J Clin Investigat Dermatol

December 2015 Volume 3, Issue 2

All rights are reserved by Wikramanayake et al.

Seborrheic Dermatitis and

Dandruff: A Comprehensive
Review
Keywords:

Seborrheic dermatitis; Dandruff; Sebaceous gland;

Malassezia; Epidermal barrier

Abstract
Seborrheic Dermatitis (SD) and dandruff are of a continuous
spectrum of the same disease that affects the seborrheic areas of
the body. Dandruff is restricted to the scalp, and involves itchy, flaking
skin without visible inflammation. SD can affect the scalp as well as
other seborrheic areas, and involves itchy and flaking or scaling skin,
inflammation and pruritus. Various intrinsic and environmental factors,
such as sebaceous secretions, skin surface fungal colonization,
individual susceptibility, and interactions between these factors,
all contribute to the pathogenesis of SD and dandruff. In this
review, we summarize the current knowledge on SD and dandruff,
including epidemiology, burden of disease, clinical presentations
and diagnosis, treatment, genetic studies in humans and animal
models, and predisposing factors. Genetic and biochemical studies
and investigations in animal models provide further insight on the
pathophysiology and strategies for better treatment.

Abbreviations
AIDS: Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome; FTA-ABS:
Fluorescent Treponemal Antibody-Absorption; HAART: Highly
Active Antiretroviral Therapy; HIV: Human Immune-Deficiency
Virus; ICD: Irritant Contact Dermatitis; QOL: Quality of Life;
RPR: Rapid Plasma Regain; SC: Stratum Corneum; SD: Seborrheic
Dermatitis; VDRL: Venereal Disease Research Laboratory

Introduction
Seborrheic Dermatitis (SD) and dandruff are common
dermatological problems that affect the seborrheic areas of the body.
They are considered the same basic condition sharing many features
and responding to similar treatments, differing only in locality
and severity. Dandruff is restricted to the scalp, and involves itchy,
flaking skin without visible inflammation. SD affects the scalp as well
as face, retro-auricular area, and the upper chest, causing flaking,
scaling, inflammation and pruritus, and can have marked erythema.
Flaking in SD and dandruff is usually white-to-yellowish, and may
be oily or dry.
It is estimated that SD and dandruff combined affect half of the
adult population. Despite such high prevalence, their etiology is not
well understood. Various intrinsic and environmental factors, such
as sebaceous secretions, skin surface fungal colonization, individual
susceptibility, and interactions between these factors, all contribute
to the pathogenesis. Genetic, biochemical studies and investigations
in animal models further provided insight on the pathophysiology
and strategies for better treatment. In this comprehensive review, we
summarize the current knowledge on SD and dandruff, and attempt
to provide directions for future investigations and treatments.

Open Access

Review Article

Journal of

Clinical & Investigative

Dermatology
Luis J. Borda and Tongyu C. Wikramanayake*
Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami
Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB 2023A, Miami,
Florida 33136, USA
*Address for Correspondence

Tongyu C. Wikramanayake, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery,

University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB
2023A, Miami, Florida 33136, USA, Tel: (305) 243-8878; Fax: (305) 243-3082;
E-mail: [email protected]

Submission: 01 December 2015

Accepted: 11 December 2015
Published: 15 December 2015
Copyright: 2015 Borda LJ, et al. This is an open access article
distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.

Reviewed & Approved by: Dr. Craig G Burkhart, Clinical Professor,

Department of Medicine, Ohio University, USA

Epidemiology
SD is a common dermatological disorder in the United States and
worldwide [1]. Its incidence peaks during three age periods - in the
first three months of life, during puberty, and in adulthood with an
apex at 40 to 60 years of age [1-4]. In infants up to three months of
age, SD involves the scalp (termed cradle cap), the face, and diaper
area. Incidence can be up to 42% [4-6]. In adolescents and adults,
SD affects the scalp and other seborrheic areas on the face, upperchest, axillae, and inguinal folds [4,7,8]. Incidence is 1-3% of the
general adult population [3,9]. Men are affected more frequently than
women (3.0% vs. 2.6%) in all age groups, suggesting that SD may be
associated with sex hormones such as androgens [1,3,8]. No apparent
differences were observed in SD incidence between ethnic groups [3].
SD is more prevalent in immune-compromised patients such as
HIV/AIDS patients [7,10], organ transplant recipients [11,12], and
patients with lymphoma [13]. The incidence among HIV patients
ranges from 30% to 83% [9,10]. Most cases of SD in HIV patients
are diagnosed with CD4+ T lymphocyte counts between 200 and
500/mm3 [3,14,15], and decreased CD4+ counts are often associated
with worse SD. Fewer cases of SD were reported when CD4+ T
cells were more than 500/mm3 [14]. These observations suggest that
immunological defects may play a role in SD.
SD is also associated with neurological disorders and
psychiatric diseases, including Parkinsons disease, neuroleptic
induced parkinsonism, tardive dyskinesia, traumatic brain injury,
epilepsy, facial nerve palsy, spinal cord injury and mood depression
[4,5,16,17], chronic alcoholic pancreatitis, hepatitis C virus [18,19],
and in patients with congenital disorders such as Down syndrome
[20]. Furthermore, seborrhea-like dermatitis of the face may also
develop in patients treated for psoriasis with psoralen and ultraviolet
A (PUVA) therapy [21].
Comparing with SD, dandruff is much more common, and affects

Citation: Borda LJ, Wikramanayake TC. Seborrheic Dermatitis and Dandruff: A Comprehensive Review. J Clin Investigat Dermatol. 2015;3(2): 10.

