5 Dermatology

HC Williams

1 Summary

Introduction

This chapter sets out the major issues which health service purchasers need to consider in specifying services
for people with skin problems. Skin disease is very common, affecting around one-quarter to one-third of the
population. Apart from being the largest organ in the body, the skin has a vital social function and relatively
minor skin complaints often cause more anguish to people than other more serious medical disorders. With
the exception of melanoma skin cancer, the majority of skin diseases are not life threatening. However it is the
product of this morbidity multiplied by the high prevalence of skin disease which results in a large burden of
disease in absolute terms. Small changes in health policy could have large health and financial implications
simply because they affect so many people.

Increase in future demand

Demand for dermatological services is likely to increase over the next decade for the following reasons.

1 There is a large iceberg of unmet dermatological need Previous surveys have suggested that
approximately one-quarter of the population has a skin problem which could benefit from medical care,
yet about 80% do not seek medical help. With increased public and professional awareness of effective
treatment this submerged sector of the population is likely to surface and place heavy demands on the
current system.
2 The prevalence of some of the commonest skin diseases is increasing Three of the commonest
and most costly skin diseases, viz skin cancer (a Health of the Nation target), atopic eczema and venous
ulcers are becoming more common and are set to consume a higher proportion of scarce resources within
future health services budgets.
3 The distinction between skin disease and ‘cosmetic’ skin problems is unclear Even a small
reduction in the threshold of what the public and health professionals regard as a skin complaint worthy
of medical attention could lead to a large increase in future dermatology service requirements. The
division between what constitutes reasonable need (e.g. somebody worried that a mole may be cancerous)
and demand (e.g. somebody requesting removal of an ‘ugly’ mole) is especially blurred in dermatology.
262 Dermatology

Over 1000 skin diseases

Making generalizations about the need for dermatology services is difficult with such a vast range of
disorders. Fortunately around 70% of the dermatological workload in primary and secondary care in the UK
is currently taken up by just nine categories of skin disorders and effective treatments are available at low cost
for the majority of these. The disorders covered include:

● skin cancer
● acne
● atopic eczema
● psoriasis
● viral warts
● other infective skin disorders
● benign tumours and vascular lesions
● leg ulceration
● contact dermatitis and other eczemas.

Priorities in ensuring a quality future service

Most people with skin diseases can be treated in the community but some will always require specialist
services because of diagnostic difficulties or disease severity. Many skin diseases, especially skin cancer, are
theoretically preventable but prevention programmes have not yet been evaluated adequately. There is
reasonably good evidence to support the effectiveness of most treatments used for the common skin disease
sub-categories. Less is known about the differential health gain of specialists versus generalists in the
diagnosis and treatment of common skin diseases. The diagnosis and surgical removal of skin cancer is best
carried out by, or with the involvement, of dermatologists. Retention of a central core of hospital-based
dermatological medical and nursing expertise is essential and there is considerable scope for improving and
expanding links between specialist and community services to provide seamless care for patients and for
developing strategies aimed at disease prevention. Three models of health care are considered in this chapter
in relation to dermatology services.

1 The current system which offers the least flexibility to predicted future trends in need and demand.
2 A model where dermatologists conduct community ‘outreach’ clinics; an approach of unproven benefit
to patients which would require a costly four-fold increase in dermatologists.
3 A hybrid model consisting of hospital-based dermatology assessment centres, community-based
treatment centres run by dermatology nurses accountable to district dermatology liaison teams and
shared care clinics for common chronic skin diseases seen in primary care. This model offers the most
flexibility and potential health gain building on local skills for a modest investment.

Despite the magnitude of skin disease morbidity in the general population, health services research for
dermatological disorders has been minimal. Urgent research into the prevalence, incidence and cost of skin
diseases is required in order to formulate public health strategies to respond to the impending crisis of
increased demand for services. Public involvement in distinguishing between need and demand is crucial and
this may vary considerably throughout the UK according to the demographic mix of the population.
 Dermatology 263

2 Introduction and statement of the problem

General approach

The main purpose of this chapter is to help health care purchasers to develop purchasing plans for
dermatology based on epidemiological data. Attempting to cover the entire range of a thousand or so
dermatological diseases is akin to trying to cover the whole of general medicine in a single chapter. Each of the
sub-categories of skin disease mentioned here merits a chapter in its own right because of the high prevalence
and economic importance of each of these disease groups. However dermatology services have traditionally
been considered as a single group and an attempt will be made to provide an overview of skin diseases in
general at the expense of some of loss of detail for individual skin diseases. Despite the high prevalence of skin
disease no NHS reports have ever been commissioned for skin disease and the inclusion of skin disease in this
volume is to be welcomed as a promising start.

What is dermatology?

Dermatology is the study of the skin and associated structures such as hair and nails. The skin is not a simple
inert covering but a sensitive dynamic boundary between ourselves and the outside world. Its functions
include defence against infections and infestations, protection against irritants, ultraviolet radiation and
trauma. The skin is essential for controlling water and heat loss and it is an important sensory organ which
distinguishes pain, touch, itching and heat and cold. Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin. The skin is also an
important organ of social and sexual contact. Perhaps the greatest disability of all is to be unwelcome and to
have no confidence in one’s appearance. In addition to the epidermis and dermis, the skin contains other
structures including hair, blood vessels, nerves, sweat and sebaceous glands, all of which can become
involved separately or in combination to produce a wide range of skin diseases such as alopecia, vasculitis,
generalized pruritus, hyperhidrosis and acne. Skin failure is as worthy of medical attention as cardiac or renal
1
failure and encompasses all of the functions described above.

Why is dermatology important?

Skin disease which might benefit from medical care is very common, affecting around 22.5–33% of the
2,3
population at any one time. Historically there has been a tendency to trivialize skin disease within the
medical profession and accord it a low priority in research programmes. However the public and those
involved in primary care have a very different view. The psychological effects of relatively minor skin
1
complaints can often cause more distress to the public than other more serious medical disorders.
Whilst it is true that most skin diseases are not life threatening the product of high disease prevalence and
low morbidity still results in a large burden of disease in absolute terms. Minor changes in health policy such
as campaigns to increase public awareness of the potential dangers of pigmented lesions, have large health
and financial implications simply because they affect so many people. In addition several important skin
4 5 6
diseases such as skin cancer, venous ulcers and atopic eczema are becoming more common and these are set
to consume a higher proportion of scarce resources in future health services budgets.
Although skin disease is very common, only a fraction of people with skin conditions currently seek
medical help. Even so skin conditions were the fourth most common reason for people consulting with
7
general practitioners (GPs) in England and Wales in 1991/92, accounting for at least 1500 consultations per
8
10 000 person–years at risk. Skin conditions comprise 4.4% of all medical outpatient activity and around
264 Dermatology

9 10
1.6% of all hospital bed occupancy. Skin disease accounts for 0.46% of all deaths at all ages from all causes.
10
Melanoma skin cancer alone accounted for 1142 deaths in England and Wales in 1992; one-half of whom
were in younger economically active age groups. Skin disease is one of the commonest reasons for injury and
11,12
disablement benefit and spells of certified incapacity to work in the UK. Total direct NHS expenditure
for diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues in 1994 (excluding outpatient consultations) was estimated
to be around £617 million, approximately 2% of total NHS health expenditure.

Where does skin disease begin and general medicine end?

Because the skin is a large and visible organ which is in direct contact with the outside environment, it has
been possible to observe and describe a vast range of disease reaction patterns affecting the skin, hair and
nails. Unlike most other medical specialties which usually cite around 50 diseases, dermatology has a
13
complement of between 1000 to 2000 conditions. Most of the major systemic diseases (e.g. infectious,
vascular and connective tissue diseases) have manifestations which frequently affect the skin and, conversely,
skin failure (e.g. caused by a severe drug reaction) has many systemic effects ranging from dehydration to
heart failure, septicaemia and death. The division into what should be considered purely as a ‘skin disease’ is
necessarily arbitrary.

The problem of defining need

14
The accepted definition of need as ‘the population’s ability to benefit from health care’ is not helpful in
distinguishing between genuine medical need and demand that is not needed within dermatology. People
who do not like the cosmetic appearance of a facial mole or a large seborrhoeic wart certainly ‘benefit from
health care’ and express a high degree of satisfaction when such lesions are removed within the NHS.
Although some might feel that such procedures should not be performed within the NHS, the concept of
what constitutes a ‘dis-ease’ is largely couched in social terms and it is essential that both purchasers and
providers are aware of the public’s perception of what constitutes dermatological need and demand. Twenty
years ago many cases of acne were ignored despite effective treatment being available as acne was considered
to be relatively minor by physicians. The key issue is for physicians, purchasers and members of the public to
work together closely in order to develop clearer guidelines as to what should constitute reasonable need for
NHS dermatology services so that a system can be developed which is both fair and explicit. Because of the
subtle ways in which skin diseases affect individuals and society, definition of dermatological need is best
14,15
viewed as a corporate process which should be reviewed periodically to incorporate developments in
treatment and social attitudes towards the skin.

Why should further research concern purchasers?

Some of the recommendations in this chapter refer to the urgent need for research in estimating the need,
supply and demand of dermatology health requirements in the UK. Although this may not at first appear to
fall within the remit of purchasers covering limited geographical areas, without such vital and up-to-date
information it is impossible to formulate an appropriate purchasing strategy. Simple epidemiological studies
of skin disease conducted at a regional level are basic requirements of health care which could be built into
purchasing contracts. Without such evidence-based health technology the potential for wastage of health
care services is large.
 Dermatology 265

Classification of skin diseases

16
The rationale for classification of skin disease is currently a mixture of symptom-based terms such as
‘general pruritus’, purely descriptive terms such as ‘papuloerythroderma’ (literally meaning protruding
spots on a red background), terms of anatomical distribution (e.g. leg ulcer), terms which refer to the
pathology as seen on histological examination (e.g. histiocytoma), immunological staining pattern (e.g. linear
IgA disease), genetic terms (e.g. X-linked ichthyosis), terms which utilize elements of disability (e.g. hand
dermatitis) and uppermost on the nosological hierarchy, terms which imply a cause (e.g. vinyl chloride
disease or herpes simplex).

Methods of skin disease classification

International Classification for Diseases version 9

17
The important ICD 9 codes for skin diseases are listed in Appendix I. A very detailed alphabetical list of
18
over 3000 dermatological categories found in ICD 9 has been published by Alexander and Shrank.
Cutaneous manifestations have been described in almost all diseases which affect human populations.
Appendix I should therefore be viewed as a minimum list which identifies the most important and common
skin diseases.
The usefulness of the ICD 9 chapter on diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues is discussed in more
detail in Appendix I. It is at best only a very crude indicator of skin disease. The problems encountered with
nebulous disease codes and exclusion of important skin complaints such as skin cancer and localized
infections and the inappropriate inclusion of some ‘surgical’ disorders such as finger abscess make regional
comparisons of common skin diseases difficult.
The system does not distinguish the serious from the trivial and it does not permit separation of conditions
which may or may not benefit from available health care.

International Classification for Diseases version 10

Relevant codes are outlined in Appendix I. The ICD 10 chapter for diseases of the skin and subcutaneous
19–20
tissues contains a more comprehensive listing of relevant skin diseases than ICD 9 (L00 to L99), and
exclusions to this section are clearly listed in the handbook.20 Many rare skin diseases are listed in great detail,
whereas the listings for the commonest disease groupings may be less useful in operative terms. Anomalies
exist, such as the classification of atopic dermatitis (one of the commonest reasons for consultation) into many
categories of obscure clinical significance (L20.0 Besnier’s prurigo – a term used in some European countries
which is synonymous with atopic dermatitis; L20.8 Other atopic dermatitis: flexural, infantile and intrinsic
and L20.9 Atopic dermatitis unspecified). In contradistinction basal and squamous cell carcinoma of the
skin, the commonest forms of cancer to affect the UK population, are not differentiated (both C44) but are
separated by site codes.

Diagnosis-related classifications
The British Association of Dermatology (BAD) has formed a diagnostic coding group21 in conjunction with
22
the clinical terms project of the NHS centre for coding and classification (Read Codes). The result of this
endeavour is a very detailed, comprehensive hierarchical classification structure for skin diseases designed by
dermatologists for use by UK dermatologists. The disease classifications are logically ordered and
sub-categories are based on aetiology and anatomical site. This coding index also offers the opportunity for
266 Dermatology

revision and updating at frequent intervals and it should be possible in the future to cross-map the BAD
diagnostic codes to ICD 10 via Read Codes. The BAD diagnostic coding index is primarily intended for use
by dermatologists and it is perhaps too detailed for use in primary care e.g. acne alone has 35 different
categories.
In addition to the BAD coding index a detailed lexicon of dermatological terms has been allocated to ICD
10 codes, in conjunction with the International League for Dermatological Societies (of which the BAD is a
member). This is yet to be published partly because the authors are awaiting confirmation of appropriateness
of ICD 10 codes from the statistical division of the WHO (A Shrank, personal written communication,
December 1994). The new lexicon of dermatological terms should represent a considerable improvement
over ICD 9 for those seeking more comprehensive dermatology data from international data sources which
use ICD classifications.

Other diagnostic coding systems

The four national morbidity surveys from general practice have utilized the Royal College of General
5
Practitioner’s diagnostic codes for skin disease. These are broadly similar to ICD 9 codes with an added
advantage of including disease severity status.

Summary

● Dermatology covers a wide range of over 1000 disorders affecting the skin, hair and nails.
● Skin disease is common and consumes a significant amount of NHS resources.
● Since the causes of many skin diseases are unknown, current methods of classifying skin disease are a
hybrid of systems based on symptoms, signs, pathology, anatomical site, mode of inheritance and
aetiology.
● The ICD 9 codes for ‘diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues’ are of limited use but those categories
highlighted in Appendix I are likely to cover the nine most common disease sub-categories.
● ICD 10 codes for ‘diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues’ are more comprehensive than ICD 9 but
they still do not include some common skin infections, infestations and benign and malignant skin
tumours, which form a large portion of dermatological workload.
● The BAD diagnostic coding index is likely to be a useful tool for recording diagnosis of skin conditions
seen by specialists.

3 Sub-categories
The following skin diseases are dealt with in full because:

● they are common

● collectively they account for around 70% of consultations in primary and secondary care 23–27
● some data on the prevalence and effectiveness of services for these sub-categories are available
● the categories may correspond to purchasers’ targets such as skin cancer.4
 Dermatology 267

The diseases discussed are:

● skin cancer (including melanoma)

● acne
● atopic eczema
● psoriasis
● viral warts
● other infective skin conditions
● benign tumours and vascular lesions
● leg ulceration
● contact dermatitis and other eczemas.

Two potential problems exist with the proposed sub-categories:

1 Oversimplification is a danger to purchasers and consideration needs to be given to further diagnostic

groups and severity gradings within these sub-categories. For example the sub-category ‘skin cancer’
includes several types of neoplasm ranging from very benign slow-growing lesions such as carcinoma in
situ, to metastatic melanoma which is invariably fatal. Similarly acne can range from a physiological
disorder of excessive greasiness of the skin with a few comedones (blackheads), to a severe nodulocystic
process resulting in extensive permanent scarring and severe psychological disability. The corollary is
that a patient with severe acne might be seen more quickly than someone with carcinoma in situ under the
28
appropriate circumstances.
2 In considering the sub-categories it is important to be aware that services for some skin diseases included
in the remaining 30% of ‘other disorders’ seen by health practitioners are also important. Some common
skin disorders such as urticaria and vitiligo fall into this group. Also within this group are rare but
extremely disabling or fatal conditions such as epidermolysis bullosa (an inherited blistering disorder),
life-threatening drug reactions and other immunobullous disorders such as pemphigus which virtually
always require some form of specialist intervention.

4 Prevalence and incidence

Prevalence

Special surveys

Self-reported skin disease

In 1986 the Proprietary Association of Great Britain commissioned a detailed nationwide survey of 1217
adults and the parents of 342 children to determine how people in the UK manage minor ailments and some
29
chronic recurring illness.

Skin complaints were the most common ailment reported in the last two weeks, affecting 25% of 6009
adult ‘ailments’ and 36% of 806 child ‘ailments’.

In addition to estimating the age and sex-specific incidence of skin complaints over a two-week period (Table
II.1), the study provides a useful estimate of the proportion of skin complaints that are not considered by the
public to be sufficiently severe to seek medical care and the potential service implication should that
threshold change. For example of the 291 people complaining of acne/spots/greasy skin; 47% took no
action, 34% used or bought an over the counter (OTC) preparation and 12% used medicines prescribed by a
doctor, the remaining 7% using home remedies.
268 Dermatology

Similar proportions of self-reported skin disease in the last two weeks have been recorded in two earlier
30,31
studies. A survey in Gothenburg, Sweden of 20 000 randomly chosen residents aged 20–65 years found
32
that 27% of females and 25% of males reported symptoms of skin disease in the last 12 months.

Examined skin disease

Only one study in the UK has ever estimated the prevalence of skin diseases in the general population
according to some form of physical examination. In 1975 Rea et al. sent a questionnaire on skin symptoms to a
2
stratified sample of 2180 adults in Lambeth, London. All positive respondents and one-fifth of those
responding negatively were then interviewed and examined at home by a team of seven doctors and 11 nurses
trained in the recognition of common skin disorders. Only exposed skin (face, scalp, neck, forearms, hands,
knees and lower legs) was examined and the overall response rate was 90.5%. Because of difficulties in
agreeing on objective criteria for skin disease severity, skin disease was classified into trivial (not justifying
medical attention), moderate (justifying medical attention) and severe (needing early medical attention
because of severe symptoms or risk of progression) based upon the judgement of the examiner. Medical need
in this study was therefore defined as those people, who, in the opinion of a team of four dermatologists, three
GPs and 11 nurses, had a skin condition ‘justifying medical attention’. Such a normative definition is
probably an unstable one, depending upon prevailing medical opinion, accuracy of diagnosis and knowledge
of effective treatment. There is some evidence in this study that the dermatologists were more likely to
categorize conditions as moderate/severe when compared with the other observers. The key findings of this
study were as follows.

● The overall proportion of the population found to have any form of skin disease was 55% (95%
confidence intervals 49.6 to 61.3%).
● The overall proportion considered to have skin disease worthy of medical care (i.e. moderate or severe)
was 22.5% (95% confidence intervals 17.8 to 27.2%).

The breakdown according to broad diagnostic group by sex is summarized in Table 1.

The group containing tumours and naevi has the highest overall prevalence (20.5%) but 90% were
considered as trivial by the examiners. In the eczema group on the other hand, with an overall prevalence of
9%, more than two-thirds were graded as moderate/severe so that the highest prevalence of conditions
justifying medical care fell into this group (6.1%). The prevalence of skin disease according to severity and
age group (children were not included in this study) is shown in Table II.2. Clear age trends emerge for
specific disease groupings e.g. acne and warts in younger age groups, although age, sex and social class trends
were not found when all forms of skin disease were considered together since several conditions had trends in
opposite directions.
Usage of medical care was also recorded in this study (Table II.3). The key findings were that:

● of those with moderate/severe skin disease, only 24% made use of any medical service in the past six
months
● a further 30% used self-medication
● around 20% of those with moderate/severe conditions had consulted their GP and 7% had been referred
for specialist help
● medical usage was still considerable for those with trivial skin disease with 10% using medical services
and 33% self-medicating.
 Dermatology 269

Table 1: Prevalence of examined skin disease expressed as rates for 1000 in a survey of 2180 adults in Lambeth2
Skin condition Both sexes Male Female
All Mod- All Mod- All Mod-
grades erate grades erate grades erate
and and and
severe severe severe
Tumours and vascular 204.7 14.1 141.9 0.6 264.1 26.8
lesions
Eczema 90.1 61.2 99.5 80.2 81.1 43.4
Acne 85.9 34.6 109.0 34.5 64.1 34.7
Scaly dermatoses 84.7 28.7 118.3 39.2 53.0 18.9
Scalp and hair disorders 82.1 13.6 79.0 7.9 95.0 18.9
Prurigo and allied 82.1 38.9 60.8 16.9 95.0 59.6
conditions
Erythematous and other 75.0 21.4 30.9 20.8 116.8 22.0
dermatoses
Infective and parasitic 46.0 6.7 48.2 10.9 43.9 2.8
conditions
Warts 34.3 1.5 35.9 – 32.8 2.8
Nail disorders 33.0 18.8 23.9 12.5 41.8 24.8
Psoriasis 15.8 5.8 24.4 3.7 7.7 7.7
Mouth and tongue disorders 8.9 0.7 15.4 – 2.7 1.3
Chronic ulcer 1.7 – 3.5 – – –
Any skin condition 554.7 225.0 479.1 213.0 606.7 236.0
(495.9– (178.2– (399.7– (164.4– (520.0– (170.1–
613.5) 271.8) 558.5) 279.6) 693.3) 301.9)

Despite the large number of observers, limited nature of the skin examinations and ambiguous definition of
medical need, this important study suggests that:

● skin conditions that may benefit from medical care are extremely common in the community
● most sufferers do not seek medical help.

Given the scarcity of epidemiological data on skin disease within the UK, mention should also be made of
another detailed cross-sectional study of skin diseases contained within the first US Health and Nutrition
3
Examination Survey (NHANES).
This study was conducted on a representative population sample of 20 749 persons aged one to 74 years
from 65 primary sampling units throughout the US during 1971–74 and included a detailed structured skin
examination by 101 dermatologists. Clinical findings were backed by laboratory investigations such as
mycology culture and skin biopsy where possible. The following indicate that significant skin pathology is
common.

● Nearly one-third (312.4 per 1000 population) had one or more significant skin conditions which was
considered by the dermatologist to be worthy of evaluation by a physician at least once (Table III.1).
● The prevalence of significant skin pathology increased rapidly with age (Figure III.1) from 142.3 per 1000
children aged 1–5 years to 362.0 per 1000 youths age 1–17 years and to 365.2 per 1000 young adults aged
18–24 years, due primarily to the increase in acne at puberty.
270 Dermatology

● After a slight decline at age 25–34 years the prevalence of skin pathology again increases steadily
reflecting the increase in chronic diseases such as psoriasis, vitiligo, malignant and benign tumours,
actinic and seborrhoeic keratoses.
● In this study significant skin pathology was slightly commoner in males (Table III.2).
● An additional 12.5% of the population were deemed to have a skin condition that was clinically inactive at
the time of examination.

