Devotional:: Today's Big Question: What Does Jesus Teach About Practicing Morality?
Devotional:: Today's Big Question: What Does Jesus Teach About Practicing Morality?
Devotional:: Today's Big Question: What Does Jesus Teach About Practicing Morality?
That
you
put
off,
concerning
your
former
conduct,
the
old
man
which
grows
corrupt
according
to
the
deceitful
lusts,
and
be
renewed
in
the
spirit
of
your
mind,
and
that
you
put
on
the
new
man
which
was
created
according
to
God,
in
true
righteousness
and
holiness.
(Ephesians
4:22–24)
Today’s
big
question:
what
does
Jesus
teach
about
practicing
morality?
I
have
heard
it
called
spiritual
amputation.
Judgment
is
a
reality,
and
for
those
under
judgment,
hell
is
an
eternal
reality.
Every
unrepentant
sinner
is
under
judgment
and
the
Bible
clearly
states
that
every
human
being
is
a
sinner
(Romans
3:23).
We
are
in
a
mess—a
big
horrifying
mess.
When
we
stand
in
the
light
of
Jesus
as
our
standard
of
morality,
it’s
easy
to
see
where
we
fall
short.
Jesus
was
able
to
sit
with
sinners
and
not
sin.
He
reached
out
to
tax
collectors,
prostitutes,
thieves,
and
murderers
with
great
compassion
and
without
compromise.
And
yet,
prominent
Christian
leaders
often
fall
in
sin
without
even
being
in
the
company
of
those
we
consider
disreputable
in
our
society.
Today’s
verse
is
a
solemn
reminder
from
Paul
of
where
ungodly
pursuits
lead.
Jesus
also
taught
that
whatever
could
possibly
lead
us
toward
sin
is
dangerous.
If
we
let
our
sinful
human
nature
reign
and
reject
Christ,
we
remain
under
God’s
judgment.
Through
true
repentance
and
faith
we
can
receive
salvation.
If
we
want
to
honor
Christ
by
living
according
to
His
standard
of
morality,
we
need
spiritual
amputation:
If
your
right
eye
causes
you
to
sin,
pluck
it
out
and
cast
it
from
you;
for
it
is
more
profitable
for
you
that
one
of
your
members
perish,
than
for
your
whole
body
to
be
cast
into
hell.
(Matthew
5:29)
We
need
to
be
seriously
concerned
regarding
the
sin
in
our
lives.
Considering
all
Christ
has
done
in
fulfilling
the
Law,
our
response
should
be
to
flee
from
all
immoral
behavior,
which
keeps
us
from
Him.
Furthermore,
Jesus
told
us
that
we
should
rid
our
lives
of
anything
that
causes
us
to
sin.
If
this
is
our
computer,
we
should
get
rid
of
it.
If
it
is
our
friendships,
we
should
remove
ourselves
from
those
relationships.
If
it
is
the
places
we
are
going,
we
should
amputate
them
as
well.
Fleeing
from
sin
and
running
to
Christ
requires
action.
It
is
not
good
enough
to
pray
and
then
say,
“God
will
stop
me
from
sinning.”
God
expects
us
to
obey
and
act
in
His
strength.
Prayer
is
vital
but
true
prayer
requires
a
true
heart,
which
results
in
real
action.
Jesus
gives
us
everything
we
need
to
know
about
putting
morality
into
practice
in
this
sinful
world.
He
has
promised
that
we
will
not
be
tempted
beyond
what
we
can
handle
in
His
strength
(1
Corinthians
10:13).
Today’s
big
idea:
practicing
true
morality
requires
amputating
whatever
leads
to
immorality.
What
to
pray:
ask
the
Lord
to
reveal
anything
that
leads
you
away
from
Him.
Start-‐off
CHAPTER
2
The
Morality
of
Human
Acts
and
Moral
Accountability
CHAPTER
OBJECTIVES
At
the
end
of
this
Chapter,
the
students
should
be
able
to:
1.recognize
human
acts
from
acts
of
man;
2.
identify
and
explain
the
major
determinants
of
morality;
3.
discuss
the
various
modifiers
of
human
acts;
and
4.
realize
the
importance
of
moral
accountability
in
ones
actions.