Citation: Borda LJ, Wikramanayake TC. Seborrheic Dermatitis and Dandruff: A Comprehensive Review. J Clin Investigat Dermatol. 2015;3(2): 10.

ISSN: 2373-1044

It is estimated that at least 50 million Americans suffer from

dandruff, who spend $300 million annually on over-the-counter
products to treat scalp itching and flaking [22]. Besides physical
discomfort such as itching, dandruff is socially embarrassing and
negatively impacts patients self-esteem [22].
While SD is much less prevalent, outpatient office visits alone cost
$58 million in the United States in 2004, and $109 million were spent
on prescription drugs [24]. Together with over-the-counter products
and hospital services, the total direct costs of SD were estimated to be
$179 million, plus another $51 million indirect costs in the form of lost
work days [24]. In addition, because SD frequently occurs on the face
and other visible areas, it has significant negative effects on patients
quality of life (QOL) in the form of psychological distress or low self
esteem; the willingness to pay for relief of the symptoms was $1.2
billion [24]. Furthermore, although the QOL impact in SD patients
ranked lower than in patients with atopic or contact dermatitis, it was
found to be higher than skin ulcers and solar radiation damage, and
women, younger patients, and subjects with higher educational level
were more affected [24].

Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis

Features
Dandruff

Scalp

SD in Infants

Burden of Disease

Table 1: Clinical presentations of seborrheic dermatitis (SD) and dandruff.

In infants, SD may present on the scalp, face, retro-auricular

area, body folds, and trunk; rarely it may be generalized. Cradle cap
is the most common clinical manifestation. SD in children is usually
self-limited [3,15]. On the other hand, in adults, SD is a chronic or
relapsing condition, featured by erythematous patches, with flaky,
large, oily or dry scales in sebum-rich areas such as face (87.7%), scalp
(70.3%), upper trunk (26.8%), lower extremities (2.3%), and upper
extremities (1.3%) [5,7,29]. Pruritus is not an obligatory feature,
but it is often present, mainly in scalp involvement [2]. The main
complication is secondary bacterial infection, which increases the
redness and exudate and local irritation [3,15].
In immune-suppressed patients, SD is often more extensive,
intense, and refractory to treatment [3,26,30]. It is considered an
J Clin Investigat Dermatol 3(2): 10 (2015)

Cradle Cap: Most Common. Red-yellow plaques coated by

thick, greasy scales on vertex, appearing within 3 months
of age.

Face/RetroErythematous, flaky, salmon-colored plaques on forehead,

auricular
eyebrows, eyelids, nasolabial folds, or retro-auricular areas.
area
Body folds

Lesions have moist, shiny, non-scaly aspects that tend to

coalesce on neck, axillae or inguinal area.

Trunk

More extensive form: Sharply limited plaques of erythema

and scaling that cover lower abdomen.

Generalized

Leiners Disease: Unusual, associated with

immunodeficiency. Absent to mild pruritus. Concurrent
diarrhea and failure to thrive. Spontaneous clearing within
weeks to few months.

Scalp

From mild desquamation to honey-colored crusts attached

to scalp and hair leading to alopecia. May reach into
forehead as scaly erythematous border known as corona
seborrheica.

Face/Retro- Eyelids: Yellowish scaling between eye lashes. Can lead to

auricular
blepharitis with honey-colored crusts on free margin.
area
Retro-auricular area: Crusting, oozing and fissures.
May expand to external canal, with marked itching on
occasionally secondary infection (otitis externa).
Petaloid type (common): small, reddish follicular and perifollicular papules with oily scales at onset that become
patches resembling a medallion (flower petals).
Upper Chest

Clinical presentations
The clinical presentations of SD and dandruff in children and
adults are summarized in Table 1. SD often presents as well-delimited
erythematous plaques with greasy-looking, yellowish scales of
varying extents in regions rich in sebaceous glands, such as the scalp,
the retro-auricular area, face (nasolabial folds, upper lip, eyelids and
eyebrows), and the upper chest. Distribution of the lesions is generally
symmetrical, and SD is neither contagious nor fatal. SD has a seasonal
pattern, presenting more frequently during winter, and improving
usually during summer [5,25,26]. Additionally, aggravation of SD has
been associated with sleep deprivation and stress [7,27,28].