Minor degrees of skin disease or abnormalities were also recorded by the dermatologists for each disease
group and these are shown in Table III.3. There was a considerable mismatch between what the
dermatologists considered to represent medical need and the population’s concerns.

● Nearly one-third (31%) of persons with significant skin pathology diagnosed by the dermatologists
expressed concern about these specific skin conditions, whereas nearly 18% of those who complained
about their skin conditions were not considered as serious by the dermatologists.

The following findings were found in relation to disability and handicap.

● Skin conditions were reported to limit activity in 10.5 per 1000 of the population aged 1–74 years, or 9%
of those persons with such skin conditions.
● About 10% of those persons with skin complaints considered the condition to be a handicap to their
employment or housework and 1% considered themselves severely handicapped.
● About one-third (33%) of those persons with skin conditions indicated that the condition(s) was a
handicap in their social relations.
● The dermatological examiner rated more than two-thirds of those persons with skin complaints as
disfigured to some extent from the condition and about one-fifth of those were rated moderately or
severely disfigured.
● More than half of those persons with skin complaints reported some overall discomfort from the
condition such as itching or burning.
● An estimated 62.8 per 1000 US population (or 56% of those with skin complaints) indicated that the
conditions were recurrent, with 49% active in the preceding seven to 12 months.

The following outlines findings for sub-optimal care.

● Only one-fifth of those with significant skin pathology were considered by the dermatologist to be
receiving optimal care.
● Of the remaining 81% who were not receiving optimal care nearly all (94%) could, in the judgement of
the survey dermatologists, be improved with more expert care (84% in pre-school children to 96%
among the elderly).
● Nearly one-fourth (23.9%) of adults aged 18–74 years of age with significant skin pathology indicated
that their condition might have been caused or worsened by occupational exposures.

The following information was found on medical advice.

● About one-half of the US population aged 1–74 years of age with skin complaints had not sought medical
advice for the problem.
● Males were more likely than females to not seek medical advice (56 compared with 44% respectively).
● Nearly 15% were given inadequate medical advice in the view of the dermatologist in those who received
medical advice.
● About 6% did not co-operate with the doctors they had consulted.
 Dermatology 271

To minimize examiner variability in this study the 101 dermatologist examiners underwent a training period
and findings were recorded on a structured form. Even so there was considerable variation between these
dermatologists in the degree to which they recorded banal lesions such as freckles and normal variations.
Age-adjusted prevalence rates of significant skin pathology ranged from zero to 90.4% according to the
examiner, the average being 31.2%. The range in the proportion expressing complaints about skin
conditions to the examiner was from 0 to 70.8%, the average being 11.4%. The study is therefore limited by
the wide variation in what the 101 dermatologist examiners considered as need and physicians’ views might
have changed since the early 1970s. Given the predominantly private care system in the US, it is also possible
that US dermatologists had a lower threshold than UK dermatologists for what skin conditions might benefit
from medical intervention. Nevertheless the study provides us with the most detailed account of skin
pathology and its relation to disability and health-seeking behaviour to date. Population surveys in other
33–35
European countries have indicated a similar high prevalence of skin disease in the community.

Summary of prevalence studies of skin diseases in general

● There are no recent population studies on the need, supply and demand for skin care in the UK.
● Studies conducted in the UK and US 20 years ago suggest that skin disease is very common, affecting
around one-quarter to one-third of the population at any one time.
● Around 10% of those with skin disease report that the condition seriously interferes with their activities.
● Only 20% of those with a skin condition which might benefit from medical care sought medical help in
the UK.
● Around 10% of those with trivial skin conditions also seek medical help.
● Region of residence, sex, age, social class, ethnic group, skin type, occupation and leisure activities are all
important determinants of skin disease prevalence in the UK.
● Generalizations about the determinants of the entire range of skin diseases are limited because subgroups
may exhibit trends in opposite directions.

Routinely collected data

Morbidity statistics
Most morbidity data refer to those who seek medical help in the primary care setting. With the exception of a
few conditions such as cellulitis where incidence and demand are closely related, the extent to which routine
morbidity data reflect demand or genuine dermatological need is unclear. Despite these limitations routine
5,7,36,37
statistics such as the four morbidity surveys from general practice are useful in that they provide us
with an estimate of the magnitude and determinants of those who seek medical care. Data validity is
discussed in Appendix IV. Patient consulting rates in general practice for diseases of the skin and
subcutaneous tissues have steadily increased over the last 40 years as shown in Figure 1, although some of
5,7
these changes could be due to differences in the age structure of the populations studied.
37
In the second general practice morbidity survey of 1970–72 diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues
were among the top eight reasons for people seeking help, accounting for 6.5% of patient contact. The
referral rate for specialist opinion for those who contacted their GP because of a skin problem was 4.5 per
100. A more detailed social class analysis revealed very little difference in consultation rates between social
classes defined by occupation and marital status. Benign skin neoplasms had a higher standardized patient
272 Dermatology

150

145.5a
GP skin consultation rate (per 1000/year)

140

130

120

117.8

110
110.8

105.6

100
1955 1971 1981 1991
Survey period
aaPer
Per 1000
1000 person–years
persons–years

Figure 1: Increase in consulting rates in general practice for diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue over
the last 40 years.
Source: Data obtained from the four general practitioner morbidity surveys.5,7,36,37

consultation ratio in the non-manual classes (especially men) and in manual classes for women. There was
little evidence to support differences in urban and rural consultation rates.
5
In the third 1981/82 morbidity survey diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues were one of the ten
most common diagnoses made in general practice. Around 6% of all GP diagnoses made in the RCGP study
involved the skin and 5% of these were referred for specialist opinion, a similar proportion to other
specialties.
7
Data from the fourth national morbidity study by GPs in England and Wales (1991/92) show that about
15% of the population per year seek advice regarding conditions relating to the skin or subcutaneous tissues
(the fourth commonest reason for seeking GP advice). These estimates are to be viewed as a minimum since
they exclude those consulting for skin neoplasms and some skin infections such as herpes simplex. The
average number of consultations per person–year for each skin condition was 1.26. Approximately 3.5%,
7.6% and 4.9% of people consulted their GP each year because of skin infections, inflammatory skin
conditions and ‘other diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues’ respectively. Around 2% of the
population consulted about eczema/dermatitis and 0.75% for psoriasis.
Although none of the skin conditions seen in this survey were considered life threatening, only
one-quarter of the skin conditions were considered by GPs to be minor in severity (defined as commonly
treated without recourse to medical advice or requiring no specific treatment). This survey covered around
half a million people in 60 practices in England and Wales and had a bias towards larger, computerized
practices with younger principals. Around 4.2% of those with a skin complaint were referred for specialist
opinion from the survey practices. When compared with the 1981/82 survey there was a 24% increase in
consultation rates for those aged five to 14/15 years of age and a 16% increase for those aged 15/16 to 24
38
years of age, compared with a 8% and 7% increase for all diseases within each age group. Table 2 shows
 Dermatology 273

age-specific consultation rates for diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues (excluding skin tumours and
7
some infections) for 1991/92. Highest consultation rates are found in the very young, followed by a decline
and subsequent smaller peak in the 16–24 year age group. Consultation rates remain lower throughout
adulthood except for a more progressive increase with increasing age above 65.
Table 2: Patients consulting GPs for diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues of minor and intermediate
severity in 1991/92 expressed as rates per 10000 person–years at risk7
Chapter XII Total Age
0–4 5–15 16–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75–84 85+
Total 1455 2715 1418 1697 1288 1177 1387 1472 1613
Intermediate 1100 2295 1014 1339 950 852 1044 1110 1235
Minor 455 602 498 477 421 407 451 473 506

Mortality and skin disease

Overall mortality is relatively low for skin diseases, accounting for at least 2578 deaths in 1992 (or 0.46% of
deaths from all causes and all ages).10 Melanoma skin cancer alone accounted for a total of 1142 deaths in
10
England and Wales in 1992 (565 male and 577 female), with 48% occurring in economically active adults.
Other malignant neoplasms of the skin (basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and cutaneous
lymphoma) accounted for 298 male deaths and 222 female deaths in 1992. Six deaths were recorded for
10
‘benign’ neoplasms of the skin in 1992.
Mortality from skin diseases other than skin cancer has increased slightly over the last ten years. In 1991
there were 240 male deaths due to diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues and 688 female deaths; a 20%
39
relative increase when compared with 1988. Chronic ulcer of the skin accounted for two-thirds of the female
39
deaths (an increase of 19% from 386 deaths in 1990 mainly due to women aged 80 and over).

Pharmaceutical services
In the 1992 Health Survey for England40 skin disease was the sixth commonest reason for issuing a
prescription, yet it represented one of the lowest cost per items when compared with other prescribed
medicines, with an average gross ingredient cost of £4.49 compared with £8.15 for respiratory disorders and
£13.47 for gastrointestinal disorders.
In 1993 total prescription costs for dermatology (all items included in BNF Chapter 13) amounted to
£143.6 million (Prescription Pricing Authority, written communication, 1994). This compares with OTC
29
sales of skin and acne preparations of £138.8 million in 1993. Over-the-counter sales of skin and acne
preparations represented an 18.2% increase compared with 1992, due mainly to OTC treatments for vaginal
thrush and topical acyclovir for cold sores (K Fitzsimons, Proprietary Association of Great Britain, written
communication, 1994).

Summary of routinely available data on prevalence and costs of skin

disease

● About 15% of the population consult their GP each year because of a skin complaint.
● General practice consultation rates for diseases of the skin increase with age and are slightly higher for
females.
● GP consultation rates also probably vary with other factors such as ethnic group, skin type and social
class. Summary statistics for skin diseases as a whole may obscure these trends.
274 Dermatology

● Consultation rates for skin disease in general practice have probably increased over the last 20 years both
in absolute and relative terms.
● About 5% of those who seek help from their GP are referred for further specialist advice.
● Mortality from skin diseases is low, accounting for 2578 deaths in 1992, or 0.46% of deaths from all
causes at all ages.
● Over-the-counter sales for skin preparations accounted for £138.8 million in 1993, or 11.8% of total
OTC sales.

Incidence data
Unfortunately no population-based studies on the incidence of examined skin disease considered as a whole
have been conducted. Incidence data are available for some skin disease sub-categories such as new diagnoses
of melanoma and these are discussed below. Many skin diseases such as psoriasis are chronic and persistent
and their impact may be estimated reasonably well from cross-sectional prevalence studies such as those
outlined on pages 267–271.
Many infectious skin diseases such as impetigo, on the other hand, are transient and incident data are
required to assess their importance. In the absence of appropriate population studies, GP morbidity statistics
7
provide us with some information on demand incidence for these transient disorders. Although it is likely
that all cases of impetigo presenting to doctors represent medical need, it is not known how many resort to
self-treatment in the community. Some skin diseases are both chronic and intermittent (e.g. atopic eczema)
and other measures such as the one-year period prevalence are the most appropriate measure of disease
burden.

Common skin disease groupings

Skin cancer
Skin cancer has become a Health of the Nation target ‘to halt the year-on-year increase in the incidence of
4
skin cancer by 2005’. The term skin cancer usually refers to three main diseases:

1 malignant melanoma
2 basal cell carcinoma
3 squamous cell carcinoma.

The last two are often considered jointly as non-melanoma skin cancer. Other forms of cancer such as
cutaneous T-cell lymphoma also affect the skin and, although they are comparatively rare, can be miserable
conditions which require specialist care. Melanoma, basal cell and squamous cell carcinoma are discussed in
more detail in Appendices V and VI.
Key points for skin cancer in general are:

● halting the year-on-year increase in the incidence of skin by 2005 is a Health of the Nation target
● because of the long latent period between exposure and disease, the overall incidence of both melanoma
and non-melanoma skin cancer will probably continue to increase for the next 30 years
● skin cancer is largely preventable.
 Dermatology 275

Melanoma skin cancer

● Melanoma is a comparatively rare but potentially lethal tumour, accounting for 1265 deaths in the UK in
41
1992.
● The incidence and mortality of melanoma has increased substantially over the last 30 years.
● Melanoma incidence increases with age but it also affects proportionately more economically active
people than other cancers.
● Risk factors for melanoma include increased number of moles, atypical moles, episodes of severe
sunburn, fair skin type, red or blonde hair, tendency to freckle and a positive family history.
● Melanoma is almost twice as common in females than in males in the UK, with 2722 and 1716 newly
registered cases in 1988 for females and males respectively.
● Early diagnosis and surgical removal of a thin (<1.5 mm) melanoma is usually curative.

Non-melanoma skin cancer

● Non-melanoma skin cancer is the commonest cancer in the UK, affecting around 2% of people over the
age of 60.
● The incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer has increased substantially over the last 20 years but it is
difficult to say how much of this change is due to increased registration.
● Non-melanoma skin cancer registrations show considerable regional variation throughout the UK.
● The incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer rises sharply with age, with most tumours occurring above
the age of 60.
● The incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer is likely to increase with an increasingly ageing population.
● Subjects with one non-melanoma cancer are at high risk of developing further new lesions.
● Deaths from non-melanoma skin cancer are uncommon, amounting to 486 deaths in 1992 in the UK.

Acne
Acne refers to a group of disorders characterized by abnormalities of the sebaceous glands. Although over 40
21
types of acne have been described, acne vulgaris, which commonly affects teenagers and acne rosacea which
typically affects adults form the bulk of this disease subgroup. Because of the lack of data for acne variants
such as acne rosacea, only acne vulgaris is discussed in more detail in Appendix VII.
The key points on the prevalence of acne are:

● prevalence surveys must take acne severity into account because minor degrees of acne are almost
universal in teenage years
● acne which is deemed as clinically significant by physicians affects around 1% to 14% of teenagers
● although considered to be a ‘teenage’ disease acne continues to affect around 3.5% of those aged 25 to 34
years
● severe acne with cysts and scarring affects around 0.6% to 1.4% of young adults
● acne forms a considerable burden of psychological misery in the population (Figure 2)
● recent surveys suggest that there might have been a shift in the distribution of acne severity towards the
milder end over the last 20 years, perhaps due to better treatment.
276 Dermatology

PRINTER TO STRIP IN

Figure 2: Despite trivialization of skin disease, it can

have a devastating effect on peoples’ lives. Acne is
just one example where social stigmatization is still
common. Would this man’s appearance influence
your decision to employ him?
(Photograph reproduced with written permission from the subject.)

Atopic eczema
Atopic eczema (or ‘childhood eczema’) is an inflammatory skin disorder characterized by itching,
involvement of the skin creases and onset in early life and is discussed in Appendix VIII. Key points on the
prevalence of atopic eczema are:

● atopic eczema currently affects between 5% to 20% of children by the age of seven in the UK
● the intractable itch of atopic eczema causes sleep loss and misery to children and disruption to family life
● although eczema prevalence is higher in childhood, adults may form the bulk of cases when entire
populations are considered
● atopic eczema is commoner in wealthier families and in Afro-Caribbean children for reasons which are
not clear at present
● past studies suggest that there may be considerable regional variation in eczema prevalence throughout
the UK
● there is reasonable evidence to suggest that the prevalence of atopic eczema has increased substantially
over the last 30 years for reasons which are unclear.
 Dermatology 277

Psoriasis
Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder characterized by red scaly areas which commonly affect the
knees, elbows, lower back and scalp and is discussed in more detail in Appendix IX.
The key points of prevalence studies suggest:

● the prevalence of psoriasis in the general population is around 1% to 3%

● between one- and two-thirds of psoriasis sufferers have clinically significant disease according to
physicians
● psoriasis exhibits a bimodal age distribution with a first peak in early adulthood and a smaller peak in later
life
● psoriasis tends to be a chronic condition.

Viral warts
Viral warts are discussed further in Appendix X.
The key points of prevalence studies are:

● viral warts affect between 4% to 5% of children in the UK aged 11 to 16

● the Lambeth study found that 3.5% of adults aged 25–34 years also had viral warts
● around 60% to 90% of warts clear spontaneously within two years
● there is considerable regional variation in wart prevalence in the UK with highest rates in Northern
districts
● wart prevalence is also less in children born to parents with non-manual occupations and in smaller
families
● warts may be less common in children from ethnic groups other than white European.

Other infective disorders

This category refers to a miscellaneous range of other bacterial, viral and fungal infections which are
discussed further in Appendix XI.
The key points of prevalence studies are:

● taken as a whole, prevalence rates for this category range from 4.6% to 9.3%
● these point prevalence rates probably underestimate the true burden of skin infections by a considerable
degree, since most are transient
● at least 4% of the population consulted their GP for a skin infection other than warts in 1993/94
● the age distribution of skin infections differs according to the infectious agent and clinical pattern
● impetigo and scalp ringworm usually affect children, boils peak in young adulthood and chronic fungal
infections are common in older adults
● fungal infection of the toe webs (athletes’ foot) may affect 3.9% of the population
● certain occupational groups working in wet conditions are more prone to fungal infections of the feet and
toenails.
278 Dermatology

Benign tumours and vascular lesions

This sub-category refers to a range of cutaneous lesions which either cause discomfort or concern because of
the need to exclude malignant or premalignant disease and they are discussed further in Appendix XII.
The key points of prevalence studies are:

● white adults usually have between 40 to 60 moles on their body

● small changes in public anxiety about moles can have large service implications
● prevalence surveys conducted by physicians suggest that around 1.4% to 5.1% of the population have a
benign skin tumour which may warrant medical attention
● the prevalence of benign tumours and precancerous lesions shows a striking increase with age from 2% in
children to 13% in those aged 65–74 years
● solar keratoses are premalignant skin lesions which affect around 23% of those aged over 65
● the risk of malignant transformation of solar keratoses is probably less than 1% per year and 10% to 27%
remit spontaneously
● port wine stains are permanent vascular malformations which are usually found on the face. They occur
in around two to four of every 1000 live births
● the psychological consequences of port wine lesions can be devastating for the sufferer.

Leg ulcers
Leg ulceration may be due to a range of disorders from squamous cell carcinoma through to sickle cell
disease, diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis. In the UK the commonest causes are venous disease, arterial
disease or a mixture of both. These are discussed more fully in Appendix XIII.
The key points of prevalence studies are:

● leg ulcers may occur for a number of reasons but venous (70%) or arterial disease (10%) or both (20%)
are the commonest causes in the UK
● venous leg ulcers affect around 0.1% to 2% of the population
● the prevalence of leg ulcers increases with increasing age
● leg ulcers are an important cause of pain and morbidity in the elderly and consume a large proportion of
nursing time
● approximately one-half to two-thirds of venous ulcers recur within a year
● the proportion of people with leg ulcers is likely to rise considerably in the future because of an
increasingly ageing population.

Contact dermatitis and other eczemas

These are discussed in Appendix XIV.
The key points of prevalence studies are:

● in the UK the term eczema usually refers to an endogenous process whereas dermatitis usually denotes a
contact factor such as exposure to irritants or specific allergens
● the prevalence of contact dermatitis and endogenous eczemas (other than atopic eczema) is around 9% in
the UK
● one large US survey has suggested that about one-quarter of cases in this subgroup are clinically
significant
● hand dermatitis can be crippling and lead to permanent disability and loss of earnings (Figure 3)
● certain occupations pose high risks for individuals to develop contact dermatitis
● eczema and contact dermatitis account for 84% to 90% of occupational skin disease.
 Dermatology 279

PRINTER TO STRIP IN

Figure 3: The hand that cannot work. Hand eczema can be crippling and lead to permanent disability and loss
of earnings.

Other important skin diseases

These are discussed in Appendix XV.
The key points from prevalence studies are:

● because of the heterogenous nature of this remaining group of skin diseases there will be a temptation to
allocate it with a low priority, yet skin conditions in this group still affect around 3.9 million people in the
UK
● included in this group are rare but potentially fatal skin disorders such as blistering diseases, lymphoma
and severe cutaneous drug reactions
● other common skin disorders such as vitiligo and urticaria are included in this group
● because skin disease is so common, around 7% of the population will have more than one skin disease (or
around one-quarter of those with significant skin disease).
280 Dermatology

5 Services available

Introduction

People with skin problems require a range of health services from simple advice to specialist investigation
and management. The most usual routes of help currently in use are summarized in the flow chart (Figure 4).
The estimated number of people using current dermatology health services at various entry points for a
population of 100 000 over a one-year period is summarized in Box 1.

Box 1: A guide to the number of persons per 100 000 per year using dermatology services

● Number with a skin complaint = 25000 (at least 25% of total population)29
● Number who will self-treat = 7500 (30% of those with skin complaint)2
● Number who will seek advice from GP = 14550a (15% of total population or 19% of all
GP consultations)7
● Number referred on to dermatologist = 1162 (8% of those attending their GP for skin
problems, or 1.2% of the total population)42
● Number admitted to hospital = 24 to 31 (2% to 3% of all new dermatology
referrals)43
● Number of deaths due to skin disease = 5b (0.4% of all new dermatology referrals)10
a
Excludes skin neoplasms, viral warts, herpes simplex and scabies.
b
Includes people dying from cellulitis, chronic ulcer of the skin and severe drug reactions who might not have
been admitted under a dermatologist’s care.

Self-help

Although self-help and self-medication are not traditionally regarded as a health service, the range and
availability of OTC skin products is an important element in the equation of balancing need, supply and
demand. Around 30% of those with a skin complaint decide to self-medicate and this proportion is similar
2
for trivial and moderate to severe disease. Many effective skin treatments are available OTC such as 1%
hydrocortisone for mild eczema, topical acyclovir cream for cold sores, topical benzoyl peroxide for acne and
numerous anti-fungal preparations and wart removers.
Pharmacists occupy a key role in advising the public on the use of these products but whether this advice is
beneficial or whether it simply delays appropriate medical consultation has not been studied adequately in
44
the UK. Self-help groups such as the National Eczema Society, Psoriasis Association and Acne Support
Group are well organized and are a useful source of advice to those with mainly chronic skin diseases. They
have recently joined forces to form a Skin Care Campaign to increase public and government awareness
45
regarding skin disease.
 Dermatology 281

Service Process Outcome

structure
The person with No action/ improvement
a skin complaint Self-medication no improvement
Chemist/self-help group

General practitioner Diagnosis reassure/explain

initiate treatment
involve practice or district nurse
refer to specialist
Dermatology Paediatrician
liaison nurse Surgeon

Dermatologist Diagnosis reassure/explain

and/or management initiate treatment
further tests (e.g. patch tests)
minor surgery
laser treatment
refer to plastic surgeon/
radiotherapist
day treatment facility
hospital admission
follow-up appointment

Figure 4: Routes of help currently available for a person with a skin complaint. Other routes of help such as
referral to occupational health doctors, other specialists, attendances at the A and E department and contact with
practice or hospital nurses are also used occasionally.