Definition
of
Human
Acts
Human
acts
(Actus
Humani).
refer
to
"actions
that
proceed
from
H
insight
into
the
nature
and
purpose
of
one's
doing
and
from
consent
of
free
will
(Peschke
1985:
247).
Specifically,
human
acts
are
those
actions
done
by
a
person
in
certain
situations
which
are
essentially
the
result
of
his/her
conscious
knowledge,
freedom
and
voluntariness
or
consent,
Hence,
these
actions
are
performed
by
man
knowingly,
freely,
and
voluntarily
(Agapay
2008:
21).
Paul
Glenn
defines
human
acts
as
"an
act
which
proceeds
from
the
deliberate
free
will
of
man"
(1965:
3).
It
is
that
which
a
person
does
or
performs
in
a
given
situation
when
he/she
decides
and
thinks
for
himself/herself.
A
human
act
is
also
that
which
is
classified
as
go0d
or
bad,
right
or
wrong,
and
thus,
subject
to
morality
and
its
norms
(Baldemeca
et
al.
1984:
92).
In
the
above
cited
definitions
and
elucidations,
three
important
elements
or
constituents
are
obviously
present
for
an
act
to
be
strictly
considered
a
human
act:
Knowledge,
freedom,
and
voluntariness
o
Consent
on
the
part
of
the
acting
agent.
Here,
it
is
worth
noting
that
human
acts
are
the
free
and
conscious
acts
of
a
human
person
which
are
proper
to
humans
alone.
These
actions
are
what
make
a
human
being
truly
human,
an
earthly
creature
different
and
distinct
from
all
others.
Most
textbooks
in
Christian
Ethics
and
morality
dealing
with
the
subject,
usually
distinguish
between
human
acts
from
acts
of
man.
While
human
acts,
as
mentioned,
proceed
from
one's
conscious
knowledge
as
well
as
freedom
and
voluntariness,
the
same
cannot
be
said
for
acts
of
man.
The
latter
are
simply
actions
which
happen
in
the
person
"naturally,
even
without
his/her
awareness
of
himself/herself
while
doing
them.
These
actions
are
done
without
deliberation,
reflection
and
consent.
They
are
performed
just
instinctively.
Thus,
it
can
be
rightfully
said
that
all
human
acts
are
acts
of
man,
but
not
all
acts
of
man
are
human
acts.
Examples
of
acts
of
man
are
the
various
physiological
processes,
such
as
the
beating
of
the
heart,
breathing,
respiration,
digestion,
and
the
like.
Other
examples
include
those
actions
that
are
spontaneously
happening
in
the
person
during
his/her
impulsive,
unconscious
and
instinctive
moments,
such
as
instant
and
spontaneous
feelings
of
fear,
rage
and
anger,
sleeping,
dreaming,
seeing,
eating,
and
walking,
among
others.
Acts
of
man,
therefore,
are
those
that
humans
share
with
animals
whose
actions
and
movements
emanate
from
purely
sensual
nature.
These
things
are
performed
without
deliberation
and
free
will.
The
person
here
is
neither
morally
responsible
nor
accountable
for
these
kinds
of
actions.
Basic
Elements
of
Human
Acts
Ramon
Agapay,
in
a
book
entitled
Ethics
and
the
Filipino:
A
Manual
on
Morals
for
Students
and
Educators
(2008:
21),
lists
down
and
briefly
expounds
on
the
following
characteristics
for
an
act
to
be
Considered
a
human
act
(see
also
Tabotabo
et
al.,
2011
&
Gualdo,
2000:
27).
1.)
The
act
must
be
deliberate.
It
must
be
performed
by
a
conscious
agent
who
is
very
much
aware
of
what
he/she
is
doing
and
of
its
consequences
good
or
evil.
Thus,
children
who
are
below
the
age
of
reason,
the
insane,
the
senile,
lunatics,
people
who
are
under
the
heavy
influence
of
drugs
and
alcohol
(of
course,
the
act
of
taking
these
may
be
with
consciousness
and
knowledge,
hence
a
different
matter
altogether)
are
said
to
be
incapable
of
acting
knowingly
and
with
sufficient
knowledge.