Light, white to yellow and dispersed flaking on the scalp and

hair without erythema. Absent to mild pruritus. Can spread
to hairline, retro-auricular area and eyebrows.

Forehead, eyebrows, glabella or nasolabial folds. May

spread to malar regions and cheeks in butterfly distribution.

SD in Adults

approximately 50% of the general adult population worldwide. It is

also more prevalent in males than females [22,23]. Dandruff starts
at puberty, reaches peak incidence and severity at the age of about
20 years, and becomes less prevalent among people over 50 [23].
Incidence varies between different ethnic groups: in a study in the U.S.
and China, dandruff prevalence was 81-95% in African Americans,
66-82% in Caucasians, and 30-42% in Chinese [23].

Body Folds

SD with
immunesuppression*

Pityriasiform type: Widespread 5-15 mm oval-shaped, scaly

macules and patches. Distributed along the skin tension
lines (similar to extensive pityriasis rosea). New eruptions
can continue for >3 months. Commonly on face and
intertriginous areas.
Moist, macerated appearance with erythema at the base
and periphery on axillae, umbilicus, breast fold, genital
or inguinal area. May progress to fissures and secondary
infection.
Extensive, severe and refractory to treatment. In both
children and adults with AIDS. Unusual sites involved such
as extremities. More widespread with CD4 counts <200
cells/mm3. Associated with rosacea, psoriasis and acne.

*Human Immune-deficiency Virus (HIV), lymphoma and organ transplant

recipients.
AIDS: Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome.

early skin presentation of AIDS in both children and adults [14].

SD may also be a cutaneous sign of the immune reconstitution
inflammatory syndrome in patients with highly active antiretroviral
therapy (HAART) [31]. However, there have also been reports of SD
regression with HAART [10].

Differential diagnosis
The main differential diagnosis of SD and dandruff includes
psoriasis, atopic dermatitis (mainly in the pediatric form of SD),
tinea capitis, rosacea, and systemic lupus erythematous (SLE) [3,7,8]
(Table 2). While psoriasis can affect similar locations as SD, typical
lesions in psoriasis are thicker and present as plaques sharply limited
with silvery white scales [8,32]. Lesions in atopic dermatitis usually
do not appear until after 3 months of age, while lesions in SD usually

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Citation: Borda LJ, Wikramanayake TC. Seborrheic Dermatitis and Dandruff: A Comprehensive Review. J Clin Investigat Dermatol. 2015;3(2): 10.

ISSN: 2373-1044
Table 2: Differential diagnosis of seborrheic dermatitis and dandruff.
Diagnosis

Diagnostic Clues

Psoriasis

Usually involves extensor, palmar, plantar, nails and

extensor areas. Thick plaques sharply limited with silvery
white scales. Positive family history. Arthritis present in 10%
of patients. Uncommon in children.

Atopic
Dermatitis

First appearance after 3 months of age, pruritus and

restlessness are common. Frequently involves scalp, cheeks
and extensor areas. Flexures involvement is more frequent
in older ages. Family history of atopy such as eczema,
allergic rhinitis and asthma. Self resolved by age 12.

Tinea Capitis

Commonly seen in children, frequently accompanied by

hair loss patches with black dots (broken hair). Highly
contagious. KOH examination of the hair shaft and fungal
culture confirm the diagnosis. Household members of patient
should be examined.

Rosacea

Usually targets the face. Papulopustules and telangiectasias

on the malar, nose and perioral regions with slight
desquamation. Recurrent edema and flushing.

Systemic
Lupus
Erythematous
(SLE)

In acute stage, butterfly rash on face that spares the nose

bridge or nasolabial folds. Photosensitivity is common. Skin
lesions are generally associated with other clinical signs
of SLE. Histology and serologic tests such as antinuclear
autoantibodies confirm the diagnosis.

Others

Erythema, scaling and crusting that first present on the scalp

Pemphigus and face can expand to chest and back. Histology, direct
Foliaceous immunofluorescence with anti-desmoglein antibodies confirm
diagnosis.
Pityriasis
Rosea

Abrupt onset, appearance of herald patch and resolution

within weeks.

Secondary
syphilis

Peripheral lymph-adenopathy, mucosal lesions and

palmoplantar macula-papules. Serology tests such as VDRL/
RPR, FTA-ABS* confirm diagnosis.

Diaper
Dermatitis

Occurs on convex skin surfaces in contact with diaper, such

as lower abdomen, genitalia, buttocks and upper thighs.
Spares skin folds. Pustules are common.