Primary care

The majority of those with a skin complaint who seek medical help are treated by their GP. In addition to
making a diagnosis and prescribing medication, treatment may well include simple reassurance or
explanation and advice. The GP contract in April 1990 introduced payment for minor surgical procedures
and many GPs now conduct their own minor surgery for benign and sometimes malignant skin lesions.
26,46
Around 6–8% of all GP diagnoses involve the skin. The most recent GP morbidity statistics7 suggest
that 1455 people per 10 000 person–years at risk (approximately 15% per year) consult their GP because of a
skin condition (excluding benign and malignant skin neoplasms and some skin infections). Despite this only
one in ten GPs has received special training in dermatology and most of those who had no training wished
47
they had. A more recent study of 456 GPs in Avon found that most were willing to shoulder more of the
dermatological burden, yet 57% said they had little interest in the subject and had not attended any
48
dermatology teaching since qualifying. The average ‘block’ allocated to dermatology undergraduate
training is less than 40 hours and in some centres dermatology is entirely optional. In a recent survey of 165
UK GPs 97% felt that undergraduate training in dermatology was essential and that more time should be
49
allocated to the subject. Some GPs gain further experience working as clinical assistants in dermatology and
some have undergone further training leading to a diploma in dermatology qualification. General
50
practitioners interested in skin care have recently formed a primary care dermatology society.
Practice nurses and district nurses are involved to a variable extent in the treatment of skin diseases, with
up to 50% of their time employed in administering dressings for leg ulcers. In a recent survey 33% of 800
practice nurses reported that they saw five to ten patients with skin disease each week but less than 7% felt
47
that they had the knowledge to deal with them.
282 Dermatology

The range of skin disorders seen in general practice is similar to that in the general population, with the
5,26
nine sub-categories mentioned in this report accounting for the majority of consultations. A greater
proportion of incident diseases such as skin infections (e.g. impetigo, herpes simplex and viral exanthems)
5,7
are commoner in general practice settings than in secondary care.

Use of specialist services

Outpatients
Most specialist dermatology activity is concentrated in the outpatient department. Persistent waiting list
51
problems occur and overbooking of clinics to expedite long waits by patients distressed by their skin
condition and to accommodate emergency referrals such as acute drug eruptions and skin infections is
common. Currently there are only 312 dermatologists throughout the UK, providing a ratio of 1 per 217 000
7
members of the population; the lowest specialist ratio throughout the EU by a factor of around three (Table
3). The ratio of specialists to the population is generally much lower throughout all specialties within the UK
than elsewhere in the EU, although the ratio of dermatologists to population in the UK in 1992 (1 : 217 000) is
still quite low compared with other comparable specialties such as ENT (1 : 128 000), ophthalmology
52
(1 : 115 000) and general medicine (1 : 41 000). In 1990 there were 537 worked outpatient sessions per
8
dermatology consultant in the UK compared with 149 sessions per general medicine consultant. Diagnosing
skin disease takes time to learn and constant practice to refine and dermatologists spend a period of around
ten years training, although this period will be reduced when the Calman proposals for training are
introduced.
Table 3: Ratio of dermatologists to population in Europe47
Country Total Ratio/population
France 2800 1 : 20 400
Italy 2900 1 : 20 000
Belgium 450 1 : 22 000
Greece 400 1 : 25 000
West Germany 1600 1 : 39 000
Spain 900 1 : 43 000
Portugal 300 1 : 44 700
Denmark 100 1 : 50 000
The Netherlands 300 1 : 80 000
UK 312 1 : 200 000

What does the specialist do?

In addition to diagnosis, explanation and treatment in routine clinics which can be accomplished without
51
recourse to further investigations in most patients, the dermatologist offers a range of services. Most
teaching centres run clinics which specialize in contact dermatitis and industrial skin diseases and a
patch-testing service, paediatric dermatology, pigmented lesions, supervision of ultraviolet light treatment
and combined plastic surgery/radiotherapy clinics for skin tumours.
Other clinics which reflect the special interest of local dermatologists may also exist in some areas, such as
those which deal with vulval conditions, somatic disorders, eczema, blistering disorders and laser clinics.
Dermatological surgery is performed by all dermatologists and services may range from diagnostic biopsy to
 Dermatology 283

more complicated surgical techniques for skin tumours. Some forms of immediate surgical procedure
51
(excision, biopsy, cryotherapy, curettage and cautery) are conducted in around a third of new patients.
Some centres also offer laser treatment for vascular lesions.
Assessment and removal of tumours is a major part (40%) of the specialist’s workload and dermatological
surgery is recognized by the Royal College of Surgeons of London as an important part of the practice of
dermatology. All dermatologists are trained in removal of tumours with repair by a variety of closure
techniques involving simple closure, skin grafts and skin flaps. Some dermatologists have been trained in
advanced surgical techniques such as Mohs micrographic surgery, which is not practised by plastic surgeons
53
and has the lowest recurrence rates of all procedures for removal of skin cancers. Dermatologists work
closely with a range of other specialists such as plastic surgeons and radiotherapists for skin tumours and also
with paediatricians in genetic disorders and chronic skin diseases in childhood such as atopic eczema. The
dermatologist also undertakes an important role in educational activities which includes teaching medical
students, pharmacy students, nurses, postgraduates and GPs. Some dermatologists have conducted
‘outreach’ clinics in the community but a recent survey by BAD has indicated that dermatologists see, on
average, only ten patients per session against the BAD recommended figure of 12 to 24.
Despite the vast range of dermatological disorders that a dermatologist may encounter the majority of
disorders encountered in the outpatient department are covered within the subgroups mentioned in this
13,51,54
chapter. Around 12% of referrals were considered inappropriate by dermatologists in a West Midlands
51
study. Another study in Leicester showed that even a senior house officer with three months training in
55
dermatology considered that 26% of 490 consecutive referrals were probably unnecessary and that 75% of
these unnecessary referrals belonged to just seven disease categories (warts, eczema, naevi, basal cell
carcinoma, acne, psoriasis and seborrhoeic warts).
Age-specific attendance rates are more common in female patients and also increase with increasing age
(Table 4). Other studies such as the Oxford Regional study have recorded a similar excess of female and older
24
patients. Of 3678 referrals to dermatology (8.1% of all outpatient referrals), 42.7% of these were males and
57.3% female. Age- and sex-specific referral rates for Oxford are shown in Figure 5. In nearly two-thirds of
referrals the GP expected the patient to be treated or taken over by the specialist (Table 5).
Table 4: Age-specific attendance rates per 1000 population for new patients attending dermatology clinics in
West Midlands in November 198851
Age 0–4 5–14 15–29 30–44 45–64 65–74 75+ Total
(years)
Male 6.7 6.6 7.6 6.6 7.6 12.1 13.9 7.8
Female 5.2 9.9 12.7 10.7 11.5 10.4 10.9 10.9
Total 6.0 8.2 10.1 8.6 9.5 11.1 11.9 9.3

Table 5: Main reasons for a GP to refer a patient for specialist dermatology advice in the Oxford Region24
Diagnosis/ Advice only Treatment/ Second Other (%)
investigation (%) management opinion/
(%) (%) reassure (%)
26.4 13.5 63 2.2 0.2

Private referrals accounted for 21.2% of referrals to dermatology in this region and these were spread fairly
evenly across age groups. Another retrospective national survey of a clinical caseload of 217 private hospitals
in England and Wales recorded 28 706 consultations for the 1992/93 financial year for diseases of the skin
and subcutaneous tissues (excluding plastic surgery), or 4.2% of all procedures carried put in private
56
hospitals. This represents a three-fold rise in private dermatology episodes when compared with 1981 data,
284 Dermatology

20

Male
Female
15
Rates per 1000 per year

10

0
0–4 5–14 1 5 – 2 4 2 5 – 3 4 3 5 – 4 4 4 5 – 5 4 5 5 – 6 4 6 5 – 7 4 Over 75
Age group (years)

24
Figure 5: Age- and sex-specific outpatient referrals for dermatology in the Oxford Region in 1992

whereas all medical and surgical procedures taken as a whole rose approximately two-fold. It is difficult to
state whether this increase in private dermatology truly reflects individual’s desire to pay for skin care
treatment since most of these private episodes were paid by insurance schemes but the figures provide us
with some idea of the magnitude of dermatology services in the private sector.

How much does the specialist do?

In the year ending 31 March 1994 the attendance rate for dermatology referrals in the whole of the UK was
11.62 per 1000 population (Statistical Information Unit, Trent Regional Health Authority, 1995). The
number of dermatology referrals per year in the UK has increased by 150 282 (33%) over the past three years,
42
representing a change in referral rate from 9.4 to 12.5 per 1000 over the same period. Referral rates in
different regions varied slightly in the year ending March 1994 from 10.55 in North West Region to 12.95 in
South Thames (Table 6). A further 22.48 per 1000 population were given follow-up appointments, giving an
overall new/follow-up ratio of approximately 1 : 2. Around 6% of newly referred patients did not keep their
appointments.
These numbers probably underestimate a dermatologist’s workload by around 10% as they do not include
54
ward referrals and consultations with staff members. Private outpatient consultations accounted for an
8
overall 0.5% of all new and follow-up dermatology patients seen in the UK in 1990, compared to 0.3% of
total general surgery and general medicine activity. This proportion of private activity shows considerable
57
regional variation from 0.2% in Yorkshire to 2.6% in North West Thames.
These figures probably underestimate the current private dermatology activity carried out by recently
opened laser clinics and GPs with some training in dermatology.
Although 30% to 40% of new dermatology outpatients undergo some form of minor surgical procedure,
52
these have only recently been recorded by hospitals. Similarly other activities such as dressings and
attendance for PUVA are not recorded in routinely published hospital statistics.
 Dermatology 285

Table 6: Consultant outpatient activity for dermatology in the UK in the year ending March 31 1994 by new
NHS regions.
Region Consultant Total GP
(new NHS Referral Rate per initiated Rate per written Rate per
regional Population attend- 1000 attend- 1000 referral 1000
offices) (000)a ances population ancesb population requests population
North 6935 73194 10.55 126809 18.29 86283 12.44
West
North East 6314 74039 11.73 187026 29.62 77508 12.28
and
Yorkshire
Trent 4777 57062 11.95 129946 27.20 51715 10.83
Anglia and 5325 54812 10.29 97076 18.23 60788 11.42
Oxford
North 6892 87635 12.72 151459 21.98 92803 13.47
Thames
South 6809 88196 12.95 144877 21.28 100509 14.76
Thames
South West 6397 72432 11.32 156511 24.47 76254 11.92
West 5294 56723 10.71 95881 18.11 56397 10.65
Midlands
Special – 2361 – 6042 – 2295 –
HAs
UK 48743 566454 11.62 1095627 22.48 604552 12.40
a
1994 Mid-year population (1991 projection).
b
Consultant initiated attendances means follow-up visits initiated by a consultant.

Variations in referral rates

In the third GP morbidity survey, regional referral rates for dermatology varied from 3.1 to 12.2% of all
5
those seen. The overall rates in this survey are lower than for the rest of the UK probably because of the
unrepresentative nature of the GPs selected for this survey. The study does however suggest a considerable
variation in referral rates by GPs. Severity of skin disease does not appear to be a major determinant of
5
referrals, since 8.1% of serious and 6.5% of trivial ones were sent to hospital in the 1981/82 study. Referral
rates for individual districts within the Trent Region also vary considerably from 4.92 to 17.7 per 1000 in
1994 (Statistical Information Unit, Trent Regional Health Authority 1995), although less variation is seen
within each district with time (Table 7). Small area referral rates for new patients in the Bristol District for
1991 to 1994 also show a wider variation in referral rates, ranging from 9.5 to 49.1 outpatient attendances per
1000 population (C Kennedy, personal written communication,1994). There was a strong relationship
between referral rates and accessibility to hospital services in this small area study.
There is some evidence to suggest that much of the regional variation in referral rates may be governed by
established patterns of care such as number of available consultants rather than reflecting any special
dermatological need related to the demographic constitution of the local population. A study by Roland and
Morris failed to show any relationship between referral rates for dermatology services and medical need as
suggested by standardized mortality ratios or mean number of prescriptions issued by GPs (standardized
58
regression coefficient of 0.1). It is possible that mortality ratios are not a suitable surrogate measure for
dermatological need. A strong relationship between dermatology referral rates and the number of
dermatology consultants per 100 000 population was present however (standardized regression coefficient of
0.82, p<0.001). Given that skin diseases are undertreated and that treatments for many skin diseases are
286 Dermatology

Table 7: General practitioner written referral requests for dermatology per 1000 population for the districts
within Trent Region over the last seven years. (Data kindly supplied by the Statistical Information Unit, Trent
Regional Health Authority)
District 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
North Derbyshire 10.07 11.01 11.70 9.88 10.62 9.14 10.09
South Derbyshire 10.21 11.07 11.07 9.17 8.96 8.42 10.39
Leicestershire 8.98 9.33 9.33 8.80 8.34 8.26 4.92
North Lincolnshire 7.91 7.44 7.44 6.86 9.11 10.06 9.99
South Lincolnshire 7.42 7.65 7.65 7.55 7.98 8.39 9.05
Bassetlaw 6.58 6.25 6.25 5.80 – – 12.71
Central Nottinghamshire 9.38 11.80 11.80 11.72 – – 11.52
North Nottinghamshire 11.17 12.02
Nottingham 14.25 11.55 11.55 8.94 12.48 10.83 10.07
Barnsley 10.99 9.42 9.42 9.54 11.37 13.72 17.71
Doncaster 12.20 13.53 13.53 11.49 13.20 14.85 17.20
Rotherdam 10.90 11.94 11.94 10.54 9.45 11.09 12.65
Sheffield 12.66 19.61 19.61 17.12 10.81 8.13 14.93
Trent 10.52 11.37 11.37 10.23 11.11 10.91 10.67

effective, another interpretation of between-practice variations in referral rates is that of simple rationing
according to individual practice priorities.

Secular trends in dermatology specialist workload

Data from the first three GP morbidity surveys suggest that dermatology referral rates have increased
5,7
substantially over the last 40 years. More recent data suggest that this trend has been accentuated with a
33% rise in the dermatology referral rate for the UK in 1993/94 (12.5 per 1000) when compared with
42
1990/91 (9.4 per 1000). Reasons for this increasing secular trend in dermatology referrals have not been
studied adequately but probably include an increase in public demand for specialist referral and an increased
13
willingness to refer by GPs. New outpatient attendances for Amersham and High Wycombe rose by 62% in
the 20 years from 1958 to 1988, thought mainly to be due to an increasing proportion of moles, keratoses and
skin tumours. In another study of new dermatology outpatients in South East Scotland increases of 29% and
59
28% were noted between 1981 and 1988 for new and follow-up patients respectively. This was accounted
for largely by rises of 173% and 106% in benign and malignant tumours respectively, with a concomitant
98% increase in surgical procedures. This increase in pigmented lesions coincided with national campaigns
which encouraged the early diagnosis of malignant melanoma. The population increase in the same period
60–62
was 1.5%. Others have noted similar changes in workload because of pigmented lesions.

Role of the dermatology nurse

The dermatology specialist nurse is a vital person in the provision of dermatology services.63,64 Dermatology
specialist nurses provide a range of services including leg ulcer assessment, assistance with patch testing,
counselling for chronic skin diseases, practical instruction in using skin treatments, support groups
(e.g. healed ulcer group) and day treatment facilities for ultraviolet light therapy or topical applications
(e.g. dithranol therapy for psoriasis) as well as the traditional role of providing a secure and accepted
environment for the care of dermatology inpatients. Some centres employ dermatology liaison nurses to
 Dermatology 287

provide a link between the hospital based specialist and the community in an attempt to foster continuing
65
care. Since 1988 in addition to a 20% decrease in dermatological beds, 35% of dermatology consultants
47
have lost the services of trained dermatological nurses.

Inpatient services
Hospital inpatient statistics show that 82 950 hospital discharges/deaths in the UK in 1985, or 1.6% of all
admissions, were due to diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue (ICD 9 codes 680–709 which exclude
9
skin cancer and lymphoma). This number of admissions has shown a steady increase from 68 980 in 1979,
9,47
despite a 20% reduction in dermatology beds. In the financial year 1993/94 there were 109 806 ordinary
admissions for diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue (excluding infections and tumours of the skin), or
66
1.4% of all ordinary admissions for the UK. Many such patients were cared for by non-dermatologists since
only about one-quarter of these inpatient episodes were for inflammatory dermatoses, the rest being made up
from disorders such as cellulitis, pilonidal sinus, leg ulceration etc. Diseases of the skin accounted for 1.4% of
all inpatient bed days in 1993/94 and the mean and median duration of stay was 10.6 and three days
66
respectively. In 1994 there were 2900 patients awaiting admission for a dermatological disorder in the UK,
with 14.4% waiting between six to 11 months and 5.2% waiting 12 months or longer (Statistical Information
Unit, Trent Regional Health Authority). Day cases (e.g. those attending for a skin operation) have only
recently been recorded fully, but even in 1993/94 diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues accounted for
66
84 597 day case episodes (or 4.0% of all day case episodes).
A detailed study of inpatient workload in the Oxford region using linked data for 1976 to 1985 showed that
43
age-specific admission rates were considerably higher in people aged over 50 years. Age-specific admission
rates declined over time in those aged below 70 years but increased above this age. Unlike most other medical
specialties, length of patient’s stay did not decrease substantially over the ten years and most inpatient work
consisted of treatment of people with psoriasis, eczema and leg ulcers. Although overall inpatient admission
rates were roughly the same over the ten years, new dermatology outpatients rose by 41% in that same period
suggesting that innovations in dermatology practice had been greater for those in an ambulatory setting than
those requiring prolonged inpatient care.

Costs of services

Direct costs to the NHS

The only study that has attempted to estimate the direct costs of skin disease to the NHS was conducted by
67
the Office of Health Economics in 1970. They estimated that at least £50 million (or 2.9% of total NHS
expenditure) was spent in direct costs on skin disease (£12.8 million on hospital inpatient costs, £6 million on
dermatology outpatients, £12.2 million on general practice and £18.3 million by the pharmaceutical service).
Skin conditions took up just over 1% of hospital inpatient expenditure but accounted for 7% and 9%
respectively of the costs of general practice and prescribed medicines. There is no clear evidence that
advances in medical technology have altered the amount or the nature of direct expenditure on
dermatological services. In 1994 the direct costs of treating diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue were
estimated as £617 million (Office of Health Economics, personal communication) still only 2% of total NHS
direct costs (Table 8) despite many more expensive drugs being available. Costs for outpatient consultations
(the bulk of a dermatologist’s work) are excluded from these estimates because of the variation in methods of
costing. Benton’s study of dermatology services estimated the cost of a single outpatient visit as £4.30 in
54
1983, compared to £106 for one day as an inpatient. Current methods for costing dermatology outpatient
consultations vary between regions and are often based on simple formulae such as total staff and overhead
288 Dermatology

costs divided by the number of new and follow-up patients based on the previous year’s contracted figures.
At University Hospital Nottingham, the charge to fundholding practices for first and subsequent visits to the
dermatology department was £53 and £27 respectively (T Foan, personal communication, December 1994).
Table 8: Breakdown of direct NHS costs for diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues for 1994. Overall
costs for dermatology outpatient activity are not available
Nature of direct costs to NHS Cost (£ million)
a
GP consultations 155
Hospital inpatients 245
Drug costsb 175
Drug dispensing costs 42
Total 617
a
Derived from the fourth national GP morbidity study.7
b
Refers to all prescriptions included in the BNF chapter on skin diseases. Although dermatology accounts for a
large amount of NHS activity, it accounted for only 2% of NHS expenditure in 1994.
Source: R Chew, Office of Health Economics, personal communication, 1994

As a specialty dermatology incurs a relatively low average drug bill when compared with other hospital
68
disciplines.

Indirect costs
Perhaps the most useful sources of estimating the magnitude of indirect costs of loss of productivity due to
skin disease are sickness absence and Industrial Injuries Fund statistics. In 1970 0.3 million spells of work
12
absence were attributed to skin disease, or over 7 million working days lost in 1970/71. Despite this more
recent data suggest that the spells of absence attributed to skin disease have declined through the last 20 years
possibly due to improved working practices and the introduction of topical corticosteroids and
11,12
antibiotics.
Diseases of the skin were still amongst the top 14 reasons for spells of certified incapacity due to sickness in
11
1992/93 accounting for 10 000 out of a total of 606 000 claims for men in those years. Extrapolation of these
figures to 1996 may not be appropriate due to recent changes in classifications of incapacity to work. Skin
diseases were also cited as one of the most common reasons for injury and disablement benefit in the period
12
1977 to 1983.

Personal disability/handicap of skin disease and additional costs

The 1989 General Household Survey estimated that 16 per 1000 persons were affected by a longstanding
69
skin disorder (i.e. those covered by ICD 9 Chapter XII) sufficiently to limit their activities. Another survey
of disability amongst 14 000 adults conducted in the mid 1980s found that 1% of complaints causing
70
disability in private households and 2% in communal establishments were due to skin disease. In the US
HANES-1 study skin conditions were reported to limit activity in 10.5 per 1000 of the population aged 1–74
3
years, or 9% of those persons with such skin conditions. About 10% of those with skin complaints
considered the condition to be a handicap to their employment or housework and one-third (33%) indicated
a handicap in their social relations as a result of skin disease. Quantification of such disability in monetary
terms has not been evaluated. In addition to disability and handicap some chronic skin diseases such as atopic
eczema also incur considerable additional direct costs to families, such as purchasing of moisturizers and
special soaps, extra laundry expenses and extra cotton clothing and bedding. The Lothian atopic dermatitis
 Dermatology 289

study estimated these costs to patients to range from £0 to £70 per two months (median £3.00) compared
71
with health service costs ranging from £0 to £61 (median £7.50) per two months.

Relationship between need, supply and demand

14
This is summarized in the form of Venn diagrams for skin disease as a whole and for disease sub-categories
(Figures 6 and 7).
Need Demand

Need = what people would benefit from

Demand = what people request
Supply = current health services provisions
Shaded = current provision
area
Supply

Figure 6: A schematic representation of the relationship between the need, supply and demand for
dermatological health care for skin disease as a whole.