2.)
The
act
must
be
performed
in
freedom.
It
must
be
done
by
an
agent
who
is
acting
freely,
with
his/her
own
volition
and
powers.
An
action
performed
under
duress
and
against
one’s
own
free
will
cannot
be
strictly
considered
a
free
and
voluntary
action.
The
person
who
is
performing
the
action
should
be
free
from
any
force
beyond
his/her
control,
or
from
any
powerful
influence
from
outside.
Otherwise,
we
can
say
that
the
act
is
not
truly
and
entirely
his/her
own.
3.)
The
act
must
be
done
voluntarily.
It
must
be
performed
by
an
agent
who
decides
willfully
to
perform
the
act.
The
act,
to
be
truly
a
voluntary
one,
must
come
from
the
core
of
a
person's
being.
This
Willfulness
is
the
resolve
to
do
an
act
here
and
now,
or
in
some
other
voluntary
one,
time
in
the
future.
Summing
up
then,
human
acts
are
actions
done
with
knowledge.
Thus,
as
the
human
act
is
or
voluntariness.
done
knowingly,
freely,
and
voluntarily,
the
person
concerned
becomes
freedom
and
with
consent
morally
accountable
of
such
an
act.
The
absence
or
lack
of
any
of
these
essential
elements
renders
an
entire
act
defective
and
less
voluntary,
which,
in
turn
also
affects
its
moral
quality.
Major
Determinants
of
the
Morality
of
Human
Acts
By
determinants
of
morality,
we
mean
the
various
factors
or
elements
that
would
allow
us
to
identify
concretely-‐whether
a
certain
and
particular
act
done
in
a
given
situation-‐is
good
or
bad,
right
or
wrong,
moral
or
immoral-‐in
reference
to
the
objective
norm
of
morality.
More
specifically,
determinants
of
morality
refer
to
the
sources
that
define
the
goodness/rightness
or
badness/wrongness
of
actions-‐done
with
knowledge,
freedom
and
consent.
These
are:
1.
The
Act
Itself
or
the
Object
of
the
Act
The
act
itself
or
the
object
of
the
act
refers
to
the
action
that
is
done
or
performed
by
an
agent,
or
simply,
WHAT
the
person
does.
It
is
the
natural
termination
or
completion
of
an
act...[which]
determines
when
an
act
1s
intrinsically
or
extrinsically
good
or
evil"
(Agapay
2018:63).
This
is
"the
substance
of
the
moral
act"
(Panizo
1964:41),
and
n
regarded
as
the
basic
factor
of
morality.
More
concretely,
the
object
of
the
act
is
that
act
effect
which
action
primarily
and
directly
causes.
It
is
always
and
necessarıly
the
result
of
the
act,
independent
ot
any
circumstances
or
of
the
intention
of
the
agent"
(Peschke
1985:263).
From
the
standpoint
of
its
object,
morality
can
be
objective
and
intrinsic.
This
means
that
objectively,
there
are
actions
by
themselves
(taken
as
they
are,
as
"mere
acts"),
as
good
and
bad,
right
and
wrong,
moral
or
immoral:
By
their
very
nature-‐
murder,
rape,
torture,
cheating,
blasphemy,
adultery,
and
the
like-‐are
really
morally
wrong
or
bad.
Thus,
no
amount
of
"good"
intention
or
favorable
circumstance
can
alter
their
evilness.
Their
badness
is
something
embedded
in
their
very
nature.
On
the
other
hand,
loving
one's
neighbor,
showing
respect,
honesty,
protecting
the
innocents,
helping
the
destitute,
acts
of
forgiveness,
and
the
like,
are,
by
themselves,
good
and
noble
acts,
regardless
of
the
motive
and
circumstance
that
surround
them
(Though,
as
we'll
see
later,
they
may
affect
their
degree
of
goodness
in
some
sense.).
Every
act,
therefore,
in
the
practical
sense,
done
in
the
concrete,
has
its
intrinsic
character
or
quality
that
defines
its
morality.