Multisystem disease. Brown to purplish papules prone to

Langerhans
coalesce on the scalp, retro-auricular areas, axillae and
cell
inguinal folds. Possible lytic bone lesions, liver, spleen and
histiocytosis
lung involvement. Histology confirms diagnosis.
*VDRL: Venereal Disease Research Laboratory; RPR: Rapid Plasma Regain;
FTA-ABS: Fluorescent Treponemal Antibody-Absorption.

appear earlier and rarely affect extensor areas. Tinea capitis, a highly
contagious disease, typically shows scaly patches of scalp hair loss
associated with black dots, which represent distal ends of broken
hairs [33]. Conversely, SD is not associated with hair loss. Rosacea
usually targets the malar areas on the face, sparing the nasolabial folds,
and do not have scales; on the other hand, facial SD lesions are usually
scaly, and affect the nasolabial folds, eyelids, and eyebrows, without
associated flushing or telangiectasias [7,8,34]. Finally, skin lesions
in SLE often follow a clear photo distribution, such as acute flares
of bilateral malar rash, and may be associated with extra-cutaneous
abnormalities such as arthritis, mouth ulcers, glomerulonephritis
or cardiomyopathy [8,35]; SD does not have a photo distribution
pattern, and does not affect organ systems other than the skin.
Other less common conditions that may resemble SD are
pemphigus foliaceous, pityriasis rosea, secondary syphilis, diaper
dermatitis and cutaneous Langerhans cell histiocytosis [3,4,7,30],
which are summarized in Table 2. The majority of these conditions
can be differentiated by clinical presentation and history; although
syphilis, pemphigus foliaceous and SLE may require laboratory
confirmation.

J Clin Investigat Dermatol 3(2): 10 (2015)

Additionally, some drugs (griseofulvin, ethionamide, buspirone,

haloperidol, chlorpromazine, IL-2, interferon-, methyldopa,
psoralens) and nutritional deficiencies (pyridoxine, zinc, niacin
and riboflavin) may induce an SD-like dermatitis, although the
mechanism remains unknown [36,37]. These conditions can coexist
with SD as well, making the diagnosis more challenging.

Pathology
Diagnosis of SD is typically made by history and physical
examination. In rare cases, a skin biopsy is needed for differential
diagnosis. Histologically, the development of SD can be divided into
two stages. In the acute and sub-acute stages, SD shows superficial
perivascular and perifollicular inflammatory infiltrates, composed
mainly of lymphocytes and histiocytes in association with spongiosis
and psoriasiform hyperplasia, and can be coupled with parakeratosis
around follicular opening (shoulder parakeratosis). Neutrophils can
also be found in the scale crust at the margins of follicular ostia. On the
other hand, in chronic lesions, marked psoriasiform hyperplasia and
parakeratosis can be present with dilation of the venules of surface
plexus which resembles psoriasis [3,4,38]. However, in psoriasis
parakeratosis is often associated with thinning or loss of the granular
layer due to accelerated keratinocyte differentiation.
Dandruff shows many common features as SD in histology,
such as epidermal hyperplasia, parakeratosis, and Malassezia yeasts
surrounding the parakeratotic cells [23]. Whereas inflammatory cells
such as lymphocytes and NK cells may be present in great numbers
in SD, dandruff shows subtle neutrophil infiltration or no infiltration.
These findings support the notion that dandruff and SD are of a
continuous spectrum of the same disease entity with different severity
and location [39].

Treatment
Treatment of SD and dandruff focuses on clearing signs of the
disease; ameliorating associated symptoms, especially pruritus; and
maintaining remission with long-term therapy. Because the main
underlying pathogenic mechanisms involve Malassezia proliferation
and local skin irritation and inflammation, the most common
treatment is topical antifungal and anti-inflammatory agents (Table
3). Other widely used therapies are coal tar, lithium gluconate/
succinate and phototherapy (Table 3). New therapies have also
emerged including immune modulators such as topical calcineurin
inhibitors, and metronidazole, but their efficacy remains controversial
[5]. Alternative therapies have been reported as well, such as tea tree
oil [40,41]. Some factors to be considered before selecting a treatment
include efficacy, side effects, ease of use/compliance, and age of the
patient [5]. Systemic therapy is needed only in widespread lesions and
in cases that do not respond to topical treatment [3,26].

Pathophysiology
Despite the high prevalence, the pathogenesis of SD and dandruff
is not well understood. However, studies have identified several
predisposing factors, including fungal colonization, sebaceous gland
activity, as well as several factors that confer individual susceptibility
[2].

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ISSN: 2373-1044
Table 3: Treatment of seborrheic dermatitis and dandruff.

Cortico-steroids
Immunomodulators

TOPICAL

Antifungals

Medication

Miscellaneous

Regimen

Mechanisms

Side Effects

References

ICD in <1% of patients.

Itching, burning
[2,8,26,97-101]
sensation and dryness
in 3% of patients.

Ketoconazole

2% Shampoo, cream,
gel or foam

Scalp or skin: Twice/week x

4 weeks, then once/week for
maintenance.

Bifonazole

1% shampoo, cream
or ointment

Scalp: every other day or

once daily.
Skin: once daily.

Miconazole

Cream

Skin: 1-2 times daily.