These representations are intended only as a visual guide given the limitations in current data on the
relationship between the three categories of need, supply and demand for skin disease and the limited nature
of defining need in such a normative way. Different patterns are seen for different subgroups. For skin cancer
much disease amenable to treatment (need) is not asked for (demand), and would probably outstrip current
supply if it were identified. Many benign tumours on the other hand, may not represent medical need in the
eyes of physicians but are demanded by people and only dealt with to some degree, possibly at the expense of
more urgent priorities such as a patient distressed with an inflammatory rash. If one defines medical need as
the ability to benefit from medical care, then even people with benign tumours such as seborrhoeic warts,
which may be unsightly or catch in clothing, will certainly benefit from medical care such as cryotherapy or
curettage, again illustrating the need for providing explicit corporate definitions of dermatological need.
Generalizations for the whole of skin disease are difficult since different sub-categories for skin disease
may have different service requirements. The summary in Table 9 provides a rough guide. It is reasonable to
summarize the whole of skin disease as a service where the core pattern of services is good for most major
disease groupings, but allowances need to be made for lack of recent data. In particular, demand for
treatment of benign skin tumours has increased and is likely to continue increasing with a better informed
population empowered by the patient’s charter. Overall, there is considerable unmet need, and some services
are demanded which probably do not require supply.
290 Dermatology

Need Demand Need Demand

Supply Supply
1 Skin cancer 2 Acne

Need Demand Need Demand

Supply Supply
3 Atopic eczema 4 Psoriasis

Need Demand Need Demand

Supply Supply
5 Viral warts 6 Other infective skin disorders

Figure 7: The relationship between the need, supply and demand of health care services for the main sub-
categories of skin disease.
 Dermatology 291

Need Demand Need Demand

Supply Supply
7 Benign tumours/vascular 8 Leg ulceration

Need Demand Need Demand

Supply Supply
9 Contact dermatitis/other eczemas 10 Other skin diseases

Figure 7: continued.

Table 9: The relationship between dermatology services and population need and demand
Need, supply and demand pattern Skin disease sub-category
1 Large need, large demand, modest supply Atopic eczema, contact dermatitis and other
eczemas
2 Large need, modest demand, modest supply Skin cancer
3 Moderate need, demand and supply Psoriasis, acne, other infective skin conditions,
leg ulceration, other skin conditions
4 Large demand, small need, moderate to large Viral warts, benign skin tumours
supply
292 Dermatology

Summary

● People with skin conditions require a range of services from self-help groups to specialist inpatient care.
● Around 15% of the population consults the GP each year because of a skin complaint.
● The UK has the lowest ratio of dermatologists to population in Europe (around 1 : 200 000).
● At least 12.5 per 1000 people are referred to a dermatologist each year in the UK.
● Considerable variation in specialist referral rates exist for dermatology.
● There is some evidence to suggest that these variations in referral rates may be related partly to
established patterns of care.
● In addition to diagnosis and management, dermatologists offer a range of services such as surgery for skin
cancer, laser treatment, patch testing, ultraviolet light therapy and other special clinics such as pigmented
lesion and paediatric dermatology clinics.
● Around 30% of a dermatologist’s work involves a minor surgical procedure.
● The dermatology nurse is a vital person in the dermatology team.
● Dermatology inpatients account for 1.4% of all admissions.
● Dermatology accounted for £617 million in direct costs to the NHS in 1994 (2% of the total NHS budget
for direct costs).
● Skin diseases are still one of the commonest occupational disease, and accounts for a considerable amount
of absence from work and sickness benefit.
● Generalizing the relationship between the need, supply and demand of skin disease over all disease
sub-categories is difficult.
● Apart from a large iceberg of unmet need, the current core pattern of services for dermatology generally
fits the evidence except for uncertainties regarding the relative merits of care settings.

6 Effectiveness of services
This section summarizes what is known about the effectiveness of current dermatological services in
different care locations, focusing on diagnostic accuracy and appropriateness of treatment where this
72
information is available. Strength of recommendation will be based on the quality of evidence (Appendix
XVI). Discussion will also include primary and secondary prevention of skin disease where this is relevant.
Effectiveness of currently available treatments by dermatological disease sub-categories is also discussed,
together with examples of cost-effectiveness and cost utility data where these are available.

Dermatology services as a whole

Over-the-counter preparations and pharmacists’ advice (BIV)

Although some OTC preparations such as 1% hydrocortisone, anti-fungal creams, topical acyclovir for
herpes simplex and topical benzoyl peroxide have been rigorously tested (AI to BI), many others are less well
tested or have not been tested at all (CII to CIV). It is likely that the availability of OTC acne preparations has
resulted in less patients consulting with their doctors but whether this is appropriate in terms of correct
diagnosis or choice of treatment and satisfactory outcome has yet to be examined. Wastage of family income
73
on ineffective skin treatments has been shown to be a problem in other countries but this has yet to be
studied in the UK. Little is known about the way in which availability of OTC substances affects the total
burden of skin disease, as is the quality and appropriateness of advice given by pharmacists on skin
44,74
matters.
 Dermatology 293

Primary care (CIII)

Apart from specific diseases such as viral warts and pigmented lesions, very little work has examined the
5
outcome of consultation and treatment of skin diseases in general practice. Some GPs trained in
46
dermatology have reported high rates of positive diagnosis (85%). The low ratio of benign lesions to
melanoma in UK hospitals (40 : 1 compared to 253 : 1 in US skin cancer fairs) has been cited as an illustration
75
of the usefulness of GPs in screening such lesions but such an assessment does not take into account those
lesions dismissed or incorrectly diagnosed by GPs. Despite considerable personal experience in
dermatology, Horn pointed out that with an expected frequency of one malignant skin condition once every
26
two to three years GPs cannot be expected to diagnose skin malignancy reliably. General practitioners with
some specialist training probably have higher but more appropriate overall referral rates to hospital
76
specialists.
Although minor skin surgery conducted by GPs may offer a more personal and convenient service to
77
patients a recent UK study of pathology requests submitted by GPs for minor surgical procedures found
78
that the overall correct diagnosis rate for skin malignancy and seborrhoeic warts was below 30%. Most of
the three-fold increase in workload in the local pathology department generated by GPs was due to benign
lesions such as moles, cysts and seborrhoeic warts. None of the four melanomas in this study was correctly
identified. Only nine out of 21 squamous cell carcinomas were adequately excised. Similar rates of correct
79
diagnoses for seborrhoeic warts by non-specialists (35%) have been found elsewhere.
The study by Stevenson et al. of 2940 dermatology patients in the West Midlands found that 12% of
51
referrals were considered inappropriate by the dermatologist (mainly viral and seborrhoeic warts). Around
one-quarter to one-third of referrals for atopic eczema, acne and psoriasis were also considered inappropriate
in that adequate primary treatment had not been given prior to referral. In another study of 686 consecutive
80
new referrals to a dermatology unit in London 32% were judged to have been inappropriate on the grounds
of not requiring specialist diagnosis or management. Some of these inappropriate referrals might have been
due to increased patient demand for specialist referral. It is also not clear whether these problems are likely to
be resolved simply by intensive training programmes. A study by Sladden et al. showed that over 75% of
55
their inappropriate referrals belonged to just six diagnostic categories, suggesting that focused educational
programmes might be beneficial. One recent study which set out to train GPs in distinguishing malignant
from benign lesions found that although the proportion of melanomas diagnosed correctly rose from 65% to
81
81% after training the proportion of seborrhoeic warts diagnosed correctly remained unchanged at 54%.

Specialist services (BIII)

Except for sub-categories of skin disease and meeting reports28,82,83 (BIII) no systematic research into the
differential health gain of referral to dermatologists has been undertaken (CIV). In a comprehensive study of
84
hospital outpatients in 1970 Forsyth and Logan commented that ‘Of all out-patient departments
dermatology had the clearest function and is the least suspect of impinging on territory which might safely be
left to a retrained and revitalised corps of general practitioners’. It seems obvious that the consequences of
non-referral of a patient with a diagnostic or management problem to a dermatologist could be serious
(e.g. missing a melanoma or death due to generalized pustular psoriasis) but little is known about the
threshold and reasons for referral for common skin disorders. One study by Roland and colleagues in
85
Cambridge has suggested that many more patients with skin disease might benefit from specialist help.
This study identified 22 patients with skin problems whose GPs were satisfied with their management and
had no intention of sending them to hospital. These patients were reviewed by a dermatologist who made
treatment recommendations in 14 cases, six of whom reported a definite improvement in their skin condition
six weeks later and the GPs themselves found the consultation helpful in 17 cases.
294 Dermatology

Although these patients might have improved anyway, the authors have drawn attention to a large and
understudied group of patients who might benefit from brief assessments by specialists. The views of
consumers with regards to satisfaction of dermatological health care services have not been examined, except
86
in a small study of satisfaction with hospital versus outreach clinic appointments.
In addition to outpatient referrals generated by GPs, dermatologists also see referrals for inpatients from
other specialties who have skin disease. In a recent study Falanga et al. found that dermatologic consultation
changed dermatologic diagnosis and treatment in more than 60% of patients, usually common conditions
87
with established treatment. In a study of 500 non-dermatological inpatients referred for a dermatological
opinion, 37% were considered to have a skin condition which contributed substantially to the diagnosis of
23
the systemic disease.
Another study of melanoma cases seen in a London hospital over an 18-year period showed that
dermatologists were more likely to enter the correct clinical diagnosis on pathology forms when compared
88
with general surgeons (85% compared with 61% respectively).
Although there are compelling arguments for ensuring that dermatologically trained nurses should be key
63–65,89
members of the specialist team no studies have examined the cost-effectiveness of this professional
group in dermatology (CIV). Similarly the cost-effectiveness of liaison dermatology nursing has not been
assessed.
28
The effect of outreach dermatology clinics (DIII) has been monitored in terms of activity. Preliminary
results suggest that around half as many patients are seen than in a dedicated dermatology outpatient set up,
at the possible expense of patients who do not have the benefit of outreach clinic services. Shorter waiting
times and ease of access have been reported with such clinics but they have not increased interaction between
90
specialists and GPs.

Specific services for skin disease sub-categories (AI to BII-2)

Although many excellent clinical trials have been conducted in dermatology, the vast number of skin
disorders and small number of dermatologists has meant that many treatments for less common skin
conditions have not been fully tested by means of randomized placebo-controlled studies. In assessing the
quality of evidence it is important to distinguish procedures which lack adequate evaluation (where currently
there may be no alternative treatments) from those where there is some evidence to reject the use of the
procedure.
91,92
Other problems exist such as a lack of agreement on suitable end-points and a profusion of studies that
93
are too small to answer the questions posed. Recent work on the development of patient-derived measures
of skin disability such as the Dermatology Life Quality Index are a welcome development in patient-centred
94
assessment of effectiveness of skin treatments but requires further evaluation. Little work has been
conducted in implementing research findings in dermatology and a few studies point to a considerable gap
95
between intended and actual practice.
In considering effectiveness of newer and more expensive dermatological treatments it is important not to
consider initial purchase costs in isolation. Several cost-effectiveness and cost utility analyses have shown
96–98
that treatments with high initial costs such as isotretinoin (a potent oral treatment for acne), terbinafine
99 100
(an anti-fungal agent), cyclosporin A (for treatment of resistant psoriasis) and calcipotriol ointment
101
(a new topical vitamin D preparation for treatment of psoriasis) may be offset by reduced frequency of
follow-up visits, better compliance and higher clearance rates.
 Dermatology 295

Skin cancer

Primary prevention of melanoma (BII-3)

Concerns that excessive exposure and burning in the first ten years of life may be critical in the development
of melanoma have led the Health of the Nation to encourage efforts directed at informing school children of
4
the dangers of excessive sun exposure.
Preliminary studies in school children indicate that knowledge of skin cancer can be enhanced by such
102
schemes but studies in the UK have been unable to show that people’s sun exposure behaviour actually
103
changes as a result of such knowledge. No studies have yet showed that sunscreens reduce numbers of
4
melanoma cancers.
Since 1993 issues pertaining to skin cancer have been co-ordinated by a national UK Skin Cancer Working
a
Party composed of representatives from dermatology, cancer charities and the Health Education Council.
This working party is further divided into four sections which deal with the following:

1 cancer registration problems

2 helping the primary care team
3 helping hospital skin cancer services
4 public education.104

Secondary prevention of melanoma (BII-3)

Since thin melanomas have a relatively good prognosis, rapid access to specialists has been a priority for
health professionals. Many dermatologists run specially designated pigmented lesion clinics. The
establishment of a pigmented lesion clinic does not in itself influence melanoma prognosis in a population.
The main source of delay in seeking medical help has been shown to be because of patients’ lack of knowledge
of the significance of the lesion. Pigmented lesion clinics may provide an administrative focus for skin cancer
services and they may also play a part in public education and generation of important research data.
Publicity campaigns to alert the public to the early signs of malignant melanoma have been evaluated on a
before and after basis in the UK with mixed results and the effects on melanoma mortality are awaited.
Population screening for melanoma has not been adequately assessed, although the disease fulfils most of the
requirements for screening, especially in high risk groups such as those with fair skin.
105
Evidence that skin cancer screening is effective for melanoma skin cancer is incomplete. Secondary
prevention does not seek to reduce the incidence rates of these diseases.

Treatment of melanoma
Management is mainly by surgical excision. Narrow excision margins for thin lesions have been associated
with an excellent prognosis (AI). Thicker lesions may require wider excision and further surgery or other
treatment modalities (BII-2). The treatment of disseminated disease is disappointing (CII-2).

Non-melanoma skin cancer

Although non-melanoma skin cancer is a potentially preventable disease, the cost-effectiveness of primary
and secondary prevention of non-melanoma skin cancer in the UK is unknown (BIII). Surgical excision
produces excellent results in basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas of the skin (AII-1) and other treatment
modalities such as radiotherapy and cryotherapy may also be effective (BII-3). Some invasive tumours in
a
c/o British Association of Dermatologists, 19 Fitzroy Square, London W1P 5HQ.
296 Dermatology

certain anatomical locations may require more advanced techniques such as Mohs micrographic surgery, an
intensive time-consuming procedure which requires special training (usually in the US). Recurrence rates
however are the lowest for all procedures for removal of skin cancer (AII-2). Although people with one
non-melanoma skin cancer are at a high risk of developing further lesions, the optimum frequency and level
of review is unknown.

Acne (AI)
Treatments for acne vulgaris have been well evaluated.106 Consideration of disease severity107 and whether
lesions are inflammatory or non-inflammatory and compliance are the main determinants of therapy. Mild
disease is usually treated with topical agents such as benzoyl peroxide, tretinoin and isotretinoin, antibiotics
and azelaic acid. Long-term systemic antibiotics (minimum six months) and anti-androgens are used in more
extensive disease. Oral isotretinoin is used under specialist supervision for severe and unresponsive disease,
with excellent long-term results. Around 40% will be cured, 21% will require topical therapy only and the
98
remaining 39% relapsing usually with milder disease within three years of treatment.

Cost-effectiveness (AII-2)
Although a four-month course of oral isotretinoin for severe acne may appear to carry high initial costs (£650
including outpatient costs, 1991 prices), this was considerably less than the cumulative costs of conventional
97
treatment with rotational antibiotics and return visits to GPs (£2108). Simpson in 1993 calculated that the
96
cost per subsequent disease-free year was £192 for oral isotretinoin and a median cost per QUALY of £899.
The severity threshold where oral isotretinoin is no longer cost-effective in acne vulgaris is unknown.
Small changes in this threshold brought about by more demanding and articulate groups of patients with
high expectations of treatment, could have serious financial implications and alteration in the cost : benefit
ratio as illustrated in Figure 8.

Atopic eczema (BI to BII-2)

One randomized study has suggested that prevention of atopic eczema in children born to parents with atopic
108
disease may be possible by restricting maternal allergens and reducing household house dust mite levels.
Further studies are needed to assess the impact in unselected populations. Observational studies on the effect
of exclusive breastfeeding on the development of atopic eczema is conflicting and beneficial effects are likely
to be small (CIV).
The mainstay of treatment of mild to moderate atopic eczema is with emollients to moisturize the skin
(BIII) and mild to moderate potency topical corticosteroids (BI). Other treatments such as bandaging limbs
(BIII), topical tar (BIII), antibiotics for secondary infection (BIII) and evening primrose oil are also used,
although the additional benefits may be small. The roles of allergy testing and environmental manipulation
have not been adequately assessed. No treatments have been conclusively shown to alter the natural history
of established atopic eczema. Given such limitations in treatment patients value adequate time to have the
nature and prognosis of the disease explained to them, as well as easy access to a specialist during
109
exacerbations. Severe atopic eczema is usually treated with potent topical corticosteroids (BII-2) and other
measures such as short courses of oral corticosteroids (BII-3), ultraviolet light (BII-3), traditional Chinese
herbs (BII-1) and other immunosuppressive agents such as azathioprine or cyclosporin A (BII-1), or hospital
admission (BIII). Cost-effectiveness studies are absent but one study has suggested that costs to patients
incurred by prescription charges for topical treatments are considerable even for milder cases in the
community (mean two month expenditure by patients of £22.50 compared with £16.20 direct NHS costs in
110
1993).
 Dermatology 297

10

Prevalence (millions)

4 c

2 b

a
0
Minimal Moderate Severe

Figure 8: Acne severity in females and the possible implications of changes in the threshold for treatment with
powerful agents such as isotretinoin. Even a small change in treatment threshold from a (severe disease) to b
(moderately severe) would result in a seven-fold increase in prescriptions. A change in treatment threshold from
a (severe) to c (moderate) would result in a fifteen-fold increase in prescriptions in absolute terms.
(Source: Based on actual data on acne severity in US females.107)

Psoriasis (AI to BII-2)

Smoking and alcohol are both risk factors for psoriasis which are amenable to public health manipulation
(BII-2) but their avoidance as a means of prevention or treatment of established psoriasis has yet to be
studied. Mild cases of psoriasis may be treated with a variety of effective topical treatments such as coal tar
(AI), dithranol (AI), topical corticosteroids (AI) and calcipotriol (AI). Ultraviolet light both in the form of
long-wave ultraviolet light (UVB) and oral PUVA is well established and is an effective method of treating
more extensive psoriasis (AI), although there is a small risk of long-term skin cancer in those receiving high
cumulative doses (BII-2). Severe disease may also be treated by immunomodulators such as oral acitretin
(AI), cyclosporin A (AI) and low dose oral methotrexate (AI). Day case topical treatment (AII-3) or hospital
admission is occasionally required for assistance in treating widespread or life-threatening disease. Cost of
methotrexate per year has been estimated at £875 (1993), £586 of which is due to the initial liver biopsy
required to monitor possible liver damage. Phytochemotherapy treatment for one year has been estimated to
101
cost around £560 and a six-week course of UVB ultraviolet light and tar baths at £222 (1993).

Cost-effectiveness
Although the unit cost of new drug developments such as calcipotriol (a topical vitamin D analogue) may be
high (£23.49 per 100 g tube compared with £2.06 for diluted betamethasone valerate ointment in 1993) this
may bare little relationship to its overall cost-effectiveness as savings may be made in terms of fewer
follow-up visits, less recourse to second-line therapy and possibly less inpatient admission which may be
101
costly. Similarly although second-line treatments such as cyclosporin A are expensive, preliminary
cost-comparison analyses suggest that such drugs may be up to four times less costly than conventional
100
treatments such as short-contact dithranol plus UVB therapy in a supervised outpatient setting.
298 Dermatology

Viral warts (AI to DIII)

Treatment of simple viral warts on the hands or feet is usually either by topical salicylic acid paints or liquid
nitrogen cryotherapy. There is little evidence to suggest that cryotherapy at three-weekly intervals is any
more effective than topical application of salicylic acid for simple hand and foot warts, each having a
111
three-month cure rate of around 60% to 70% after three months treatment (CII-2). Double freezing is
112
probably no more effective than a single freeze except for warts on the feet (AI). There is reasonable
evidence to suggest that considerable savings could be made by the provision of liquid nitrogen to GPs or by
113
health authorities employing nurses to treat warts (BIII). The cost-effectiveness of medical practitioners in
treating simple warts with liquid nitrogen has not been assessed (CIV). Although liquid nitrogen is cheap,
treatment is time consuming and this needs to be weighed against the fact that around 65% of viral warts on
111
the hands and feet clear spontaneously within two years.
It is probably wasteful of resources for dermatologists to be concerned with the routine treatment of warts
(DIII) but they may need to see patients with resistant warts, where a number of treatments such as
intralesional bleomycin, interferon, retinoids, topical sensitization and more prolonged or aggressive
cryotherapy have been tried (BII-1 to CIII).

Other infective skin disorders (AI to AII-3)

Controlled trials have shown that both oral and topical antibiotics are effective in treating bacterial skin
infections such as impetigo (AI). The pain and duration of herpes simplex infections may be reduced by
specific anti-viral agents such as acyclovir, either given topically or orally (AI). Short- and long-term pain
due to Herpes zoster infection (shingles) may also be reduced by high dose acyclovir administration (BI).
Many effective topical and systemic anti-fungal agents have been evaluated for the treatment of fungal
infections of the skin, hair and nails (AI). Systemic anti-fungals are required to treat fungal nail and scalp
infections and although the unit cost of newer treatments such as terbinafine and itraconazole may be high,
the cost-effectiveness of these drugs may be higher than cheaper alternatives because of shorter duration of
99
treatment, better cure rates and fewer follow-up visits (BII-3).