Christian
Ethic’s
handbooks
universally
hold
that
the
nature
or
object
of
the
act
is
the
most
important
and
crucial
consideration
in
judging
the
moral
worth
of
the
act.
In
fact,
it
is
easily
regarded
generally
by
Scholastic
moral
philosophers
as
the
primary
determinant
or
source
of
morality.
2.
The
Motive
or
the
Intention
The
motive
is
the
purpose
or
intention
that
for
the
sake
of
which
something
is
done.
It
is
the
reason
behind
our
acting.
It
answers
the
question
"WHY
the
person
does
what
he
does'?
One
normally
performs
an
act
as
a
means
to
achieve
an
end
or
goal,
different
from
the
act
itself.
And
since
the
motive
or
intention
is
practically
present
in
all
human
acts,
it
then
becomes
an
important
and
integral
part
of
morality.
Depending
on
one's
motive
or
intention,
a
particular
act
or
conduct
can
be
modified
in
its
moral
worth.
Thus,
under
the
motive
or
intention,
CTC
are
four
principles
to
be
considered.
They
are
as
follows
(See
Agapay
2008:
64-‐65;
Panizo
1964:
43-‐44;
Glenn
1968):
2.1
An
indifferent
act
can
become
morally
good
or
morally
evil
pending
upon
the
intention
of
the
person
doing
the
act.
Example:
Talking/speaking
is
neither
good
nor
bad.
It
becomes
only
good
and
bad
depending
on
the
reason
o
or
purpose
why
is
talking
or
speaking.
If
the
reason
is
to
destroy
Someone's
reputation
(an
ex-‐boyfriend/girlfriend,
for
instance)
for
the
sake
of
destroying
it,
then
it
becomes
bad.
But
if
the
purpose
of
the
act
is
to
let
the
truth
be
known
in
order
to
change
lives
for
the
better,
then
it
becomes
good.
2.2
An
objectively
good
act
becomes
morally
evil
due
to
a
wrong
or
bad
motive
Example:
The
act
of
helping
those
in
need
(the
poor
and
destitute)
in
our
society
is
an
admirable
act
(objectively
good);
but
if
it
is
performed
to
simply
get
public
attention
for
one
to
be
known
as
a
charitable
person,
then
the
act
turns
into
something
immoral.
2.3
An
intrinsically
(objectively)
morally
good
act
can
receive
added
goodness,
if
done
with
an
equally
noble
intention
or
motive.
Example:
The
act
of
praying
is
a
good
act
in
itself.
It
receives
"more
goodness
if
the
purpose
why
one
is
praying
is
to
give
thanks
and
glory
to
God
earnestly
and
wholeheartedly.
Praying
as
in
simply
asking
for
material
things
for
personal
gain
and
comfort
can
be
considered
to
be
"less
good"
compared
to
praying
out
of
pure
gratitude
to
God.
2.4
An
intrinsically
evil
act
can
never
become
morally
good
even
if
it
is
done
with
a
good
motive
or
intention.
Example:
To
cheat
in
an
exam
in
order
to
pass
the
subject
and
be
able
to
graduate
on
time.
Cheating
is
wrong
in
itself
(intrinsically
evil).
To
aim
to
pass
the
subject
in
order
to
graduate
on
time
is
a
good
intention
(maybe,
in
this
case,
the
student
needs
to
finish
so
he/she
can
look
and
find
a
decent
job
to
help
the
poor
family).
But
"the
end
does
not
justify
the
means."
No
matter
how
good
the
intention
is,
as
long
as
it
is
done
with
an
inherently
evil
act
as
a
means,
it
is
still
morally
wrong.
3.
The
Circumstances
The
moral
goodness
or
badness
of
an
act
is
determined
not
only
the
object
or
act
itself,
plus
the
motive
or
intention
of
the
moral
agent,
but
also
on
the
circumstances
or
situation
surrounding
the
performance
of
the
action.
Circumstances
refer
to
the
various
conditions
outside
of
the
act,
They
are
not,
strictly
speaking,
part
and
parcel
of
the
act
itself.
