedules and work locations), working adaptation (the improvement
of office design), and intensive remote working and tool optimalization (improvement of
integrating all digital tools).

3.4. The Use of ICT, Change of Workplace Orientation, and Sustainable Cities of the Future
Up until the first five months of 2021, the COVID-19 pandemic did not show any
signs of ending. This led us to take WfH into consideration. The results of the survey
show that when the COVID-19 pandemic ends there are two alternatives: working in the
office again or maintaining WfH. As a lesson from WfH during the COVID-19 pandemic,
73% of the respondents revealed that they still want to apply WfH and at the same time
also want to apply WfO in the future. To do so, in the future there are still many things
to improve, such as providing an application with integrated services that are online,
providing network access available throughout Indonesia, improving the digital mindset
and work patterns, providing ICT that is cheap and friendly to users, providing cheaper
Internet access, making more fixed regulations, and improving security of data. One
reason the respondents wanted to maintain WfH and WfO is that the combination of both
was seen as more effective and efficient in this case related to time and cost management
(transport and allowance), more flexible jobs, and minimizing boredom during work. An
increase in productivity during WfH may lead to an assumption that Indonesia is ready for
digital transformation.
By applying a WfH system, the use of hardware and ICT applications increases. This
means that facing Industry 4.0 and Society 5.0 is a big step for Indonesia. In the results
of the survey, it was found that 3% strongly agreed, 32% agreed, 16% did not agree,
44% were neutral, and 5% strongly did agree that WfH is able to increase the speed of
Indonesian industry to Industry 4.0 and Society 5.0. This is because of several reasons,
such as insufficient infrastructure and quality of human resources. The society did hope
that there would be support from the government to accelerate this transformation. The
support can be by providing an application with integrated services that are online, making
network access available throughout Indonesia, improving the digital mindset and work
patterns, providing ICT that is cheap and friendly to users, providing cheaper Internet
access, making more fixed regulations, and improving security of data. The same case is
also related to the motion of WfH during the era of the new normal. Most of the respondents
hoped there would be an improvement in ICT facilities so that the implementation of WfH
is more efficient. Meanwhile, in relation to WfO, almost all the respondents had the same
idea that health protocols still need to be maintained in any environment.
Sustainable cities in the future must pay attention to these changes. Among them
is accommodating the changes that have occurred due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This
research shows that there is a change in the workplace and the use of ICT to support
jobs. Both have an impact on decreasing the mobility of people. In the future, the concept
of working from home is highly recommended for big cities. This can sustain reduced
population mobilization, resulting in reduced congestion, reduced movement costs, and
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 15 of 17

efficiency in terms of working time due to reduced travel time. On the other hand, it can
reduce the need for office space. In addition to the massive work from home phenomenon
during the pandemic and the strengthening of the use of ICT, it is also possible that the
population will move from cities to suburbs and even to rural areas. The use of ICT enables
the decentralization [33,34] of office locations, business places, and residences from being
concentrated in the city center to moving to the suburbs or even rural areas [33]. There is a
spatial effect of ICTs on urban spatial structure, which is demonstrated by the existence of
a greater effect of decentralization than centralization [34].
At this time, the use of ICT is also being boosted by the COVID-19 pandemic, which
is forcing people to work at home with ICT. During the COVID-19 pandemic, symptoms
of population movement from cities to suburbs and rural areas emerged, because people
wanted “access to more space” and “easier social distance” [35]. It appears that the WfH
concept will be sustainable in the future. A survey conducted by the Pew Research Center
in December of more than 10,300 panelists found that 54% of Americans would consider
working from home after the COVID-19 pandemic ends [35]. It is possible that in the
future it will change the structure of urban space, where the city center has more roles for
government offices, central offices, and large-scale socio-economic services. Meanwhile,
the addition of small offices and space for shops/retail will not occur, considering that
currently there is a strengthening of the existence of virtual offices and e-shopping. There
needs to be a proper understanding of the relationship between ICT and urban spatial
structure, which is considered very important for city planners [34]. However, in the future,
city planners also need to pay attention to changes in the use of urban space by increasing
phenomena of work from home patterns supported by the use of ICT. However, for urban
planners and practitioners, foresight for contemporary cities presents difficulties when
trying to imagine the future to make long-term development decisions [36].

4. Conclusions
Mapping using Google Community Mobility Report data clearly shows changes in
the workplace during the COVID-19 pandemic because of implementation of a work from
home system. In the case of Indonesia, changes in the workplace are highly visible in the
distribution of big cities such as Java and Bali, which are the centers of government and
economic activities. The coverage of WfH is that entire jobs that can be done at home
with the use of ICT hardware. WfH is adapted to the work pattern and location in a
flexible way to in-crease and maintain productivity, effectiveness, and efficiency, and so
the continuation of task implementation and the function of an administrative authority
can be guaranteed. The lesson from WfH during the COVID-19 pandemic is that the
desire to keep implementing WfH beside WfO in the future is very strong. Therefore, in
the future there are still many things to improve, such as the importance of providing
integrated service applications with an online basis and network access available in more
areas in Indonesia. In addition, a digital mindset, work patterns, ICT provision that is more
affordable and friendlier to users, inexpensive Internet access, fixed regulations, and data
security need to be improved as well. Furthermore, the concept of working from home is
highly recommended to be applied in big cities, especially to reduce congestion problems
and limited space for movement, as well as the need for work space. The phenomena
that occurred related to the COVID-19 pandemic and the change in work place need to be
considered in future city planning as well as sustainable cities of the future. This study has
limitations in terms of collecting data from a questionnaire survey that only received a total
of 176 respondents, although the results are considered to be able to provide an overview
regarding WfH and the use of ICT. However, more data collection will certainly contribute
to a better analysis. Meanwhile, further research needs to be conducted related to WfH in
the post-COVID-19 pandemic period.
Nevertheless, the results of this study indicate that the existence of work from home,
which was supported by the use of ICT during the COVID-19 pandemic, has an impact
on reducing the movement of the population from home to work. With ICT, most work
Sustainability 2021, 13, 6760 16 of 17

can be done at home. The positive impact is on reducing traffic congestion, reducing air
pollution, and reducing the need for space for offices. This will lead to a reduction in the
burden on cities in the future by reducing the accumulation of activity in the city center.
The results show that by implementing work from home, an effort in achieving sustainable
cities, especially in terms of urban environmental management and spatial planning, will
certainly be easier.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.R.; methodology, R.R. and R.A.G.; validation, R.R.,
U.C. and R.A.G.; formal analysis, R.R. and R.A.G.; investigation, R.R., U.C., Z.A.P. and Y.A.S.; data
curation, R.R., U.C., Z.A.P., Y.A.S. and R.A.G.; writing—original draft preparation, R.R., U.C., Z.A.P.,
Y.A.S. and R.A.G.; writing—review and editing, R.R. and U.C.; visualization, R.R. and R.A.G.; funding
acquisition, R.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The research was funded by Graduate School on Environmental Science, Universitas Gad-
jah Mada, Indonesia, through the 2020 research grant scheme, grant number 1717/UN1/SPs/SDM/
PT/2020.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the Graduate School on Environmental Science, Uni-
versitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia. Thanks also go to the reviewers for their comments to improve
the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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