Benign tumours and vascular lesions (AII-3 to C4)

Benign tumours such as naevi, dermatofibromas and sebaceous cysts which cause discomfort or concern for
other reasons can all be treated by surgical removal with good cosmetic results and high patient satisfaction
(BII-3). No studies have examined the cost-effectiveness of treatment and its relation to the threshold of
intervention; although treatment by dermatologists is considerably cheaper than treatment by general
surgeons because of lower theatre and overhead costs. In Watford General Hospital for example, excision of a
skin lesion by a dermatologist was charged at a rate of £28, whereas an identical procedure performed in the
main theatre by surgeons cost £250 (JK Schofield, personal written communication, 1994). Treatment of
unsightly seborrhoeic warts with topical liquid nitrogen is highly effective with high degrees of patient
satisfaction (AII-3). The Candela flash lamp pumped pulsed tunable dye laser is considered as the gold
standard for treating facial port wine stains in children because of its high efficacy and low incidence of
side-effects such as scarring or pigmentary changes (AII-3), although techniques are continually being
refined. Treatment is likely to produce 50% lightening of the stain in 70% to 80% of patients and around
20% may clear completely. Best results are seen in small children where the mean number of treatments may
be reduced. Treatment costs are related to the number of treatments which are required but an estimate of
costs would be between £150–£300 per treatment episode with an expected number of treatments ranging
from 6–15 (S Lanigan, personal written communication, 1995).
 Dermatology 299

Although cost-effectiveness of such laser treatment has not been evaluated, the social stigma and
psychological morbidity for patients with these disfiguring marks can be very serious.
Treatment of solar keratoses with topical liquid nitrogen or 5-fluorouracil cream is effective (AIII) but the
extent to which treatment of visible lesions prevents the development of subsequent squamous cell
carcinomas is unknown. Large long-term trials will be needed to address this important question because of
the very low rate of malignant transformation of these common lesions and substantial rates of spontaneous
regression. Although the presence of solar keratoses is a marker of solar damage indicating a possible
increased risk of skin malignancy, the evidence that all such patients need to be followed-up is poor (CIV).

Leg ulceration AII-1

Primary and secondary prevention of leg ulcers in high risk populations such as the elderly has not been
assessed in the UK (CIII). Treatment of leg ulcers is tailored to the cause. Most venous ulcers respond
readily to adequate external graduated compression, wound cleansing, leg elevation and exercises. Healing
114,115
rates for venous ulcers with adequate external compression therapy vary from 33% to 60% at 12 weeks
(AII-1). Basic treatment is simple and is designed to counteract the effects of raised venous pressure in the
affected limb. Although many new topical ulcer preparations and dressings are available their advantage in
terms of cost-effectiveness over simple hydrocolloid alternatives for most venous ulcers is doubtful (BII-1).
Other treatments such as skin grafting may accelerate the healing of large ulcers and reduce costly inpatient
care (AII-1). Support groups such as healed ulcer clinics may play an important role in encouraging self-care
and prevention of ulcer recurrences (AIII).
Ischaemic ulcers require a different treatment approach as external compression may lead to irreversible
ischaemia and amputation. Vascular surgeons offer a range of treatments including arterial bypass surgery,
angioplasty or sympathectomy for ischaemic leg ulcers (AIII).
Costs associated with the treatment of leg ulcers may be high (£400 to £600 million in 1992) mainly due to
nursing time. One study has examined the cost-effectiveness of establishing community leg ulcer clinics
versus existing hospital-based services and found that community clinics were associated with higher healing
rates (80% and 22% healed at three months respectively) and less cost (£169 000 compared with £433 600
116
per year, 1993 prices for 500 ulcer patients in a district with a population of 270 000). This study referred to
a well-motivated research group in the community and caution should be exercised in generalizing costs and
healing rates to other settings. The study does however show that good healing at lower costs can be achieved
in well-run community clinics (AIII).

Contact dermatitis and other forms of eczema (AIII-3)

Contact dermatitis is a preventable disease and skin protection in high risk occupations such as cleaning work
is encouraged to a variable degree (AIII). Although most eczematous skin reactions respond to treatment
with topical corticosteroids and emollients to hydrate and protect the skin, treatment without investigation is
not cost-effective as the avoidance of external causes such as irritants or allergens identified through patch
testing may offer a permanent cure. Not all patients require referral for specialist assessment if features
elicited in the history and examination suggest an obvious cause. Treatment (including avoidance of
provoking factors) results in clearing or improvement of around 40% to 70% of those with hand eczema,
regardless of the cause. A range of effective treatments is available for ‘other eczemas’ such as seborrhoeic,
discoid, stasis, photosensitive and asteatotic eczema depending on the underlying cause (AII-3).
300 Dermatology

Other skin diseases (AI to CIII)

Too many skin diseases are included within this category to make any generalizations of effectiveness of
services. Treatment of some of the more common diseases such as symptomatic relief of urticaria by
antihistamines has been well evaluated (A1), whereas the treatment of many rare skin disorders is based on
case reports or uncontrolled series (CIII) because of practical difficulties in organizing randomized
controlled studies. It is important that purchasers appreciate that ‘treatment’ does not necessarily imply drug
treatment. Effective drug treatment may not yet be available in some serious skin diseases such as
epidermolysis bullosa but explanation, practical advice and special footwear to avoid skin trauma, surgical
procedures to release fingers trapped by scar tissue and access to specialist nursing care may be very valuable
for sufferers and their families (AIII).

Key points on service effectiveness

● The effectiveness of OTC preparations and pharmaceutical advice on the burden of skin disease in the
community is unknown.
● Little is known about the differential health gain of specialists versus generalists in the diagnosis and
treatment of common skin diseases.
● Some evidence suggests that the diagnosis and surgical removal of skin cancer is best carried out by
dermatologists.
● General practitioners are in the best position to manage mild to moderate common recurrent skin diseases
such as acne, psoriasis and atopic eczema.
● Better management of these conditions could reduce unnecessary referrals to specialists.
● Most viral warts do not require referral to a specialist.
● Outreach specialist clinics are probably not an efficient use of the limited specialist care currently
available in the UK.
● The cost-effectiveness of liaison dermatology nurses is unknown.
● There is reasonably good evidence to support the effectiveness of most treatments used for the common
skin disease sub-categories.
● Many skin diseases, especially skin cancer, are theoretically preventable but prevention programmes have
not been evaluated adequately.

7 Models of care
This section deals with a variety of alternative scenarios for delivering dermatological care and examines the
possible consequences of these models. By considering both ill-deployed services and opportunities for
investment in health care gain, an agenda is set for some potential changes in dermatological health care
provision. With such scanty and out-of-date information on the prevalence of skin disease and even weaker
data on economic costs of skin disease, the emphasis on direct costing estimates has been reduced in favour of
suggestions as to where shifts in the provision of skin care need to be explored, based upon available evidence.
The models of care topic requires further discussion and piloting before any decisions are made.
 Dermatology 301

Public health approach

Prevention of skin disease is more desirable than investment in expensive treatments and technologies for
sick individuals who present themselves at the end of a long chain of pathological events. The high
prevalence of many skin conditions combined with knowledge of their causes makes some of them an ideal
117
target for future public health intervention programmes. Infectious skin diseases such as scabies, head lice
and scalp ringworm outbreaks are obvious examples of appropriate management utilizing a public health
approach in order to facilitate disease control at a population level.
4
Skin cancer, a Health of the Nation target, is the most common form of cancer in the UK yet it is largely a
preventable disease. Already there is sufficient information on the link between ultraviolet light and skin
cancer and predisposing factors such as skin type to suggest primary and secondary prevention strategies are
worthy of further evaluation.
There is a chasm however between what might at first appear to be a sensible approach and what has been
shown to be effective in terms of skin disease prevention. For example although skin cancer fulfils most of the
requirements for a successful screening programme, randomized population studies examining the
cost-effectiveness of such approaches in various risk groups have not yet been performed. Urgent research is
105
required if costly programmes with low diagnostic yields and unnecessary public anxiety are to be avoided.
Early intervention of incident cases of leg ulcers when they are at a small stage in elderly groups is another
area where secondary prevention may be cost-effective. More research is required into the effects of
manipulating environmental risk factors for atopic eczema (e.g. reducing house dust mite and cow’s milk
exposure during pregnancy in high risk groups), psoriasis (reducing smoking and alcohol consumption) and
contact dermatitis (protection, education and use of substitutes for potent sensitizers) in order to formulate
the most efficient preventative strategies.
However lack of adequate research data should not be a reason for inaction over primary prevention of skin
cancer by attempts at altering public attitudes and behaviour (especially children) because the results of such
endeavours may not be known for several decades and the cost of forgoing such programmes are potentially
high in terms of mortality, morbidity and future treatment costs. Greater emphasis on prevention of skin
cancer by reducing excessive sun exposure in early and adult life can be justified, as well as the continued
emphasis on early diagnosis of melanoma skin cancer. Widespread screening for skin cancer cannot be
105
currently recommended until further research is conducted.

Service approach

This approach considers possible changes in existing services in the light of the prevalence and incidence of
skin disease and available effective treatments so that people are treated in the appropriate health care setting
by appropriate personnel. Generalizations for skin disease as a whole may be difficult since different skin
disease sub-categories may have different health care requirements. For example the shift in services for viral
warts should be from secondary towards primary care because hospital treatment is expensive and no more
113
effective than in the community; whereas there is a strong argument that dermatologists should see all
patients with skin malignancy because the cost of missing a case or inadequate excision of a lesion could be
78
high.
302 Dermatology

Current evidence would suggest that demand for dermatological services is likely to increase over the next
30 to 40 years because:

1 prevalence surveys have indicated a large iceberg of people with unmet dermatological needs, most of
2,3,118
whom would like treatment if they knew effective treatment was available
2 the public exposed to a US-style culture which encourages use of specialist services and empowered by
the Patient’s Charter are more likely to request specialist referral for milder common chronic skin
diseases, thereby exerting greater pressure on GPs to reduce their threshold for specialist referral
119,120
3 the prevalence of three of the most common and most costly skin diseases – skin cancer, atopic
6 121 5
eczema and leg ulcers is increasing and will continue to increase with an ageing population
4 there may be increased demand for attention to skin lesions which were formally considered as cosmetic
problems by physicians.

The drug industry has been quick to recognize the large burden of untreated disease in the community and
some companies are actively distributing posters in sports centres and advertisements in newspapers in order
122
to increase the public’s awareness of the particular condition that their product is used to treat. Any health
care strategy which focuses solely on the relationship between primary and secondary care is doomed to
failure unless it considers the enormous and unstable burden of people with unmet dermatological needs.
Small changes in awareness within this population are likely to have a far greater effect on dermatological
services than minor changes in referral patterns.
Three scenarios for dermatology health service provision are now discussed in the light of these projected
increased service demands.

Maintaining the current passive response model

Although the status quo model involves the least organizational disruption, such a passive response to
demand is likely to perpetuate and possibly exacerbate the mismatch between need and supply at all levels of
health care delivery and be the least cost-effective in the long term. Specialist services are already saturated
and long waiting lists are the norm. Hospitals in the London area have been particularly hard hit, with
waiting lists varying from four to 46 weeks whilst at the same time losing 68% of dedicated dermatology beds
28
and 60% of trained dermatology nurses. Such a stressed system lacks the flexibility to respond to even small
further increases in demand without compromising the quality of patient care. The direct costs per 100 000
population of the current system at 1994 costs for one year are estimated at £1.26 million (GP consultations
£0.29 million, inpatient costs £0.45 million, prescription costs £0.32 million, dispensing costs £0.08 million,
dermatology outpatient costs £0.12 million).

The outreach clinic model

Dermatology is a unique specialty in that a considerable proportion of diagnoses can be made on the basis of
history and examination alone. This makes it an appropriate specialty for developing in a community setting
and the idea of employing dermatologists solely as community specialists serving a series of ‘outreach’ clinics
might appear attractive at first. Whilst the provision of medical services at a location convenient to the patient
is a desirable aim, such a scheme would result in giving undue attention to a few at the expense of others,
given the current number of dermatologists in the UK. With around 223 dermatologists and 28 460 GPs
52
(with an average of three per practice) currently in the UK, one dermatologist would have to cover 42 health
centres. Even if clinics were held once a fortnight at each centre, then with five clinics per week, each
dermatologist could only manage to cover ten health centres.
 Dermatology 303

If equity of coverage is to be maintained this strategy would require a four-fold increase in dermatology
specialists. With only two extra dermatology unified training grade posts being announced by SWAG for the
whole of England and Wales in 1996, it is hard to envisage how this approach could work. Such a top heavy
service is probably least efficient in terms of costs and use of expertise. Some surveys have suggested that
28
around half as many patients are seen in outreach clinics when compared with their hospital equivalents and
around one-third of such patients require further procedures for which referral to hospital might have been
more appropriate.
Another problem is that funds (e.g. to employ retired dermatologists to run outreach clinics) may be
directed into the private sector rather than into developing and training local dermatology services. Other
90
studies have suggested that outreach clinics have not increased the interaction between GPs and specialists,
a finding echoed by the BAD survey which found that a GP or GP trainee sat in with the dermatologist in
123
only 6% of outreach clinics. Another study in Aylesbury found that GPs did not attend outreach clinics
124
run by a consultant dermatologist, despite initial agreement, although this study found that these clinics
were an excellent setting for teaching dermatology to local nurses.
Although many GPs quite reasonably hold the view that outreach clinics can improve their access to and
involvement with a dermatologist, a recent consumer survey in Stoke-on-Trent suggests that the provision
86
of outreach clinics is not the wish of the majority of patients, with most wishing to be followed-up by a
specialist in a hospital centre.
The removal of dermatologists from a hospital base also holds potentially serious implications for the
development of future services. Given the low ratio of specialists per population, specialists are best retained
in hospital sites because of access to diagnostic facilities such as patch testing, specialist nursing support,
specialist treatment facilities such as PUVA, access to counselling services for patients with chronic or
disfiguring conditions and contact with other members of the professional team such as plastic surgeons,
radiotherapists and paediatricians.
With a complement of over 1000 skin diseases support from other consultant colleagues over diagnostic or
therapeutic difficulties is also important for patients. Dermatologists are also needed in hospitals to see
patients with serious systemic diseases who also have dermatological manifestations as their input frequently
87
helps in diagnosing or managing that condition. Since skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in
human populations dermatologists must be retained in cancer treatment centres because of their diagnostic
skills and experience at surgically treating large numbers of people at low cost.
The removal of dermatology as a hospital based specialty would pose difficulties for training and research
by losing a critical mass of patients and staff. Dermatologists also need access to hospital beds where patients
can be cared for in an appropriate environment by appropriately trained dermatology nurses.
Whilst a shift in emphasis from hospital to community care for dermatology is desirable for most common
skin disorders the ad hoc adoption of outreach dermatology clinics in the absence of a large expansion of
dermatologists and financial investment is likely to result in unequal coverage of the whole population and
possibly an erosion of the specialty in general. With an estimated four-fold expansion of dermatologists and
reduced numbers of patients seen in outreach clinics (many of whom are likely to have milder skin disease
and who might not have otherwise been referred) this model would also be the most costly option in the long
run, representing an additional estimated £0.36 million per 100 000 population. This would increase the
estimated service costs from £1.26 million for the status quo model in 1994 (page 302) to £1.63 million. This
estimate does not take into account extra prescribing and dispensing costs and increased GP’s time.
The other extreme of this model i.e. routine open access to specialist clinics could lead to fragmentation of
patients’ care and undermine the unique role of the GP as a generalist with higher rates of intervention and
125
higher costs. It would also lead to the overmedicalization of patients and propagate the ‘collusion of
126
anonymity’ where many specialists see a patient but no one accepts overall responsibility.
304 Dermatology

Such outreach clinics need to be distinguished from ‘outpost’ clinics conducted in remote areas by
dermatologists on a firm basis of geographical need which have been in place long before the recent health
123
service reforms.
Other modifications of the outreach clinic approach exist such as moving a regular hospital clinic to a
community location strategically located close to purchasing district boundaries (as opposed to a
127
dermatologist visiting several individual general practices). Offering more convenient locations to patients
and direct training to GPs (providing attendance by GPs is mandatory) are advantages of this system but
given that the same number of dermatologists will have to staff such clinics in the same number of sessions it
is not clear how this approach offers any advantage over the status quo model in terms of waiting lists. Such a
system may help to attract more business away from neighbouring services where there is an abundance of
128
competition but shortage of patients is unheard of in most dermatology departments. Given the shape and
size of the dermatological iceberg there is clearly an enormous amount of dermatological demand that can be
passed as ‘business’ in today’s purchaser/provider culture but in over-stretched areas, such increases in
business will need an equivalent service investment.

The hybrid model

This model proposes an integrated district approach to serving the dermatological needs of its community by
building on the strengths of existing services. Within the next 20 years several factors will combine to reshape
the pattern of the NHS into smaller more specialized acute centres with a focus on short day cases and
complex treatments. The corollary is an extended role for primary and community health services which is
125
capable of delivering some of what currently takes place in hospitals. Purchasing, as a new strategic tool,
82
could extend the scope of these boundary changes.
A hybrid model is proposed of:

1 developing community services by the formation of district dermatology liaison teams

2 establishing dermatology treatment centres in the community set up at sites convenient to the public
3 maintaining a critical mass of expertise within hospitals
4 involvement of community pharmacists.

Research into such shifts of emphasis should start with the user’s experience.

Developing community dermatology services by establishing a liaison team

This could be accomplished in a number of ways but the formation of a district liaison team of
dermatologists, GPs, dermatology nurses, community pharmacists and public representatives could provide
a framework for further development. The function of such a team would be to identify areas for releasing
ill-deployed services (e.g. dermatologists treating simple warts or straightforward acne) which could be
harnessed for areas of potential health gain such as improving services for the early assessment and treatment
of skin cancer.
Issues such as current variations in referral patterns and unnecessary specialist referrals could also be
addressed by such teams so that dermatologists are deployed for what they are best at doing i.e. diagnosing
skin disease and suggesting management for severe/difficult cases. The dermatology liaison team would
formulate targets for referral and management policies for common skin diseases based on guidelines
developed by BAD and the Royal College of General Practitioners. Such an approach would present a more
consistent and explicit approach to consumers of health care. Corporate needs assessments which are
sensitive to issues such as age and ethnic group composition of the local population could be performed so
 Dermatology 305

that decisions regarding what should be considered cosmetic and what constitutes reasonable need could be
made more explicit, enabling dialogue between consumers and health care providers.
Other ways of improving the practice of dermatology within the community could be through shared care
schemes, such as those used for people with asthma and diabetes. These could serve as models for other
common and occasionally severe skin diseases such as atopic eczema and psoriasis in order to use the
resources of the primary care team already in place more effectively. Such a scheme would release
dermatologists from following-up large cohorts of patients with chronic skin disease thereby reducing
waiting lists so that his/her skills could be used more appropriately for new patient assessments.
Chronic skin disease management clinics in primary care could provide a useful educational setting for
both patients and members of the primary care team and the establishment of registers could enable more
50
appropriate services and audit to be carried out. This requires the ability to distinguish those individuals
with simple maintenance needs from those who need specialist care for stabilization or special treatment as
82
well as a professional commitment and adequate funding to producing and developing guidelines.
The use of technologies such as high resolution video cameras, high quality photographs, or digital images
transmitted down telephone lines as a means of obtaining a rapid opinion from specialists, especially for
129,130
straightforward disorders, needs further evaluation. The concept of teledermatology as a means of
increasing contact between GPs and dermatologists sounds promising and such an approach may be
particularly useful for specialists covering remote communities in a large geographical area. It is unclear
whether such a system will help dermatology waiting lists given the current number of available
dermatologists, as, given the enormous size of the dermatological ‘iceberg’ it is possible that such a
convenient system will simply encourage a large increase in teleconsultations for transient skin problems
which GPs would have otherwise managed themselves. Whether the quality of images will be sufficiently
high for dermatologists to make difficult diagnoses (e.g. over-pigmented lesions where the cost of false
reassurance may mean the difference between life and death) is questionable but some preliminary work has
129
suggested a role for teledermatology in triage of pigmented lesions. Patients may value the convenience
that teledermatology may offer them, although simple image transmission will deny them the opportunity of
benefiting from a personal consultation with dermatologists to discuss treatment options and prognosis.
High resolution audio-visual contact could offer a direct two-way consultation between a GP, patient and
dermatologist but with the large demand for consultants’ opinions, such a system might become quickly
choked leading to on-line queues with patients waiting hours in order to get through. There is a danger that
as this technology spreads it will become increasingly difficult for clinicians to invite patients to participate in
131
randomized trials – a situation that implies that the position of clinical equipoise has been missed. Further
evaluation of teledermatology from the user’s perspective, with consideration of diagnostic accuracy and
cost-effectiveness from the provider’s and purchaser’s perspective along the lines of the US National Library
132
of Medicine Teledermatology project is urgently required.

Establishing dermatology treatment centres within the community

Many of the nursing activities of hospital dermatology outpatients such as day treatment for psoriasis,
ultraviolet light therapy, leg ulcer treatment, wart treatment and counselling and treatment of common skin
conditions such as atopic eczema could easily be carried out in the community providing adequate facilities
and close supervision is made available (K Dalziel, personal communication, December 1994). Under this
scheme hospitals will remain as assessment centres for new patients (or rapid access for those with unstable
conditions) with the treatment being carried out in the community closer to patients’ homes at flexible times
to fit in with patients’ work and school commitments. Senior dermatology nurses could run such centres with
accountability to a named dermatologist and a group of GPs. Such a system would need further development
of training nurses in dermatology and rigorous monitoring for compliance to guidelines such as those
133
developed by the British Photodermatology Group for ultraviolet light therapy. The extended role for GPs
306 Dermatology

would require more incentives for educational development in dermatology and those with special interest in
dermatology could play a key role in ensuring continuity of care in the treatment centres. The number of
treatment centres required would be calculated from estimated numbers of patients currently attending
hospitals for such treatment at present (approximatley one-third to half of follow-up visits, equating to
around one centre per 100 000 population).

Maintain hospital-based specialists and use their skills more effectively

Dermatologists need their hospital facilities and colleagues in order to function effectively. Dermatologists
would be responsible for rapid assessment of those who need help and for supervising treatment centres.
Skin cancer is one area where there is strong argument for dermatologists to take the main responsibility for
initial assessment. Establishing the ‘correct’ number of specialists will be difficult without further
information about the differential gain of specialists over GPs for each skin disease sub-category. The British
Association of Dermatology has recommended that in order to ensure a continuing quality service one
dermatologist per 100 000 will be needed (still the lowest ratio in the EU). This ratio can only serve as a guide
as it depends on other factors such as urban/rural mix, the availability of specialist dermatology clinics such
as paediatric or tumour clinics and junior staff support. Lower follow-up ratios usually mean that those who
are recalled for follow-up visits are often more complex than the traditional dermatology follow-up patients,
and this along with an increasing tendency to practise defensive medicine will mean that dermatology
consultation times will increase in the future. A maximum of 12 new patients or 24 return patients or a pro
rata mix per single consultant session has been recommended by BAD. Some highly specialist services such
as phototesting for light sensitivity or diagnosis of epidermolysis bullosa are probably best dealt with at a
regional or supraregional level.