Ciclopirox Olamine

1.5% shampoo,
cream, gel or lotion

Scalp: 2-3 times/week x 4

weeks, then once/week for
maintenance.
Skin: twice daily.

Inhibition of metaldependent enzymes.

Selenium sulfide

2.5% shampoo

Scalp: Twice/week x 2
weeks, then once/week x
2 weeks. Repeat after 4-6
weeks.

ICD in ~3% of patients.

Cytostatic and keratolytic. Orange-brown scalp
[8,97,106,107]
discoloration.

Zinc Pyrithione

1% shampoo

Scalp: 2-3 times/week.

Increased cellular copper

interferes with iron-sulfur ICD in ~3% of patients.
[8,97,99,101,108,109]
proteins.

Hydrocortisone

1% cream

Skin: 1-2 times daily.

Betamethasone
dipropionate

0.05% lotion

Scalp and skin: 1-2 times

daily.

Desonide

0.05% lotion, gel

Fluocinolone

0.01% shampoo, lotion Scalp or skin: Once or twice

or cream
daily.

Pimecrolimus

1% cream

Skin: 1-2 times daily.

0.1% ointment

Skin: 1-2 times daily x 4

weeks, then twice/week for
maintenance.

Tacrolimus

Inhibition of fungal cell

wall synthesis.

ICD in 10% of patients.

ICD, itching, burning
sensation.

Anti-inflammatory, antiScalp and skin: 2 times daily. irritant.

Inhibition of cytokine
production by
T-lymphocyte.

[8,26,99,102]
[47,97,103]

ICD in <1% of patients.

Itching, burning
[8,47,97,99,104,105]
sensation in 2% of
patients.

Risk of skin atrophy,

telangiectasias,
folliculitis,
hypertrichosis, and
hypopigmentation with
prolonged use.

[8,9,97,99,103,108]
[8,47,110]
[8,111-113]
[7,114]

[47,98,115-118]
Risk of skin malignancy
and lymphoma with
[26,97,109,118-120]
prolonged use.

Scalp: 1-2 times/week.

Local folliculitis, ICD

on fingers, psoriasis
Antifungal, antiaggravation, skin
inflammatory, keratolytic, atrophy, telangiectasias,
[4,8,47,117,121]
reduces sebum
hyper-pigmentation.
production.
Risk of squamous
cell carcinoma with
prolonged use.

Lithium gluconate/
8% ointment or gel
succinate

Skin: twice daily x 8 weeks.

Anti-inflammatory via
increased IL-10 and
decreased TLR2 and
TLR4 in keratinocytes.

ICD in <10% of patients.

Metronidazole

0.75% gel

Skin: twice daily x 4 weeks.

Anti-inflammatory via
inhibition of free radical
species.

Rare contact
sensitization with
prolonged use.

[5,47,125,126]

Phototherapy

UVB: Cumulative dose Three time/week x 8 weeks

of 9.8 J/cm2
or until clearing.

Immuno-modulation
and inhibition of cell
proliferation.

Burning, itching
sensation during/after
therapy. Risk of genital
tumor with prolonged
use.

[26,127-129]

Rare liver toxicity.

[97,130,131]

Rare tachycardia and

insomnia.

[132-134]

Coal tar

SYSTEMIC

Dose/
Formulation

4% shampoo

Itraconazole

Oral: 200 mg

Inhibition of fungal
cell wall synthesis.
Once daily x 7 days, then
Anti-inflammatory
once daily x 2 days/month for
via inhibition of
maintenance.
5-lipoxygenase
metabolites.

Terbinafine

Oral: 250 mg

Inhibition of cell
Once daily x 4-6 weeks or 12
membrane and cell wall
days monthly x 3 months.
synthesis.

[8,122-124]

Note: Shampoos, foams and lotions are better suited for treating seborrheic dermatitis and dandruff on the scalp; gels, creams and ointments are used to treat
seborrheic dermatitis on body locations other than the scalp.
ICD: Irritant Contact Dermatitis.

J Clin Investigat Dermatol 3(2): 10 (2015)