Circumstances
are
conditions
that
influence,
to
a
lesser
or
greater
degree,
the
moral
quality
of
the
human
act.
They
either
"affect
the
act
by
increasing
or
lessening
its
voluntariness
or
freedom,
and
thus,
affecting
the
morality
of
the
act"
(Salibay
2008:
33).
The
kinds
of
circumstances
that
the
study
of
Ethics
deals
with
are
those
which
change
and
modify
the
specific
moral
character
o
c
human
act.
Four
Types
of
Circumstances
that
Affect
the
Morality
of
the
Act
(Baldemeca
et
al.
1984:94;
also
in
Montemayor
1985:
67):
1.
Mitigating
or
extenuating
circumstances
diminish
the
degree
of
moral
good
or
evil
in
an
act.
To
kill
an
innocent
person
s
murder.
However,
suppose
a
person
commits
murder
for
the
first
time
or
without
any
premeditation
and
later
admits
his/her
guilt,
then
these
circumstances
lessen
the
severity
of
the
act
and
its
punishment.
2.Aggravating
circumstances
increase
the
degree
of
moral
good
or
evil
in
an
act
without
adding
a
new
and
distinct
species
of
moral
good
or
evil.
The
same
act
of
murder
can
be
made
worse
if
it
is
carried
out
at
night
and
with
the
use
of
superior
arms
by
a
known
recidivist.
3.
Justifying
circumstances
show
adequate
reason
for
some
acts
done.
A
person
charged
with
murder
can
vindicate
himself/herself
if
he/she
can
prove
that
he/she
killed
a
superior
aggressor
and
that
he/she
did
so
in
defense
of
his/her
own
life.
4.
Specifying
circumstances
give
a
new
and
distinct
species
of
moral
good
or
evil
of
the
act.
The
moral
quality
of
the
act
of
murder
changes
if
the
murderer
is
wife
of
the
Victim,
or
if
the
murderer
and
the
victim
are
one
and
the
same.
Evidently,
therefore,
not
only
the
nature
of
the
act
itself,
but
also
the
circumstances
which
served
as
a
reason
for
it,
render
it
worthy
or
approval
or
condemnation.
More
concretely,
on
another
related
level,
there
are
also
even
Specific
kinds
of
circumstances
which
affect
the
morality
of
human
l
hey
basically
provide
practical
answers
to
particular
questions
as
to
the
WHO,
WHERE,
BY
WHAT
MEANS,
WHY,
TO
WHON
TO
WHOM,
Panizo;
also
in
HOW
and
WHEN
of
the
act
(See
Agapay
2008:65-‐67;
action.
Glenn,
&
Babor):
a.)
WHO
-‐
is
the
subject
or
the
person
who
does
or
receives
the
action.
Every
act
has
a
doer
and
a
receiver.
The
one
who
performs
it
and
the
one
to
whom
the
action
is
done.
Example:
It
would
matter
what
is
the
particular
status
or
level
(age,
education,
position,
etc.)
of
the
person
who
performs
or
receives
the
act.
Is
the
person
a
priest,
a
minor,
a
widow,
government
official,
a
professional,
illiterate,
lunatic,
disabled,
hired
killer,
military.
officer,
senile,
etc?
(Here,
we
invite
you
the
readers,
to
think
about
how
would
a
particular
person's
status
or
level
affect
the
morality
of
his/her
action.)
b.)
WHERE
-‐
is
the
setting
of
an
action.
Every
act
is
done
in
a
particular
place.
The
place
where
the
act
is
committed
by
someone
affects
to
a
considerable
degree
its
morality.
But
place
here
is
not
only
confined
to
a
particular
geographical
location
where
the
act
happened
but
also
includes
the
nature
of
the
place.
Here
we
can
ask
the
question:
"Is
the
act
done
inside
the
church
or
a
place
of
worship,
in
a
public
place,
inside
the
privacy
of
one's
room,
in
the
presence
of
children,
in
the
classroom,
in
the
boarding
house
or
dormitory,
in
the
hospital
or
clinic,
etc.?"