Involvement of community pharmacists

Better public information about effective OTC skin preparations and involvement of community
pharmacists in providing better information regarding the treatment of common mild skin diseases such as
44
acne could lead to substantial savings in consultation and prescribing costs, given that around 50% of
30,31
people with skin complaints self-medicate. This may not appear at first to be the remit of purchasers but
they could ensure that local pharmacists are linked with the district dermatology liaison team so that locally
approved information leaflets concerning common skin diseases are made available to those who seek help at
community pharmacists.
In summary the hybrid model emphasizes strengthening existing services by improving communication
and co-operation between various health care providers, encouraging greater public participation in deciding
appropriate levels of care and a shift of care towards developing treatment facilities in the community. It is a
model which recommends improved co-ordination of available skills. The model offers a quality service
which would:

● ensure many entry points into a system which provided consistent advice or support
● develop a real ownership between professionals and patients
● promote informed expectations and outcome measures
● develop an appropriate cascade of expertise with access to a named person/case manager.

Such a scheme would need adequate financial support for implementation of educational programmes and
collaborative initiatives between local teams. The total running costs of such a hybrid model would depend
on the needs and priorities of the local population but a for a mixed urban/semi-urban population of 100 000
in the Nottingham area, around £1.47 million would be required at 1994 prices (excluding initial building
 Dermatology 307

costs of community treatment centres). This estimate assumes a consultant/population ratio of 1 : 100 000
but with a 16% reduction in dermatology outpatient running costs due to the availability of community day
treatment facilities (£0.2 million), a 11% reduction in inpatient costs due to day treatment facilities
(£0.4 million), running costs for one community skin treatment centre treating 1000 patients per annum
(£0.05 million), the appointment of three additional ‘F’ grade community specialist liaison dermatology
nurses (£0.08 million), an implementation fund of £0.05 million and costs for GP consultations and
prescription and dispensing remaining the same as current expenditure (£0.29, £0.32 and £0.08 million
respectively).

Summary

● Care models that focus solely on the relationship between general primary and secondary dermatological
care are likely to fail unless they consider the large and unstable burden of unmet dermatological needs.
● Most common skin diseases can and should be managed in the community.
● Some shift from secondary to primary care for dermatological services is desirable but it will need
considerable investment in terms of GP education and/or specialist expansion.
● Initial assessment of all skin cancers should be performed by dermatologists.
● Retaining the current system of dermatology services without specialist expansion is likely to fail patients
by not responding to unmet needs and responding inappropriately to increased demands.
● A shift of dermatologists away from hospitals into community-run outreach clinics would require a costly
four-fold expansion of dermatology consultants in order to ensure equitable care, with serious
implications for the future of dermatology development as a scientific discipline.
● A hybrid model consisting of hospital-based dermatology assessment centres, shared care clinics in
primary care for chronic skin diseases and community-based treatment centres run by dermatology
nurses accountable to district dermatology liaison teams is described.
● Individual skills are used more appropriately in such a scheme in that assessment is carried out in
hospitals where appropriate facilities are available and treatment is carried out nearer patients’ homes.
● The formation of a local dermatology liaison team of dermatologists, dermatology nurses, GPs, local
pharmacists and public representatives could form the basis for corporate needs assessments which are
sensitive to local issues.
● Cost estimates for the hybrid model (£1.47 million per 100 000, 1994 prices) are slightly higher than the
status quo model (£1.26 million) but less costly than the outreach clinic model £1.63 million and offers
additional flexibility for adjustment to future demands in skin health services.
● New technologies such as teledermatology which enhance communication between GPs and
dermatologists require further evaluation before they become adopted in practice.

8 Outcome measures
The development of generic outcome measures in dermatology is still in its infancy and most practical
measures which could be used to monitor effectiveness of current services are indirect. Given the vast
differences in needs of patients with different skin diseases simplification of outcome measures for
dermatology as a whole may be misleading. For example an elderly person who has had an incidental,
symptomless basal cell carcinoma removed by his or her doctor may not record any change in a life quality
index measurement, as it was not perceived as a problem by themselves in the first place. In contrast a family
whose child has a severe atopic eczema which is unresponsive to most medical therapies may still find that the
support and information given to them by their doctor are extremely useful but such a beneficial outcome
would not be evident with a measure such as ‘percentage reduction in surface area of affected skin’.
308 Dermatology

Direct outcome measures

● Simple surveys that assess patient satisfaction regarding adequacy of information provided by
GP/dermatologist/nurse regarding their skin condition.
● Disease-specific outcomes such as improvement in acne disability index, improvement in sleep loss for
atopic eczema sufferers, duration of remission following psoriasis treatment, percentage satisfied or
symptom free after reassurance or removal of benign skin tumour, percentage warts clear at three
months, venous ulcer healing rates of over 33% at three months and 45% at six months for
114
uncomplicated ulcers treated in the community and proportion of people with hand dermatitis who are
able to return to work within six weeks.
● Further development of the use of generic skin disease disability scores such as the Dermatology Life
Quality Index.

Indirect outcome measures

● Use of computerized pathology records to determine the thickness distribution of melanomas as an

indicator of possible patient delay in presentation.
● Use of pathology records to determine diagnostic accuracy of skin cancer request forms and adequacy of
excision margins.
● Use of pathology records to determine proportion of moles and seborrhoeic warts that have been excised
for ‘cosmetic’ reasons.
● Melanoma mortality in relation to tumour thickness compared with national rates.
● Recurrence rates of non-melanoma skin cancer.
● Re-referral rates for patients seen in specialist settings with different new or follow-up ratios as an
indicator of cost-effective use of specialist services.
● Appropriateness of referral for specialist advice as measured by proportion of warts referred and by
variations in referral rates between practices.

9 Targets
Dermatology fulfils all of the Health of the Nation target requirements, i.e. it is a major cause of avoidable ill
health, effective interventions are available and it is possible to set objective targets and monitor progress.
Requesting evidence for efficacy of new technologies such as photophoresis for systemic sclerosis,
teledermatology, laser treatment for strawberry haemangiomas etc. is a positive action. However insisting on
high quality evidence for all dermatological interventions currently carried out on the 1000 or so skin diseases
is unrealistic given the low priority accorded by central and local funding agencies in evaluating
dermatological interventions.
Care must be taken in distinguishing between those procedures which urgently require further evaluation
because of lack of evidence and those where there is reasonable evidence against the use of the procedure.
Purchasers are in a good position to specify service priorities and targets – for example in the diagnosis and
treatment of skin cancer – but require close professional advice to ensure that, for example, carcinoma in situ
is not given priority over scarring acne or a flare-up of pustular psoriasis. Purchasers should not be misled
into believing that encouraging GPs to perform more minor surgery will cut the demand for dermatology
134,135
surgery; though it may well reduce standards.78 Improved training of GPs in dermatology, while
 Dermatology 309
25
important for patients, does not reduce referrals to dermatology departments, though it may change their
76
nature.
The following targets are suggestions for dermatology which could be realistically accomplished within
the next ten years.

Prevention

● To educate every child on the dangers of excessive sun exposure through educational programmes
104
co-ordinated by the UK Skin Cancer Working Party.
● To inform outdoor workers on simple measures to reduce sunburn and cumulative ultraviolet light
exposure.
● To reduce the incidence of skin cancer in younger people and the prevalence of skin cancer in the elderly.

Information

● For each district to commission simple population-based needs assessment exercises for skin disorders
and to formulate service strategies based on the results.
● Each district to complete an assessment exercise on the direct and indirect costs of the dermatology
service.
● Computerized patient records of diagnosis and severity of skin disease in both primary and secondary
care.
● To achieve a 100% registration for melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer for each district with
regular review of the completeness and accuracy of data.

Service

● One dermatologist per 100 000 of the population.

● Retention of a core of hospital-based diagnostic facilities with access to inpatient beds.
● Dermatology outpatient waiting lists of under six weeks for a routine appointment, under three weeks for
a ‘soon’ appointment, within one week for an urgent referral and within 48 hours for a telephoned
emergency request.
● Demonstrable benefits to patients based on a range of outcome measures (including improved coping
with skin disability) in skin disease sub-categories in both primary and secondary care.
● Clear links between primary and secondary care with patient centred record keeping, combined audit
exercises and a clear description of what patients can expect from each level of service.
● Shared care schemes for common chronic skin diseases linked with national guidelines.
● The establishment of local district dermatology liaison teams to improve unexplained variations in
referral patterns and the establishment of community treatment centres.
● Inclusion of the commissioning of services located outside of normal working districts (such as laser
treatment for port wine stains) into current purchasing arrangements.
● Development of a good skin care guide that covers both primary and secondary care which makes it clear
to patients what they can expect from each service and who has responsibility for their care.
● An increase in dermatology training for GPs so that at least one in three have received additional training
by the year 1998.
310 Dermatology

10 Further information and research priorities

Care has to be taken in distinguishing between health care requirements and distress caused by skin disease
for which available treatment is not beneficial. Some degree of prioritization is inevitable with such a large
burden of unmet dermatological needs but these priorities should be more open so that they can be debated,
criticized and changed. Even with such explicit rationing some degree of implicit rationing will be necessary
at the point of service as this is likely to be more sensitive to the complexity of medical decisions and the needs
136
of personal and cultural preferences of patients, especially in a field where perception of disease is
intimately linked with personal and cultural factors. As Frankel has pointed out even if demand generally
137
exceeds supply this does not mean that particular health care requirements cannot be satisfied. Limited
data from the NHANES study suggest that only a certain amount of those with skin disease feel the need to
3
request help, adding some support to the concept that infinite demand may be a myth. Providing future
epidemiological surveys incorporate other factors which may influence health care requirements such as the
relationship between symptoms, examination findings, handicap and effectiveness of treatment, there may
be a realistic prospect of demand and supply achieving a balance for skin disease.
Because dermatology is such a vast and complex subject with health care requirements ranging from
simple reassurance for benign moles to life-saving interventions for skin cancer or drug eruptions,
dermatologists must be involved in future needs assessments if useful information is to be collected.
With the exception of protocols for better management of some common skin diseases in the population
and the provision of liquid nitrogen to all GPs for treatment of warts, there seem to be no glaring examples of
inappropriate distribution of existing services for dermatology. Rather the major omissions in NHS
provision for skin diseases are those which can only be filled by adequate research and development of
services.
Because of the vast nature of unmet dermatological needs, research should focus on skin disease in the
community, rather than on minor differences in existing primary care and secondary care. Research into the
determinants of health seeking behaviour is needed as well as research into how some of the population’s
dermatological needs might be met by other approaches, such as better OTC treatment and information.
The boundary between disease and cosmesis is especially blurred in dermatology and one which is likely to
shift according to availability of effective treatments and social attitudes. Normative care is likely to vary
according to local resources and interests. Just as patients are encouraged to participate in choices and
decision making, so populations should participate in the process of deciding with doctors and purchasers
138
about what constitutes reasonable demand, so that boundaries are explicit and open to further debate if
circumstances change. This is compatible with the NHS’ and dermatologists’ long-term strategic aim to
139,140
promote a healthy skin for all.

Ensuring a quality future service

● Urgent research to determine the prevalence and incidence of skin disease in different regions and age
groups throughout the UK and to investigate factors which influence people to seek medical care.
● An explicit policy based on public consultation to determine guidelines which will distinguish between
reasonable need and demand for dermatology services.
● Examination of the differential health gain and costs of specialist versus generalist or nursing care for skin
disease.
● Investigation of the cost-effectiveness of liaison dermatology community nurses.
● The development of achievable outcome measures for the nine common skin disease sub-categories
which could be built into contracts.
 Dermatology 311

● Research into the use of information technology which could increase the flexibility of the
primary/secondary care interface such as high resolution photography and shared computerized coding
systems for diagnosis, severity and costing.
● The development of a more co-ordinated approach to health services research in dermatology such as the
establishment of centres for systematic review and evaluation of outcome measures.
● Research into the effectiveness of OTC skin preparations and pharmacy advice for skin complaints.
● Cost-effectiveness of community skin treatment centres.
● Research into factors which enhance implementation of good practice guidelines.
● Randomized studies which examine the cost-effectiveness of screening for skin cancer in high risk
groups.
312 Dermatology

Appendix I ICD codes relating to skin diseases

ICD 9

Only diseases that commonly have cutaneous manifestations have been included. Readers are referred to
18
Alexander and Shrank for a more detailed alphabetical list of all possible dermatological entries in ICD 9.
Conditions belonging to sub-categories discussed in more detail in the text are in bold.

Chapter I: Infectious and parasitic disease

017 Tuberculosis of other organs
022 Anthrax
030 Leprosy
031 Diseases due to other mycobacteria
034 Streptococcal sore throat and scarlatina
035 Erysipelas
053 Herpes zoster
054 Herpes simplex
078.1 Viral warts
057 Other viral exanthemata
091 Erysipeloid
102 Yaws
103 Pinta
104 Other spirochaetal infection
110 Dermatophytosis
111 Dermatomycosis, other and unspecified
112 Candidiasis
114 Coccidioidomycosis
115 Histoplasmosis
117 Other mycoses
118 Opportunistic mycosis
128 Other and unspecified helminthiasis
132 Pediculosis (lice) and phthirius infestation
133 Acariasis (scabies)
134 Other infestation
135 Sarcoidosis
137 Late effects of tuberculosis
Chapter II: Neoplasms
172 Malignant melanoma of skin
173 Other malignant neoplasms of the skin
174.0 Paget’s disease of the breast
202.1 Mycosis fungoides
202.2 Sezary’s disease
216 Benign neoplasm of skin
232 Carcinoma in situ of skin
Chapter III: Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases and immunity disorders
277.8 Hystiocytosis X
 Dermatology 313

Chapter IV: Diseases of blood and blood forming organs

287 Purpura and other haemorrhagic conditions

Chapter V: Mental disorders

300.2 Parasitophobia
306.3 Psychogenic pruritus

Chapter VI: Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs

380 Disorder of external ear

Chapter VII: Disease of the circulatory system

446 Polyarteritis nodosa and allied conditions
448 Diseases of capillaries
451 Phlebitis and thrombophlebitis
457 Non-infective disorders of lymphatic channels

Chapter X: Diseases of the genitourinary system

607.8 Balanitis xerotica

Chapter XI: Complications of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium

646.8 Herpes gestationis, chloasma, pruritus gravidarum

Chapter XII: Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue

Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue
680 Carbuncle and furuncle
681 Cellulitis and abscess of finger and toe
682 Other cellulitis and abscess
683 Acute lymphadenitis
684 Impetigo
685 Pilonidal cyst
686 Other local infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue

Other inflammatory conditions of skin and subcutaneous tissue

690 Erythematosquamous dermatosis
691 Atopic dermatitis and other related conditions
692 Contact dermatitis and other eczema
693 Dermatitis due to taken internally substances
694 Bullous dermatoses
695 Erythematous conditions
696 Psoriasis and similar disorders
697 Lichen
698 Pruritus and related conditions

Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue

700 Corns and callosities
701 Other hypertrophic and atrophic conditions of the skin
702 Other dermatoses
703 Diseases of nail
704 Disease of hair and hair follicles
705 Disorders of sweat glands
314 Dermatology

706 Diseases of sebaceous glands (Acne vulgaris 706.1)

707 Chronic ulcer of the skin
708 Urticaria
709 Other disorders of skin and subcutaneous tissue
Chapter XIV: Congenital anomalies
757 Congenital anomalies of the integument
Chapter XV: Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period
778 Conditions involving the integument and temperature regulation of foetus and newborn
Chapter XVI: Symptoms, common signs and ill-defined conditions
782 Symptoms involving skin and other integumentary tissue
Chapter XVII: Injury and poisoning
995.1 Angioneurotic oedema
995.2 Unspecified adverse affect of drug, medicament and biological

Comment on usefulness of ICD 9 Chapter XII on skin disease

The ICD 9 chapter code for disorders of the skin and subcutaneous tissues (Chapter XII) is of limited
operational use because of problems with completeness, accuracy, diagnostic transfer and appropriateness of
diagnostic categories. Important exclusions from the ICD 9 chapter for disorders of the skin and
subcutaneous tissues include neoplasms of the skin, localized cutaneous infections such as fungal infections
and herpes simplex, perinatal skin disorders such as erythema toxicum, systemic diseases which commonly
affect the skin such as sarcoidosis and a range of other miscellaneous conditions such as hirsutism and
hyperhidrosis. Inappropriate inclusions within the ICD 9 coding for disorders of the skin and subcutaneous
tissues include some categories which are perhaps best regarded as ‘surgical’ such as acute lymphangitis, and
17
abscess of finger or toe.
The rationale for some of the diagnostic codes used in ICD 9 is not especially helpful for the purchaser
interested in common disease groupings. Some important categories are not mutually exclusive e.g. a child
with atopic dermatitis could be classified under atopic eczema, flexural eczema, neurodermatitis, infantile
eczema or intrinsic allergic eczema, permitting diagnostic transfer according to which is the predominant
36
fashionable term. Thus in the first national morbidity survey, there was apparently twice as much eczema
as dermatitis in the South West, whereas in Wales the position was reversed with three times as much
dermatitis recorded as eczema. The total incidence of the two however was almost identical in the two areas.
Unfortunately ICD 9 173, which codes for non-melanoma skin cancer, does not distinguish between the two
commonest forms of skin cancers, namely basal cell carcinoma (rodent ulcer) and squamous cell carcinoma.

ICD 10

Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues are coded as L00 to L99.19,20 The codes are grouped as follows:

L00–L08 Infections of the skin and subcutaneous tissues

L10–L14 Bullous disorders
L20–L30 Dermatitis and eczema
L40–L45 Papulosquamous disorders
L50–L51 Urticaria and erythema
L55–L59 Radiation–related disorders
L60–L70 Disorders of skin appendages
L80–L99 Other disorders of skin and subcutaneous tissues.
 Dermatology 315

Important exclusions from L00 to L99 include:

● malignant skin neoplasms (malignant melanoma of the skin C43, other malignant neoplasms of the skin
C44)
● carcinoma in situ D04 (excluding melanoma in situ)
● benign neoplasms of the skin (melanocytic naevi D22, other benign skin neoplasms D23)
● certain skin infections such as erysipelas A46, herpes simplex B00 (non-genital), molluscum B08.1,
mycoses B35-B49, infestations such as scabies B85-89 and viral warts B07.

A detailed list of exclusions which include congenital, perinatal and connective tissue diseases are given in the
20
opening section dealing with skin diseases of the ICD 10 handbook.
Appendix II UK prevalence studies of skin diseases
The table shows the PAGB study of self-reported skin disease.29

Table II.1: Two-week incidence of ailments of the skin according to diagnostic group and age in a stratified sample of 1217 UK adults and 342
children (the PAGB study29)
Base = all adults All Men (%) Women 15–19 20–34 35–64 65 years All Boys (%) Girls (%)
adults (%) years years years or over childrena
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Unweighted base 1217 589 628 140 334 526 215 342 185 157
Weighted baseb 1217 595 622 126 347 531 212 354 194 160
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Minor cuts and grazes 16 23 10 35 23 13 4 21 25 17
Acne/piles/spots 14 13 15 41 25 5 1 3 2 4
Bruises 12 12 12 30 16 8 5 22 25 18
Oily/greasy skin 10 9 11 27 17 5 1 1 1 1
c d
Bunions/corns/callouses 6 4 8 5 3 7 12 1
d d d
Discoloured skin/blotches/age spots 6 4 8 7 4 4 15
d c c d
Thinning/losing hair/baldness 6 10 2 3 6 10
Irritated skin 5 3 6 3 5 5 5 2 2 1
d d d
Varicose veins 5 2 7 1 2 7 7
Rashes/skin allergies 4 3 5 4 5 5 3 5 7 3
c
Chapped skin 4 2 6 4 6 4 3 4 1
d c d
Minor burns/scalds (not sunburn) 4 3 5 5 6 4 1
Insect bites/stings 4 5 3 6 4 4 3 2 1 3
d d d
Piles/haemorrhoidal problems/itching 4 3 4 1 2 4 7
Athletes’ foot 3 5 2 4 5 3 3 2 2 1
Ingrown toenail 3 2 4 2 2 4 4 1 1 1
Warts 2 2 3 6 3 2 1 1 1 1
d d
Animal bites and scratches 2 2 3 7 4 1 1 2
c c d
Psoriasis 2 2 2 1 1 3 2
c d
Sunburn 2 2 2 5 4 1 1 2
Severe dandruff 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1
Eczema 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 3 1
d
Septic/infected cuts 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1
Verruca 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 3
c c d d d d
Boils 1 1 1 2
c d c c d d d d d
Headstroke/sunstroke 1
d d d d d d d
Head lice 1 1 1
d d d d d d d d d d
Ringworm
d d d d d d d
Nappy rash 5 5 6
d d d d d d d
Cradle cap 4 3 4
a
Data collected by proxy from mothers.
b
Weighted to population structure of the UK.
c
Less than 0.5% but not zero.
d
Zero.
 Dermatology 317

Table II.2: Estimated prevalence of skin diseases (per 1000) by age group and grade of severity in 2180 adults in
Lambeth2
Age group (years)
15–24 25–34 35–54 55–74
Grade of severity All Mod- All Mod- All Mod- All Mod-
grades erate grades erate grades erate grades erate
and and and and
severe severe severe severe
Eczema 122.7 72.6 35.4 34.2 126.5 89.4 64.4 38.0
Acne 273.2 137.8 78.7 34.5 57.2 8.9 20.3 8.6
Scaly dermatoses 60.5 9.8 35.3 14.0 56.4 40.1 173.0 35.8
Prurigo and allied 66.8 38.4 42.4 34.4 122.6 32.6 54.0 50.8
conditions
Erythematous and other 14.2 – 99.4 4.1 89.4 15.2 73.0 55.1
dermatoses
Warts 61.5 – 35.3 7.1 3.1 – 59.1 –
Psoriasis 4.2 – 51.6 23.2 – – 16.4 3.6
Any skin condition 614.1 308.0 543.3 246.0 514.0 186.0 545.9 211.0

Table II.3: Use of medical care for major sub-categories of skin disease by grade of severity in 2180 adults in
Lambeth.
Group Grade of No. of Self General Hospital Use of No
severity persons medi- Prac- any treat-
(= cation titioner Outpat- Inpat- medical ment
100%) ient ient service
Eczema and prurigo Trivial 57 27 7 (12) 3 (5) – 8 (14) 26 (45)
Moderate/ 100 (47) 27 (27) 6 (6) – 30 (30) 41 (41)
severe 35
(35)
Acne Trivial 40 17 9 (22) 1 (3) – 9 (22) 18 (45)
Moderate/ 43 (42) 5 (12) 1 (2) – 6 (14) 25 (58)
severe 14
(31)
Psoriasis Trivial 6 – – 1 (17) – 1 (17) 5 (83)
Moderate/ 11 2 (18) 3 (27) 1 (9) – 4 (4) 6 (55)
severe
All other conditions Trivial 215 70 (33) 18 (8) 6 (3) 1 22 (10) 130 (60)
Moderate/ 94 28 (30) 19 (20) 7 (7) (0.5) 23 (24) 48 (51)
severe
Percentages are shown in parenthesis
318 Dermatology

Appendix III Prevalence of examined skin disease in the

US NHANES study

Table III.1: Prevalence of significant skin pathology among 20 749 US persons aged 1–74 years3
Condition Male Female Both
sexes
Rate per 1000 population
Persons with one or more significant skin conditions 339.8 286.6 312.4
Significant skin conditions, all types 499.4 383.4 439.7
Acne vulgaris 70.5 65.9 68.1
Cystic acne 3.3 0.6 1.9
Acne scars 2.0 1.3 1.7
Xerosis 5.3 7.7 6.5
Dermatophytoses 131.4 33.7 81.1
Tumours 59.6 53.7 56.5
Malignant 6.4 5.3 5.9
Basal cell epithelioma 4.7 3.5 4.1
Benign 35.8 40.5 38.2
Pre-cancerous and not specified 17.4 7.9 12.4
Actinic keratosis 13.9 5.5 9.6
Seborrhoeic dermatitis 26.7 30.1 28.5
Atopic dermatitis, eczema 19.5 17.4 18.4
Atopic dermatitis 8.2 5.6 6.9
Lichen simplex chronicus 4.7 4.4 4.5
Hand eczema 1.1 2.1 1.6
Nummular eczema 1.0 2.4 1.7
Dyshidrotic eczema 3.1 1.2 2.1
Contact dermatitis 13.4 13.8 13.6
Ichthyosis, keratosis 9.3 9.6 9.5
Verruca vulgaris 10.3 7.2 8.5
Folliculitis 12.3 4.0 8.0
Psoriasis 5.9 5.1 5.5
Seborrheic keratosis 4.6 5.8 5.2
Vitiligo 3.6 6.2 4.9
Urticaria (hives etc.) 3.8 5.6 4.8
Herpes simplex 4.0 4.5 4.2
All other skin conditions 106.7 105.0 106.2

See also Figure III.1 on page 321.