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ISSN: 2373-1044

Fungal colonization
Several lines of evidence suggest a pathogenic role for yeasts of
the genus Malassezia in SD and dandruff [42-46]. Malassezia are
lipophilic yeasts that are found mainly on seborrheic regions of
the body [5,7,47]. Studies have detected Malassezia on the scalp of
dandruff patients [45,48], and higher numbers of Malassezia (M.
globosa and M. restricta) correlate with SD appearance/severity
[4,49,50]. Additionally, among the multiple chemical entities
that are effective in treating SD and dandruff, such as azoles,
hydroxypyridones, allylamines, selenium and zinc, the sole common
mechanism of action is antifungal activity [47-49]. Furthermore,
Malassezia was shown to have lipase activity, which hydrolyzes
human sebum triglycerides and releases unsaturated fatty acids
such as oleic and arachidonic acid [51,52]. These metabolites cause
aberrant keratinocytes differentiation, resulting in stratum corneum
abnormalities such as parakeratosis, intracellular lipid droplets, and
irregular corneocyte envelope [53]. Such changes lead to disrupted
epidermal barrier function and trigger inflammatory response, with
or without visible local inflammation. In addition, these metabolites
induce keratinocytes to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such
as IL-1, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-, thus prolonging the inflammatory
response [39,54]. Furthermore, arachidonic acid can be a source of
prostaglandins, which are pro-inflammatory mediators that can
cause inflammation via neutrophil recruitment and vasodilation [38].
Interestingly, Malassezia infection has also been reported in goats,
dogs and monkeys with seborrhea (dry or greasy) and dermatitis [5559].
While these observations support a pathogenic role for Malassezia
in SD and dandruff, there is also strong evidence suggesting that
individual predispositions and host interactions with Malassezia,
rather than the mere presence of Malassezia, contribute to SD and
dandruff pathogenesis. For example, Malassezia was detected on
normal skin of majority of healthy adults, making it a commensal
organism [2,5,26]. Moreover, while topical application of oleic acid
did not induce visible changes in non-dandruff subjects, it caused
skin flaking on the non-lesional scalp of dandruff patients [48]. These
observations are suggestive of intrinsic epidermal barrier defects in
the pathogenesis of SD and dandruff [48].

Sebaceous gland activity

Sebaceous glands (SGs) are distributed over the entire skin
surface in humans, except on the palms and soles. Secretion of sebum
is highest on the scalp, face and chest [44]. Sebum production is under
hormonal control, and SGs are activated at birth under the influence
of maternal androgens via androgen receptors in sebocytes [60].
SGs are activated again at puberty under the control of circulating
androgens [38,61], resulting in increased sebum secretion during
adolescence, which is kept stable between 20 and 30 years of age and
is then reduced [62]. During the period of active sebum secretion, the
secretion rate is higher in males and stays high longer, between 30
and 60 years of age; in females, the rate drops fast after menopause
[44]. Thus, SD and dandruff have a strong time correlation with SG
activity, with cradle cap after birth, increased incidence throughout
the teens, between third and sixth decades and then decreasing
[3,4,9]. However, SD patients may have normal sebum production,
J Clin Investigat Dermatol 3(2): 10 (2015)

and individuals with excessive sebum production sometimes dont

develop SD [38,63]. These findings suggest that while SG activity
strongly correlates with SD and dandruff, sebum production by itself
is not a decisive cause.
In addition to the level of sebum production, abnormalities of
lipid composition may also play a role in SD development, likely
through a favorable milieu for Malassezia growth [64]. In patients
with SD, triglycerides and squalene were reduced, but free fatty acids
and cholesterol were considerably elevated [38,44]. The elevated levels
of free fatty acids and cholesterol may be the result of triglyceride
degradation by Malassezias lipase, and these metabolites promote
Malassezia growth and lead to recruitment of inflammatory infiltrates
in the skin [64].

Individual susceptibility
Besides sebaceous activity and Malassezia colonization, other
factors also contribute to the pathogenesis of SD. Epidermal barrier
integrity, host immune response, neurogenic factors and emotional
stress, and nutritional factors have all been shown to play a role in
individual susceptibility.
Epidermal barrier integrity: The stratum corneum (SC), the
anucleated outer layers of the epidermis, functions as a barrier
against water loss and entry of microorganisms and harmful agents
from the environment [65]. The SC consists of several layers of
terminally differentiated keratinocytes, the corneocytes, encased in
lipid lamellae, held together by specialized intercellular cell adhesion
structures called corneodesmosomes [66]. Any changes in the lamellar
lipid composition, corneocyte size or shape, corneodesmosome
number and SC thickness, could lead to alterations in the epidermal
permeability barrier (EPB) function [66].
Normally, sebum may influence intercellular lipid organization
to aid desquamation [66,67]. In SD and dandruff, however, altered
corneodesmosomal hydrolysis may disrupt lipid organization and
disturb the desquamation process, leading to aberrant barrier function
[53,68]. In support of this notion, barrier structural abnormalities have
been detected in dandruff scalp by electron microscopy that included
intercellular Malassezia yeasts, changes in corneocyte shape and
corneodesmosomes, and disrupted lipid lamellar structure [23,53,66].
Consistent with the structural findings, dandruff patients have been
found to be more reactive (higher itch perception or flaking) than
controls to topical applications of histamine or oleic acid to the scalp
[48,69,70]. These observations indicate that disrupted EPB function
can contribute to the aggravation of dandruff. Recent genetic studies
in humans and animals suggest that disrupted barrier function may
even directly cause SD-like conditions [71]. Biochemical analysis
further demonstrated that dandruff skin displayed altered protein
profiles as well as those of SC ceramides and free fatty acids, in the
absence of apparent inflammation [72]. These studies underscore
the importance of barrier restoration and maintenance in the
management of SD and dandruff.
Immune response: Both the incidence and severity of SD are
associated with immune-suppression, particularly in HIV/AIDS
patients. Because no clear differences were found in Malassezia
levels between individuals with and without SD in this population,
it is likely that an immune or inflammatory reaction could be the
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predisposition [5,9]. Indeed, one study found elevated levels of