Table III.2: Significant skin pathology and its relationship to subject’s concern according to sex category3

Age Both sexes Male Female

Skin Significant skin Non- Skin Significant skin Non- Skin Significant skin Non-
condi- pathology of: signi- condi- pathology of: signi- condi- pathology of: signi-
tion of ficant tion of ficant tion of ficant
concern skin concern skin concern skin
path- path- path-
Con- No con- ology of Con- No con- ology of Con- No con- ology of
cern cern concern cern cern concern cern cern concern

Rate per 1000 population

Total 118.2 97.1 215.3 21.1 128.2 108.0 231.8 20.2 108.8 86.9 199.7 21.9
1–74 years

Standard error of rate

Total 7.58 6.23 13.82 1.35 7.94 6.69 14.36 1.25 7.64 6.10 14.02 1.61
1–74 years

‘Concern’ implies that the subject expressed concern or complained about their skin condition
320 Dermatology

Table III.3: Proportion of skin conditions classified as significant by a dermatologist examiner in the NHANES
study3
Condition Skin condition
Total Significant Non- Proportion
significant classed as
significant
Rate per 1000 population %
Other skin disorders (vitiligo, traumatic 516.2 27.5 488.7 5.3
scars, ephelides etc.)
Ichthyosis, keratosis 432.7 21.8 410.9 5.0
Tumours, malignant and benign and 357.1 56.7 300.4 15.9
leukemias
Malignant tumours 11.6 5.9 5.7 50.9
Diseases of sweat and sebaceous glands 209.5 87.0 122.5 41.5
Other diseases of circulatory system 182.7 1.0 181.7 0.5
(Osler’s disease, telangiectasis etc.)
Corns, callosities 156.9 3.2 153.7 2.0
Lichen planus 140.6 0.8 139.8 0.6
Seborrhoeic keratosis 124.1 5.2 118.9 4.2
Seborrhoeic dermatitis 116.7 28.5 88.2 24.4
Dermatophytoses 81.1 81.1 – 7.8
Infections of skin (boils, impetigo, 60.0 15.9 44.1 26.5
infectious warts etc.)
Contact dermatitides 53.9 13.6 40.3 25.2
Diseases of hair and hair follicles 50.5 15.8 34.7 31.3
Pruritus 25.8 13.7 12.1 53.1
Psoriasis 14.3 8.8 5.5 61.5
Injuries, adverse effects of chemical and 3.8 3.7 0.1 97.4
other external conditions
 Dermatology 321

500

400
Rate per 1000 population

300

200

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Age group (years)

3
Figure III.1: Age-specific prevalence of one or more significant skin conditions in a US population.
322 Dermatology

Appendix IV The general practitioner morbidity surveys

Every ten years, the Royal College of General Practitioners conducts a survey of 25 to 60 practices in England
5,7,36,37
and Wales on every face-to-face consultation with patients over a one-year period.
The sample is not fully representative of England and Wales in that practices from the North, Midland
and Wales are over-represented whilst practices from the South are under-represented.
The studies also include too many practices with four or above principals and too many with larger list
sizes. The surveys are also limited by employing similar classification systems to ICD 9 and no direct
validation of diagnosis is available.
Despite these limitations the studies remain the most useful routinely available data on people who seek
help through the first entry point in the health service. Each study covers a total of around a third of a million
patients and slightly less patient–years. There have been no direct studies on validity of the diagnoses
entered by GPs into these statistics but indirect validation is available in the from of the confidence expressed
5
by the GP in the diagnosis given. These are summarized in Table IV.1.
Table IV.1: Confidence expressed by GPs in diagnosis of skin disorders
Symptom Diagnosis not Provisional Confident
advanced beyond diagnosis (%) diagnosis (%)
presenting (%)
Cough 4 20 76
Rashes 7 28 65
Sore throat 2 9 89
Abdominal pain 18 60 21
Back pain 8 52 40
Degree of confidence (%)
 Dermatology 323

Appendix V Prevalence of melanoma skin cancer

Malignant melanoma is a comparatively rare but potentially lethal form of skin cancer which develops in the
pigment-producing cells of the skin. There are three reasons why health professionals have expressed
41,119
concern over what may be a largely preventable cancer. First incidence rates in England and Wales have
4,41
doubled over the last ten years (Figure V.1). Second the disease affects young adults and third survival
rates could improve if more patients were treated at an early stage when excision may be curative.

250
Males Females
Standardized registration ratio

200

150

100
1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
Year

Figure V.1: Standardized registration ratios (SRRs) for melanoma skin cancer in England and Wales 1979 to
141
1988.

10
Melanoma accounted for 1142 deaths in England and Wales in 1992. In both men and women death rates at
120
ages over 40 years rose three-fold between 1959 and 1989. Mortality rates have also increased at younger
ages, though not so dramatically. New cases of melanomas were recorded in 1354 males and 2249 females in
141 41
England and Wales in 1989. Estimates for the whole of UK are shown in Table V.1. In Scotland it is the
41
most rapidly rising cancer. In a special survey in South Wales the crude cancer registration rates for
142
melanoma were 7.4 and 13.7 per 100 000 per year for males and females respectively.
Table V.1: Numbers of new cases and deaths from melanoma in 1988 for the UK41
Number of new cases UK 1988
England/ Scotland Northern UK
Wales Ireland
Males 1497 203 16 1716
Females 2394 300 28 2722
Persons 3891 503 44 4438
Numbers of deaths UK 1992
Males 565 46 12 623
Females 577 56 9 642
Persons 1142 102 21 1265
324 Dermatology

The most common type of melanoma is the superficial spreading melanoma – a lesion which can remain in a
horizontal growth phase for a period of several years during which removal may be curative. Prognosis of
melanoma which has not metastasized to lymph nodes is directly related to its depth of invasion into the skin.
Lesions removed at a thin early stage have a very good prognosis (over 92% five-year survival for lesions less
than 1.5 mm thick in females) whereas lesions presenting at a later thick stage fare poorly (five-year survival
143,144
of around 37% for lesions thicker than 3 mm). Melanomas are characterized by irregularity of shape,
colour and border – features which are usually easily recognizable by health professionals.
In an attempt to alert people to the importance of early diagnosis of melanoma several public education
campaigns were initiated by the Cancer Research Campaign in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These
well-intentioned campaigns generated a considerable increase in workload of benign pigmented lesions in
60–62,75
both GP and dermatology departments. Since the campaigns, the proportion of thinner, better
prognosis melanomas has increased, although these trends had been in place long before the campaigns were
62
started. Melanoma mortality has continued to increase in England and Wales although a flattening of
145
melanoma incidence has been reported over the last ten years for females in Scotland. Due to the long
latency of melanoma (incidence to mortality ratio of 3.9 for females and 3.2 for men) it is too early to assess
the effects of the public education campaigns for early diagnosis on melanoma mortality. Purchasers need to
be aware that whilst the Health of the Nation Target ‘to halt the year-on-year increase in incidence of skin
cancer by the year 2005’ is a noble one, it is most unlikely to be realized within the allotted time span because
of the lag between exposure and the development of skin cancer and the fact that a cohort of older patients
who have already received excessive ultraviolet light exposure through leisure activities will continue to
develop skin cancers such as melanoma for the next 40 to 50 years.
Melanoma is more common in fair skinned populations living in sunny climates such as Australia and
144
Southern USA. The increased incidence of melanoma has affected both sexes and all ages and there is
progressive risk for successive birth cohorts. These changes appear to be real as opposed to changes in
144
diagnostic criteria or increased reporting. Risk factors for melanoma include fair skin, red or blonde hair,
blue eyes, tendency to burn easily on sun exposure, tendency to freckle, excessive number of benign moles
and family history of melanoma. The importance of sunlight is illustrated by the association of melanoma
incidence in white skinned people with latitude, although melanomas may occur on non-exposed sites. In
addition to different susceptibility of melanoma, intermittent (recreational) exposure to sunlight is
146,147
important.
Unlike Australia and USA melanoma is more common in females in the UK, with a female to male ratio of
75
1.7 : 1, the reasons of which are unclear. Melanoma exhibits a social class gradient with higher rates among
professional and non-manual workers thought to be due to intermittent intense UV exposure. The
age-specific incidence rates increase with increasing age (Figure V.2). Melanoma is very rare in childhood
but around 20% of melanomas occur in young adults (20–39 years), whereas less than 4% of all neoplasms
occur in this age group. Standardized registration rates (SRRs) show some variation with region, with
highest rates in the Wessex and South Western regions (female SRRs 160 and 152 respectively) and lowest
141
rates in Northern and Merseyside (female SRRs 68 and 70 respectively).
 Dermatology 325

25

Males Females
20
Rate per 100 000

15

10

0
4 9 14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 79 84 85+
Age group (years)

141
Figure V.2: Age and melanoma incidence per 100 000 population for England and Wales in 1988.
326 Dermatology

Appendix VI Prevalence of non-melanoma skin cancer

(NMSC)
Of the NMSCs around 80% are basal cell carcinomas (BCC) and most of the remainder are squamous cell
carcinomas (SCC). In most countries NMSC is more common than melanoma skin cancer by a factor of ten
and BCC is much more common than SCC by a factor of four. Melanoma skin cancer on the other hand
10
causes more deaths than NMSC (1142 and 486 deaths respectively in 1992).
Official cancer registration statistics probably underestimate the incidence of NMSC by a factor of at least
141,148
two. Despite under-registration it is by far the most common form of cancer in the UK. There was a
141
total of 32 000 registrations for NMSC in England and Wales in 1988, with the majority of tumours
occurring in the over 60s age group. The incidence of both these tumours increases sharply with increasing
age (Figure VI.1). Considerable regional variation in NMSC registration rates are seen within the UK but in
the absence of complete data from special surveys it is difficult to comment on whether these differences are
due to differences in registration/awareness or whether they are due to the age and skin type structure of the
141
populations or whether they are due to total UVR exposure. Coastal areas with a large proportion of retired
people such as the South Western area have the highest rates (Figure VI.2). In a random sample of 560
142
subjects aged over 60 years in South Wales the prevalence of non-melanoma skin cancer was 2.1% (95%
confidence interval 1.1% to 3.7%) with a basal to squamous cell ratio of 5 : 1. The incidence of
non-melanoma skin cancers was 5.4 per 1000 person–years (1.2 to 15.6 per 1000 person–years). Malignant
melanoma was found in 0.2% of subjects (0.01% to 1%). Accurate and up-to-date statistics on the
prevalence of NMSC in different regions of the UK according to age or other high risk groups is absent. This
information is essential for the planning of appropriate services.

700
600 Males Females
Rate per 100 000

500
400
300
200
100
0
4 9 14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 79 84 85+
Age (years)

141
Figure VI.1: Incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer with age for England and Wales in 1988.
 Dermatology 327

140
Males
120 Females

100

80
SRR

60

40

20

0
North West Thames

North East Thames

South East Thames

South West Thames

Wessex

Oxford

South West

West Midlands

Mersey

North Western

Wales
Northern

Yorks

Trent

East Anglia

RHAs

Figure VI.2: Standardized registration ratios (SRR) for non-melanoma skin cancer for different regions of
141
England and Wales in 1988.

Very few people die from NMSC. The five-year relative survival rates for men and women were about 97%
10
for 1981 registrations and the ratio of incidence to mortality is probably around 160 : 1 if known
under-registrations are allowed for.
Susceptibility to both NMSCs is inversely proportional to degree of melanin pigmentation and most
tumours occur on areas of the body which have received large amounts of ultraviolet radiation over many
149
years, i.e. an effect of cumulative rather than intermittent exposure. There has been a striking rise in the
incidence of NMSC over the last 20 years in the UK (Figure VI.3). Some of this rise may be a
148
pseudoepidemic caused by increased reporting but increased recreational and occupational exposure to
sunlight is also important and this will continue to affect successive population cohorts well into the next 30
years because of the long latent period (decades) between exposure and disease. The amount of ultraviolet
radiation (especially UV-B) that will reach the earth’s surface will also increase as a result of depletion of
stratospheric ozone. It has been estimated that a 1% ozone depletion could give rise to a 1% to 3% increase in
149
both melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers. It seems likely that the cohort effects of excessive
recreational and occupational exposure to ultraviolet radiation, combined with an increasingly elderly
population and diminished ozone will ensure that prevalent cases of NMSC will continue to rise for at least
the next 30 years.
Although BCC and SCC are frequently grouped together in cancer statistics, there are some important
differences in the behaviour of these tumours. Basal cell carcinomas are slow growing tumours (years) of the
skin usually occurring on sun-exposed areas such as the face. If left untreated they eventually ulcerate and
cause local problems. Secondary spread is extremely unusual and surgical removal is highly effective. People
150
with a basal cell carcinoma are at a very high risk of developing further new lesions.
Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin has been related to cumulative sun exposure, and also typically occurs
on sun-exposed areas of the skin such as the head or backs of the hands in the elderly. These tumours grow
328 Dermatology

160
Males Females
Standardized registration ratio

150

140

130

120

110

100
1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
Year

Figure VI.3: Standardized registration ratios for non-melanoma skin cancer for England and Wales 1979 to
141
1988.

more rapidly (months) and can eventually metastasize if left untreated. As most NMSCs in white
populations are probably due to UV-B exposure, a change in sun exposure habits could greatly reduce their
incidence in future cohorts.
 Dermatology 329

Appendix VII Prevalence of acne

Acne vulgaris is a very common condition characterized by papules, pustules, comedones (blackheads) and
scars. It is caused by a combination of factors such as excessive and abnormal grease production, a bacterium
(Propionibacterium acnes) and other abnormalities of the skin which lead to plugging of pilosebaceous
openings. Mild degrees of acne are extremely common amongst teenagers and some have even considered it
16
as a physiological disorder. In discussing disease prevalence it is essential that some form of further
breakdown according to disease severity is considered. It is also important to realize that whilst these severity
gradings are reasonably objective they do not usually take into account the views of the sufferer. With
increasing awareness of effective medical treatment and a decrease in the threshold of what both patients and
doctor consider as a disease worthy of medical treatment, the distribution between the various severity
categories could change substantially in the future. This would have major cost implications, as shown in
Figure 8, page 297; as many more people exist with minor to moderate degrees of disease.
151
In a recent survey of Glasgow school children 83% of girls and 95% of boys had acne. Most of these
pupils had minimal disease and only 1.8% of boys and 0.3% of girls had moderate to severe disease in this
study. 9% of boys and 14% of girls had visited their GP because of their acne and 0.3% were referred to a
dermatologist.
Detailed analysis of 8328 people aged 15 to 44 years who were examined by dermatologists in the US in the
early 1970s suggested that 20.7% of females had minimal disease (comedones and small pustular
inflammatory lesions), 8.6% had moderate disease (comedones, pustules and deeper inflammatory lesions,
considered by the examiner as a true disease as opposed to a passing cosmetic change), with a further 0.6%
107
with severe disease (infected extensive cystic acne). Corresponding prevalence rates for males were:
19% minimal, 11.3% moderate and 1.4% severe. Scarring secondary to acne was noted in 5.8% of females
and 9.1% of males. Another US survey found that clinically significant inflammatory acne was present in
152
17.7% out of 435 boys aged nine to 15.
The prevalence of moderate to severe acne in the Lambeth study was 13.8% in those aged 15–24 years.2
Although much emphasis has been placed on teenage acne, moderate to severe disease may still affect a large
number of older individuals affecting about 3.5% of those aged 25 to 34 years and 0.89% of those aged 35–54
years. Of all those with acne recorded in the NHANES study 17% were younger than 15 years old, 81% were
3
aged 15 to 44 years and 2% were more than 44 years. There is no evidence that ethnic group is an important
152
determinant of acne prevalence when pubertal development has been adjusted for.
No data are available on the incidence of acne in the population apart from GP morbidity statistics which
5,7
reflects the incidence of those who choose to seek help. With over £11 million spent on OTC acne
preparations in the UK it is likely that the majority of sufferers do not seek a physician’s assistance. In 1993
153
the cost of prescriptions for treatment of acne by GPs and dermatologists was £44.8 million. An estimated
3.6 million consultations took place in GPs’ surgeries, with 57 000 specialist referrals. Apart from the
financial cost of acne, the human costs may also be high, since acne predominantly affects the face (Figure 2,
page 276). Around 70% of acne patients experience shame or embarrassment because of their acne and 27%
154
were depressed. A specially designed acne disability index has been devised to assess the psychological
effect of acne on the sufferer and disability correlates well with severity as measured by an objective grading
155
system in most people. There is however a small group of people whose disability appears to be out of
proportion with severity. Little research has been conducted into the handicap caused by acne but a recent
156
case-control study suggests that acne sufferers are more likely to be unemployed.
It is possible that there has been a decrease in the proportion of people with moderate to severe acne over
151
the last 50 years. Although some of this shift could have been due to changes in defining disease severity,
increased availability of effective treatment from chemists and GPs seems a more likely explanation.
330 Dermatology

Appendix VIII Prevalence of atopic eczema

Atopic eczema (or childhood eczema, infantile eczema, atopic dermatitis) is an inflammatory skin disorder
characterized by itching, involvement of the skin creases and onset in early life.
157
Genetic factors are important and hypersensitivity to a range of allergens and non-specific irritants may
158
be implicated. Although a tendency to dry irritable skin may be lifelong with atopic eczema, around 60% to
158,159
70% of children are clear of significant disease by their mid-teens.
Recent prevalence studies of children in temperate developed countries suggest an overall cumulative
160–162
prevalence of between 5% to 20% by the age of 11. Point prevalences of visible dermatitis in
populations of similar ages yield values approximately half of those for a history of ever having had atopic
163
eczema, compatible with the fluctuating nature of the disease. Data on the prevalence of severe disease is
scanty but it is likely that most cases are mild and can be managed with simple treatments. In a recent study of
695 school children in London where 8.5% were noted to have visible atopic eczema 60% of eczema cases
were considered to be very mild by the examining physician (i.e. required a moisturizer alone), 24% were
mild (warranting a moisturizer and weak topical corticosteroid) and 16% were moderate or severe (requiring
164
stronger topical preparations and a physician’s supervision). Prevalence estimates for adults suggest an
2,3,71
overall frequency of atopic eczema of between 1.2% to 10%.
Comparisons between different studies are limited, as diagnostic criteria which are suitable for
165
epidemiological studies of atopic eczema have only recently been developed. Even allowing for changes in
diagnostic fashion, there is reasonable direct and indirect evidence to suggest that the prevalence of atopic
6,166
eczema has increased two- to three-fold over the last 30 years. The precise reasons for this increase in
158
disease is not known but it is likely that environmental factors associated with urbanization are important.
Atopic eczema in childhood shows a striking social class gradient for both reported and examined
163
disease, with higher rates in socio-economically advantaged groups and smaller families. Ethnic group may
be an important factor for expression of atopic eczema. A recent study has found that the prevalence of atopic
eczema (measured in three different ways) was twice as common in London born Afro-Caribbean children
164
when compared with their white counterparts. Generalizations to other ethnic groups may be unwise. For
instance studies of Asian children in Leicester show that although they are three times as likely to be present
in specialist clinics than white children, no differences in prevalence rates were seen in a community
167
survey.
Although there are no recent national prevalence studies of atopic eczema in the UK data for examined
eczema from a national birth cohort study (the National Child Development Study or NCDS) points to
considerable variation in disease prevalence and region, with highest rates in the South East and
industrialized Midlands and lowest rates in Wales and Scotland.
Incidence figures are harder to obtain but unpublished data from the NCDS suggest around 50 cases per
1000 in the first year of life, falling to around five new cases per 1000 per year for the remainder of childhood.
Little is known about the direct and indirect costs of atopic eczema but it is clear that atopic eczema may be
168
a source of considerable distress to both the children and their parents. Atopic eczema consistently exhibits
94
some of the highest scores on the Dermatology Life Quality Index (a patient-derived tool for estimating the
misery caused by skin diseases). A recent study of adult and childhood atopic eczema in Scotland has
estimated that at least £288 million is spent annually on atopic eczema in the UK, with around one-third of
71
costs being met by patients. Although prevalence rates of atopic eczema were around five times higher in
children than in adults, those aged over 16 accounted for 38% of all atopic eczema patients in absolute terms
in this study.
 Dermatology 331

Appendix IX Prevalence of psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder characterized by red scaly areas and tends to affect areas
such as the knees, elbows, lower back and scalp. Onset of psoriasis is usually either in early adulthood or in
169
later life and this bimodal onset may indicate different causative mechanisms. Genetic factors are
important in psoriasis and environmental factors such as skin trauma, streptococcal infection, certain
medications, smoking, alcohol consumption and psychological stress may also play a role in disease
170
expression.
Epidemiological studies conducted in Northern Europe suggest an overall prevalence of between 1% to
33,34,171,172
3%. Adult males and females are affected equally but age of onset may be earlier in females. The
point prevalence of examined psoriasis was 0.5% (45/9263) and 0.8% (77/9263) at the ages of 11 and 16
173
respectively in the National Child Development Survey. Psoriasis may be less common in blacks and
174
oriental populations. Longitudinal studies to examine the natural history of psoriasis have not been carried
out but a retrospective questionnaire study suggested that between 36% and 55% of subjects experience
174
some form of remission of their psoriasis for one to 54 years. In this study 29% of patients considered that
their psoriasis went into remission without physician-directed therapy.
The Lambeth study found that 1.6% (95% confidence intervals 0% to 3.3%) of the population had some
psoriasis, a third of which was moderate to severe. Peak psoriasis prevalence was noted in the 25–34 years age
group, with a second smaller peak 1.6% in the 55–74 years age group. Around two-thirds of the 1.4% of
those noted to have psoriasis in the NHANES study were considered by the examining dermatologist to have
3
clinically significant disease.
A recent Gallup pole survey of 2019 people found that 5.5% of the public (or 8% of those aware of the
175
disease) claimed to suffer from psoriasis. This is considerably higher than examined psoriasis estimates
from prevalence surveys but may reflect incorrect diagnoses by the public, differences between point and
period prevalences and mild degrees of disease which might be ignored by physicians.
174
Although experience with hospital cases suggests that psoriasis is a chronic persistent condition, care has
to be shown in extrapolating this observation to milder community cases in the absence of appropriate studies
of disease periodicity.
It is not known whether psoriasis prevalence rates vary throughout the UK but GP morbidity data suggest
5
that a similar proportion of people seek advice about the condition throughout the UK.
332 Dermatology

Appendix X Prevalence of viral warts

Warts are caused by human papilloma virus, of which over 50 subtypes have been described. Genital warts
are usually treated in genitourinary departments and will not be discussed further here. Viral warts usually
occur on exposed areas such as the fingers, hands and feet. Warts occurring on the soles of the feet are often
referred to as verrucae.
The prevalence of examined warts according to medical officers in a representative sample of 9263 school
children in the UK (NCDS) was 3.9% (95% confidence interval 3.5 to 4.3) and 4.9% (95% confidence
176
interval 4.5 to 5.4) at the ages of 11 and 16 respectively. Other surveys in the Northern Hemisphere quote
177
prevalence rates of between 3% to 20% in children and teenagers, the wide range possibly reflecting the
conscientiousness with which warts were looked for. Further analysis of those ages with visible warts in the
NCDS showed marked regional differences in wart prevalence with an increasing gradient of wart
178
prevalence from the Southern to the northern regions at both 11 and 16 years of age. In this study wart
prevalence was also less in children born to parents with non-manual occupations, a finding echoed in the
2
Lambeth study. No sex differences in wart prevalence were noted in this study but children coming from
smaller families had a lower prevalence of warts perhaps reflecting decreased opportunity for cross-infection.
Visible warts were also twice as common in white Europeans when compared with other ethnic groups in the
NCDS study. This study also suggested that over 90% of those children with warts at the age of 11 had
176 177,178
cleared up by the age of 16. Other studies have suggested two-year clearance rates of around 65%.
Although viral warts are often considered as a condition of childhood and adolescence the Lambeth study
2
found that 3.5% of adults aged 25–34 years also had warts of which one-quarter were ‘moderate to severe’.
 Dermatology 333

Appendix XI Prevalence of other infective skin disorders

The most common cutaneous bacterial infections in the UK include furunculosis (boils), impetigo, and
folliculitis. Common viral infections other than warts include molluscum contagiosum, herpes simplex (cold
sores) and herpes zoster (shingles). Fungal infections are usually described according to the site which they
affect. The main forms include tinea corporis (affecting body skin), tinea capitis (affecting hair and
sometimes referred to as ringworm) and onychomycosis (fungal infections of nails).
2,3
Prevalence rates for this category range from 4.6% to 9.3%. These figures are to be viewed as a
minimum, since most infective disorders are transient and might be missed in point prevalence surveys. As
with any ‘rag bag’ category the prevalence rate will vary considerably with what is thrown into that bag and
comparisons between surveys is difficult as different diseases have been included in the category. Cutaneous
179
infections are also especially common in immunosuppressed individuals, such as those with AIDS or
transplant patients on immunosuppressive drugs and older surveys will underestimate the contribution of
skin infections by such groups. Incidence data for cutaneous infective disorders are required in order to plan
appropriate services but none are available for the UK. Morbidity statistics from general practice show that
7
at least 4% of the population per year consult their GP for a skin infection other than warts.
Bacterial impetigo and mollusca usually affect children, whereas boils and folliculitis peak in the 18 to 34
year age group. Herpes simplex shows a steady prevalence rate throughout the first four decades of life whilst
5
new cases of herpes zoster peaks increase strikingly in later life. In 1981/82 around 2.9 new episodes of
herpes simplex infection (cold sore) and 3.7 new episodes of Herpes zoster (shingles) per 1000 people were
5
recorded in general practice. Fungal skin infections of the scalp typically occur in childhood and may form
outbreaks in schools. Chronic fungal infection of the toe spaces (athletes’ foot) is commonest in young adult
3
life and this condition alone may affect as much as 3.9% of the population at any one time. A recent survey of
a representative sample of 9332 adults in the UK found that 2.8% of men and 2.6% of women suffered from
118
fungal nail infections and this increased to 4.7% in those aged 55 and over. Only 12% of those with nail
infections had sought specialist medical advice and of those who had not sought help, 80% would have liked
further treatment if they knew that effective treatment was available. This study estimated the incidence of
fungal nail infection at 4.8 per 1000 per year. Fungal infection of the feet and toenails is more common in
occupational groups such as miners and members of the armed forces, where it may affect 6.5% to 27% of the
180
workforce.
334 Dermatology

Appendix XII Benign tumours and vascular lesions

This category represents a heterogenous group of lesions such as moles, seborrhoeic warts, sebaceous cysts
and pre-malignant lesions such as solar keratoses. From an operational point of view the common end-point
of a consultation for a person with such a lesion is usually either to reassure and discharge, or perform minor
surgery to remove/biopsy the lesion for discomfort or diagnostic reasons. Many benign vascular lesions
occur on the skin but perhaps the most important lesions which purchasers need to be aware of are port wine
stains because of their persistent nature and effective but expensive treatment.
The elasticity of this sub-category is considerable, since every person has some form of benign cutaneous
lesion which may or may not cause them concern. Benign melanocytic lesions (moles) exemplify the
difficulties in deciding what to include within this sub-category. Most white adults have between 40 and 60
moles on their body. Some moles can look very worrying to patients and many will seek medical advice to
exclude malignancy. Some people may be very unhappy with the cosmetic appearance of their moles,
whereas the majority of people are probably not bothered by their presence. Thus even for one common
lesion there may be a range of concerns from none at all to cosmetic concerns or a wish to exclude malignancy.
Purchasers are probably only concerned with the last category but the relative proportions of these categories
are unstable. Small changes in the public’s anxiety about moles, as has occurred in conjunction with media
publicity directed at early diagnosis of skin cancer, or a small decrease in the threshold of what people regard
as cosmetically unacceptable (as has occurred with the unrealistic media image of a blemishless skin), will
have large implications for health services. Similar arguments apply to other benign tumours such as
seborrhoeic warts, which are almost universal in later life.
Both the Lambeth and the NHANES study evaluated the prevalence of benign tumours which the
2,3
examining physicians considered were worthy of medical attention. Although 20.5% of the Lambeth study
population were noted to have a tumour or vascular lesion of some sort, in only 7% of these was it considered
2
‘moderate to severe’. This corresponds to prevalence of 1.4% (95% confidence intervals 0.3% to 2.5%) in
this adult population. In the NHANES study clinically significant benign tumours and precancerous lesions
3
(excluding seborrhoeic keratoses) were noted in 5.1% of people. The prevalence of benign tumours and
precancerous lesions showed a striking increase with age from 2% in children to 13% in those aged 65–74
years.
It is possible that the threshold of what physicians might consider as worthy of medical attention might
have changed considerably over the 20 years since these important surveys were conducted. During this time
interest in the differential diagnosis of malignant melanoma has flourished and new concepts such as
dysplastic naevus syndrome have emerged.
Solar keratoses deserve further mention in their own right because of their high prevalence and
uncertainty regarding malignant potential. Solar keratoses are dysplastic epidermal lesions which occur in
pale-skinned individuals who are chronically exposed to bright sunlight. Prevalence rates in the Northern
181
hemisphere range from 11% to 25% with a striking increase in prevalence over the age of 65. A recent
study of 560 subjects aged 60 and over in South Wales reported a 23% prevalence (95% confidence interval
142
19.5% to 26.5%) of solar keratoses. The incidence of new lesions after one year in this population was 88
newly affected persons per 100 person–years (95% confidence intervals 66–114 per 100 person–years). Very
little is known about their natural history and role in carcinogenesis. Reported rates of malignant
transformation have varied from fewer than 1 : 1000 to 20% but recent prospective studies suggest that this
181
risk is likely to be less than 1% per year. Around 10% to 27% of solar keratoses probably remit
142,182
spontaneously.
Port wine stains are rare vascular malformations composed of mature capillaries which are present at birth.
Their presence can lead to considerable psychological disability if untreated. Unlike the more common
strawberry haemangioma, spontaneous resolution does not occur and the affected area can become more
prominent as the person becomes older. One previous study suggests an incidence rate of three per 1000 live
 Dermatology 335
183
births in the UK. Similar rates have been shown in a Finnish study of 4346 consecutive live births who
were examined by a dermatologist, where 0.23% (95% confidence intervals 0.09% to 0.37%) were born with
184
a port wine stain. Another study of 3345 Chinese infants born in Taiwan suggested 0.4% had a port wine
185
stain, most of which occurred on visible areas of the head and neck.
336 Dermatology

Appendix XIII Leg ulcers

The most common causes of leg ulceration in the UK are venous disease, arterial disease or a mixture of both.
The distribution of different types of leg ulcer in earlier studies is venous ulcers 70–90%, arterial ulcers
186
5–15%, mixed venous/arterial 5–10% and other causes 1 to 15%. In addition to a careful history and full
examination various non-invasive techniques such as Doppler ultrasound testing which can be performed by
trained nurses are used in assessing the relative contribution of venous versus arterial disease. The
proportion of people with significant arterial ischaemia rises with age from 5% in patients under the age of 70
187
years to 31% over this age.
188
Apart from pain, discomfort and inconvenience, leg ulcers may become infected or develop
189
superimposed contact dermatitis which requires further investigation with patch testing. Recurrences of
venous ulcers are high, with up to two-thirds of ulcers recurring within one year of discharge following
190
intensive hospital inpatient admissions.
Recurrence rates in the community have been studied less well but many ulcers remain unhealed for years.
A recent study in Watford suggests that referral for specialist assessment of leg ulcers is a relatively late event
191
(36% of 107 patients had their ulcer for over two years). This delay was important as arterial disease was
found to be the sole cause in 7% of cases and in four patients malignancies were found to be the cause of
121
ulceration. Surveys suggest that district nurses spend between 25% and 65% of their time treating ulcers.
192,193
The UK cost of treating venous ulcers alone has been estimated as £400 to £600 million in 1992, most of
which is due to nursing costs.
Surveys have suggested that the prevalence of venous ulcers in the general population is around 0.1% to
2% of the population with a marked increase in rates with increasing age from 0.5% over 40 years to 2% in
121,187,194 187,195
the over 80s. Venous leg ulcers affect between 1% to 2% of people in their life time.
The point prevalence of venous leg ulcers was 0.16% (95% confidence intervals 0.15 to 0.18) in a study of
196
270 800 Swedish people in a defined geographical area. Prevalence rose markedly with age and over 85% of
patients were older than 64 years. The median age was 78 years for women and 76 for men. Half of those with
venous disease had onset before the age of 65 years and half had suffered from the ulcer for over one year.
Venous ulcers were recurrent in 72% of cases. Duration of ulcer was more than one year in 54% of patients
with venous ulcers and 44% with non-venous lesions. Dressing changes were painful in 31% of patients with
venous ulcers and rest pain was reported by 28% of venous ulcer sufferers and by 29% of the others. The
number of dressings per week for venous ulcers alone was 1100 per 100 000 population.
Another Swedish study of 5140 people in Gothenburg aged 65 years and above found that 2.15%
197
(95% confidence intervals 1.73% to 2.57%) had a current leg ulcer. Of these around one-third were found
to have arterial disease/diabetes.
Morbidity data from general practice suggest leg ulcers are becoming more common, or at least that more
people are seeking treatment. Some of these changes could be due to an increasingly ageing population but
comparison of age-specific rates over the last 40 years shows increases in consultation rates within each age
5
band (Table XIII.1). In the decade 1981 to 1991 there was a 17.6% increase in those aged 75–84 and a 49.2%
38
increase in people aged 85 and above and with a 43% increase in the number of people over the age of 85
years projected by the year 2000 the prevalence of leg ulceration from venous and arterial disease is likely to
increase.

Table XIII.1: Age-specific patient consulting rates for chronic ulcer of the skin 1955/56, 1971/72 and 1981/825
Year 0–4 5–14 15–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75+
1955/56 0.4 0.6 1.8 5.0
1971/72 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 2.0 4.8 9.1
1981/82 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.6 2.7 6.7 15.4
Rates per 1000 persons at risk
 Dermatology 337

Appendix XIV Contact dermatitis and other eczemas

The terms dermatitis and eczema are synonymous and refer to a characteristic reaction pattern of the skin to a
range of external and internal factors. In the UK the term dermatitis is usually used by the public and GPs to
denote an exogenous process, such as contact dermatitis which may or may not be related to occupational
exposure, whereas the term eczema refers to an endogenous disease such as atopic or seborrhoeic eczema.
This distinction is an important one for this sub-category as service requirements may differ. Contact
dermatitis refers to either:

● irritant contact dermatitis (e.g. frequent exposure to mild irritant soaps seen in trainee nurses or
hairdressers)
● allergic contact dermatitis, where subjects develop a delayed type of allergic response to certain
potentially sensitizing substances such as metals, perfumes, preservatives, or rubber compounds.

Although both mechanisms may occur simultaneously, distinction between the two requires further
investigation by means of patch testing, a process whereby a standard battery of known allergens is applied in
non-irritant concentrations on the subject’s back and read 48 to 96 hours later. If the subject is found to be
positive to a particular substance which is clinically relevant to that person’s dermatitis, then complete
avoidance of that substance offers the opportunity of a permanent cure.
Other eczemas in this section refer to any eczema that is not contact eczema or atopic eczema (Appendix
VIII). Examples are seborrhoeic eczema, discoid eczema, asteatotic eczema, pompholyx eczema, varicose
eczema, photosensitive eczema and lichen simplex. Detailed prevalence rates for the various endogenous
eczemas are not available but the NHANES study suggested that around 1% of the population had clinically
3
significant eczema that was not atopic eczema or contact dermatitis. Seborrhoeic dermatitis was recorded
separately in that study and clinically significant disease was found to affect 2.8% of the population, mainly
adults. Asteatotic eczema may be especially common in old age, affecting around 29% of those in residential
197
old people’s homes.

Contact dermatitis
Overall estimates of the prevalence and incidence of contact dermatitis in the general population are scarce,
whereas a number of studies have looked at special groups such as occupations at high risk of disease. The
Lambeth study found a bimodal distribution of eczema prevalence thought to warrant medical care with
2
7.3%, 3.4% 8.9% and 3.8% in age groups 15–24, 25–34, 35–54 and 55–74 years respectively. This study
did not distinguish between endogenous and contact eczema. Younger ages may also suffer from contact
dermatitis and a recent study in Sweden found that 9% of school girls had nickel allergy, with highest rates in
198
those with pierced ears.
Significant contact dermatitis was noted in 1.4% of the population in the NHANES study and a further
2
4% was noted to have insignificant disease, with no overall sex differences. Age-specific prevalence showed a
3
similar bimodal distribution to the Lambeth study probably corresponding to a peak of irritant dermatitis
occurring in housewives in their 20s and occupational hand eczema in men and women in the 40 to 60 year
age group. Coenraads has pointed out that age and sex are not risk factors for contact factors in themselves
199
but that these characteristics are associated with exposure in occupational and household activities. A
recent study of an unselected population of Danish adults found that 15.2% were allergic to one or more
200
substances when patch tested but the proportion with clinically relevant dermatitis was not clear. Around
half of those with irritant contact dermatitis and around one-third of those with allergic contact dermatitis
201
were cured 4–7 years after attending a dermatology clinic.
338 Dermatology

Occupational groups
Contact dermatitis is especially common in certain occupational groups such as the car, leather, metal, food,
chemical and rubber industries and those frequently exposed to irritants such as hairdressers, nurses and
nursing mothers. It has been estimated that eczema or contact dermatitis accounts for 85% to 98% of
202,203
occupational skin disease. Skin diseases are among the top three reasons for occupational diseases in
Northern Europe and constitute 9% to 34% of all occupational disease. Despite differences in entry criteria
for occupational skin disease in different European countries the incidence of occupational skin disease is of
the same order of magnitude, with 0.5 to 0.7 cases per 1000 workers per year.

Hand eczema
A number of prevalence studies has specifically looked at hand eczema in adults and reported point
199,204
prevalence rates of between 1.7% to 6.3% and 12-month period prevalences of 8.9% to 10.6%.
Although most of these studies have not distinguished between endogenous hand eczema and contact eczema
the study of hand eczema per se is a useful concept since it is the form of eczema most frequently associated
with work disability. In a study of 1992 adults in The Netherlands examined by a dermatologist, where
hand/forearm eczema was seen in 6.2% of individuals, irritant factors were found to play a role in 73% of
205
cases and contact allergy was detected in 30%. A past history of atopic eczema is a strong risk factor for the
204
development of subsequent irritant contact hand dermatitis.
As with atopic eczema, consideration needs to be given to clinically significant disease. In the NHANES
study for instance, only about one-quarter of all cases of contact dermatitis or seborrhoeic dermatitis were
3
considered as significant by the examining dermatologist.
 Dermatology 339

Appendix XV Prevalence of skin diseases excluded from

the main disease sub-categories
Although there are rational arguments for considering nine dermatological sub-categories on the basis that
they constitute the bulk of skin disorders in the population and in primary care, the remaining 30% or so of
disorders which do not fit neatly into the above system still represent a large sector of the UK population
(around 3.9 million people). Because of the difficulties in making generalizations about this heterogenous
group, there will be a temptation to ignore it or accord it a low status in purchasing plans. Whilst it is beyond
the scope of this review to mention the 1000 or so remaining disorders contained in this group, some deserve
special mention because of their service implications.
Included within this group are genetic disorders such as epidermolysis bullosa, a condition characterized
by increased skin fragility. Although rare (one in every 50 000 live births) the consequences of more severe
forms of this disease are devastating and diagnosis requires special expertise usually at specialized centres.
Urticaria (hives) is one of the 20 most common skin diseases affecting 1% to 5% of the general population.
Vitiligo (loss of pigment) is another progressive and potentially disfiguring disorder affecting 0.5% of the US
3
population. Infestations with pediculosis capitis (nits) is also common in modern schools, although no recent
incidence/prevalence estimates are available. Scabies outbreaks may also occur in old people’s homes,
nurseries and other institutions but incidence figures are lacking. Disorders of the hair and nails that could
have benefited from medical help were found to affect 1.4% and 1.8% of adults respectively in the Lambeth
2
study. Also included in this group are blistering disorders such as pemphigus, which can be fatal if
untreated. Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and other skin lymphomas, whilst rare when compared to other skin
diseases may require proportionately more services because of the unique treatments involved. Drug
reactions which manifest themselves in the skin are also very common and most mild reactions are probably
not reported. It has been estimated that around 1% to 8% of people taking antibiotics develop a skin
206
reaction. Of more concern are the rare but potentially fatal skin reactions characterized by skin necrosis
(Stevens-Johnson syndrome). A recent West German register has estimated that at least 1.7 per million
207
inhabitants per year develop such a reaction, with higher rates in the Asian population.
There is also a temptation to consider the main nine sub-categories as mutually exclusive categories,
whereas in reality many individuals have more than one skin disease, simply because skin disorders are so
common and some skin diseases such as skin cancer and solar keratoses are related. The NHANES study
found that 6% of the population had more than one significant skin pathology and 3% had more than two
3
significant skin pathologies. This implies that surveys and routine data which measure disease frequency
according to persons consulting without regard to the total number of new skin problems will considerably
underestimate the service requirements for dermatology.
340 Dermatology

Appendix XVI Strength of recommendations

Evidence

A There is good evidence to support the use of the procedure

B There is fair evidence to support the use of the procedure
C There is poor evidence to support the use of the procedure
D There is fair evidence to support the rejection of the use of the procedure
E There is good evidence to support the rejection of the use of the procedure.

Quality of evidence

I Evidence obtained from at least one properly designed, randomized control trial
II-i Evidence obtained from well designed controlled trials without randomization
II-ii Evidence obtained from well designed cohort or case control analytic studies, preferably from
more than one centre or research group
II-iii Evidence obtained from multiple time series with or without the intervention. Dramatic
results in uncontrolled experiments (such as the results of the introduction of penicillin
treatment in the 1940s) could also be regarded as this type of evidence
III Opinions of respected authorities based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports
of expert committees
IV Evidence inadequate owing to problems of methodology (e.g. sample size, or length or
comprehensiveness of follow-up or conflicts in evidence).
 Dermatology 341

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