human leukocyte antigens HLA-AW30, HLA-AW31, HLA-A32,
HLA-B12 and HLA-B18 in SD [3,73,74]. Additionally, increased
levels of total serum IgA and IgG antibodies have been detected in
SD patients [75]. However, no increase in the titers of antibodies
against Malassezia was detected, suggesting that the elevated
immunoglobulin production occurs rather as a response to yeast
metabolites [26,75,76]. The strong inflammatory reaction provoked
by these metabolites includes infiltration of Natural Killer (NK) cells
and macrophages, with concurrent local activation of complement
and an increased local production of inflammatory cytokines, such
as IL-1, IL-1, IL-6 and TNF- in affected skin areas [54]. The lack
of increase in anti-Malassezia antibodies also indicates a change in
cellular immune response instead of humoral response [76,77]. The
specific role of lymphocyte activity remains controversial [76-79].
Genetic factors: The genetic components of SD and dandruff
had been under-appreciated until recently, when studies in animal
models and humans identified inherited dominant and recessive
forms of SD and dandruff. In the autosomal recessive inherited
seborrheic dermatitis (seb) mice, a spontaneous mutation in the
outbred Him:OF1 mice caused seborrhea, rough coat, alopecia,
growth retardation, and sometimes abnormal pigmentation in
homozygous mutants [80]. Histological examination revealed
enlarged sebaceous glands, hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, acanthosis
and inflammatory infiltrates in the epidermis and dermis. Neither
yeasts nor dermatophytes were detected. These mice were the first
animal model of SD to show a clear mode of inheritance, though the
underlying mutation remains unidentified [80,81].
Consistent with a role for altered immunity in the pathogenesis of
SD, transgenic mice carrying the 2C T cell receptor (TCR) transgene
in the DBA/2 background developed extremely inflammatory
phenotype in seborrheic areas, such as the ears, around the eyes,
and muzzle area [82]. Additionally, positive fungal staining by PAS
was consistently detected in lesional skin but not readily apparent in
non-lesional skin from diseased mice or from DBA/2 control mice.
Furthermore, antifungal treatment reversed clinical and pathology
presentations, and reduced PAS staining [82]. These observations
support the notion that immune compromise and fungal infection
play active roles in SD.
Another spontaneous mutant mouse strain that shows SD-like
phenotype is the rough coat (rc) mice, which showed sebaceous
hypertrophy and greasy hair coat, alopecia, and growth retardation
[83]. The rc is transmitted in an autosomal recessive mode.
We have since identified the cause of the rc phenotype to be a
missense mutation in the Mpzl3 gene, which is expressed in the
superficial layers of the epidermis [84,85]. Our Mpzl3 knockout
mice recapitulated the rc phenotype, and mice with white hair coat
developed more severe and persistent inflammatory skin phenotype
and dandruff in the seborrheic areas [85]. We have shown that the
early-onset inflammatory skin phenotype was not caused by immune
defects [85]. However, skin abnormalities in Mpzl3 knockout mice
and perturbed epidermal differentiation in organotypic human
skin models with MPZL3 knockdown indicate that MPZL3 is a
key regulator of epidermal differentiation [85,86]. Interestingly, a
frame-shift mutation in ZNF750, a transcription factor controlling

J Clin Investigat Dermatol 3(2): 10 (2015)

epidermal differentiation and an upstream regulator of MPZL3,

caused autosomal dominant seborrhea-like dermatitis in patients
[71,86]. These studies in humans and animal models underscore
the consequence of abnormal epidermal differentiation in the
pathogenesis of SD and dandruff, and have provided the genetic basis
for some of the predisposing factors discussed above. These animal
models will be important tools to dissect the underlying pathways
that will identify novel targets for better treatment of these disorders.
Neurogenic factors and emotional stress: The high incidence of
SD in patients with Parkinsons disease [17,87,88] and neurolepticinduced Parkinsonism [89,90] has long been observed, especially in
those with severe seborrhea, which provides favorable conditions for
Malassezia proliferation. Bilateral seborrhea has been observed in
patients with unilateral Parkinsonism, suggesting that these sebum
changes were likely regulated neuro-endocrinologically rather
than purely neurologically [5,26,91]. Consistent with this notion,
-melanocyte stimulating hormone (-MSH) levels were elevated
in Parkinson patients, possibly due to inadequate dopaminergic
input. Moreover, treatment with L-dopa reduced -MSH, and reestablished the synthesis of MSH-inhibiting factor, reducing sebum
secretion [26,92].
Additionally, there is evidence for a link between neurological
damage (e.g. traumatic brain, spinal cord injury) and SD [93]. Facial
immobility of Parkinsonian patients (mask-like face) and immobility
due to facial paralysis can induce elevated sebum accumulation and
lead to SD, but only on the affected side [26,43,94]. Because poor
hygiene has been implicated in SD, these observations suggest that
sustained reservoirs of residual sebum associated with immobility
may influence the manifestation of the disease [3,22,26,88]. SD is also
more commonly seen in depressive disorders and emotional stress
[5,16].
Other factors: In the past, nutrition has been studied as a
possible contributing factor for SD. Zinc deficiency in patients
with acrodermatitis enteropatica, riboflavin, pyridoxine and niacin
deficiency can manifest seborrheicdermatitis-like rash [26,36]. Other
medical conditions, such as familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy and
Down syndrome, have also been associated with SD [95,96].
In summary, multiple predisposing factors have been identified
in the pathogenesis of SD and dandruff (Figure 1). The presence
and abundance of Malassezia yeast, host epidermal conditions

Figure 1: Predisposing factors and their interactions in the pathogenesis of

seborrheic dermatitis and dandruff.

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ISSN: 2373-1044
Table 4: Comparison of seborrheic dermatitis and dandruff.
Seborrheic Dermatitis

Dandruff

Up to 40% of infants
within 3 months of age, 50% of adult
1-3% of the general adult population.
population.

Epidemiology

Location

Presentation

Scalp, retro-auricular
area, face (nasolabial
folds, upper lip, eyelids,
eyebrows), upper chest.

Scalp.

Erythematous patches,
with large, oily or dry
scales.

White to
yellow flakes
dispersed on
the scalp and
hair; without
erythema.

References

References
[1-3,22,23]

[2,7,15]

Histology

[2,3,26]

Topical corticosteroids,
immune modulators,
phototherapy, systemic
treatment.

Predisposing
Factors and
causes

[3,23,38]

4. Schwartz RA, Janusz CA, Janniger CK (2006) Seborrheic dermatitis: an

overview. Am Fam Physician 74: 125-130.

6. Foley P, Zuo Y, Plunkett A, Merlin K, Marks R (2003) The frequency of

common skin conditions in preschool-aged children in Australia: seborrheic
dermatitis and pityriasis capitis (cradle cap). Arch Dermatol 139: 318-322.
7. Clark GW, Pope SM, Jaboori KA (2015) Diagnosis and treatment of
seborrheic dermatitis. Am Fam Physician 91: 185-190.
8. Naldi L, Rebora A (2009) Clinical practice. Seborrheic dermatitis. N Engl J
Med 360: 387-396.

[2,8,26,47,97]

Sebaceous gland activity, fungal

colonization, and individual susceptibility
(epidermal barrier integrity, host immune [2,3,9,15,26,44,66]
response, genetic factors, neurogenic
factors and stress, nutrition, etc.).

and sebaceous secretion, combined with various other factors,

and interactions between these factors, determine an individuals
susceptibility to SD and dandruff. In a likely scenario, there may be
aberrant epidermal barrier function due to genetic predisposition,
and excessive or altered sebum composition would exacerbate
EPB disruption and provides a favorable milieu for Malassezia
colonization. Disrupted EPB function facilitates entry of Malassezia
and its metabolites, and irritates the epidermis and elicits hosts
immune response. The host inflammatory response further disturbs
epidermal differentiation and barrier formation, and pruritus and
subsequent scratching would damage the barrier even further, leading
to cycles of immune stimulation, abnormal epidermal differentiation,
and barrier disruption.

Conclusions
SD and dandruff are of a continuous spectrum of the same disease
that affects the seborrheic areas of the body (Table 4). They share
many common features and respond to similar treatments. Various
intrinsic and environmental factors, such as Malassezia yeast, host
epidermal conditions, sebaceous secretion, immune response, and
the interactions between these factors, may all contribute to the
pathogenesis. Effective management of SD and dandruff requires
clearing of symptoms with antifungal and anti-inflammatory
treatment, ameliorating associated symptoms such as pruritus, and
general scalp and skin health to help maintain remission. Studies in
humans and animal models to investigate the genetic and biochemical
pathways will help identify new targets for the development of more
J Clin Investigat Dermatol 3(2): 10 (2015)

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Antifungal shampoos and topical.

Treatment

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Acanthosis, hyperkeratosis, spongiosis,

parakeratosis, Malassezia yeasts.
Subtle
Vasodilation
neutrophil
and perivascular
infiltration
and perifollicular
or no
inflammatory infiltration;
inflammatory
shoulder parakeratosis.
infiltration.

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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by AR059907 from NIH/NIAMS, (T.C.W.),
the Brian V. Jegasothy M.D. Basic Science Research Award
(T.C.W.) and a Dermatology Gift Fund from the Department of
Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller
School of Medicine (T.C.W.).

J Clin Investigat Dermatol 3(2): 10 (2015)

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