(Here,
we
invite
you
to
think
how
does
a
place
where
the
act
is
done
affect
the
morality
of
the
act.)
c.)
BY
WHAT
MEANS
-‐
Although
one's
intention
may
be
morally
good,
if
the
means
of
attaining
the
end
are
illicit
or
unlawful,
one's
acts
are
immoral,
"The
end
does
not
justify
the
means."
Example:
Are
the
means
of
carrying
the
act
through
the
use
of
force,
compulsion,
threats,
coercion,
intimidation,
embarrassing
words,
lewd
remarks,
Vulgar
statements,
insensitive
comments?
Are
the
ways
employed
in
achieving
one's
end
or
goal
through
the
use
of
deception
lies,
half-‐truths,
etc.?
d.)
WHY
-‐
is
the
intention
or
the
motive
that
moves
the
agent
action.
(This
one,
as
a
matter
of
systematic
presentation,
already
dealt
with
above,
as
the
second
major
determinant
of
morality.)
e.)
HOW-‐
answers
the
question
as
to
the
way
or
manner
the
act
was
carried
or
performed.
This
circumstance
also
involves
different
conditions
or
modalities
such
as
voluntariness,
consent,
Violence,
fear,
ignorance.
It
can
also
include
the
particular
weapon/equipment/tools/gadgets/etc.
that
the
person
used
or
employed
in
the
performance
of
the
act.
(This
particular
type
or
circumstance
is
actually
very
similar
to
the
question
"By
what
means?)
Example:
Was
the
action
performed
in
cold
blood,"
"in
a
painful
manner,
"in
a
very
brutal
way
(as
in
torture),"
"maliciously,
etc.?
Or
was
it
done
gracefully/kindly/calmly/peacefully,
privately/
etc.?
Was
it
done
by
the
use
of
a
kitchen
knife
or
a
gun?
Was
the
act
done
through
the
employment
of
minors,
illiterate
and
the
innocent,
etc.?
f.)
WHEN-‐Is
the
time
of
the
action
performed.
Every
act
is
done
at
a
particular
and
specific
time.
The
element
of
time
is
also
important
and
even
vital
as
to
the
moral
assessment
and
judgment
of
the
human
act.
Example:
Was
the
act
performed
in
broad
daylight
or
was
it
done
during
nighttime?
Was
it
committed
when
the
victim
(recipient
of
the
act)
was
in
the
act
of
praying
or
while
asleep
and
unaware?
Was
the
action
done
during
the
celebration
of
the
Holy
Mass
or
done
during
the
Lenten
season
(Good
Friday)?
Was
the
act
performed
at
a
holy
time
such
as
the
Observance
of
a
sacred
feast
such
as
during
Ramadan?
g)
TO
WHOM-‐refers
to
the
recipient
of
the
action,
or
the
person
to
whom
the
act
is
done.
(This
was
already
discussed
as
part
of
the
WHO
question
in
letter
a,
see
above.)
Principles
Governing
Circumstances
(Agapay
2008:66-‐67)
1.Circumstances
may
either
increase
or
decrease
the
wrongfulness
of
an
evil
act.
2.
Circumstances
may
either
increase
or
decrease
the
merits
of
a
good
act.
3.
Circumstance
may
exempt
temporarily
someone
from
doing
a
required
act.
4.
Circumstances
do
not
prove
the
guilt
of
a
person.
The
presence
or
a
person
when
a
crime
is
committed
does
not
prove
he
is
the
criminal
when
a
crime
is
committed.
Modifiers
of
Human
Acts
Factors
and
conditions
that
affect
to
a
considerable
extent
man's
inner
disposition
towards
certain
actions
are
known
as
"modifiers
of
human
acts."
As
the
term
modifiers
implies,
they
influence
specifically.
the
mental
and/or
emotional
state
of
a
person
concerned
to
the
point
that
the
voluntariness
involved
in
an
act
is
either
increased
or
diminished
ns
Is
significant
precisely
because
the
moral
accountability
of
the
doer
Or
the
action
is
also
increased
or
decreased,
as
the
case
may
be.
These
modifiers,
accordingly,
"affect
human
acts
in
the
essential
qualities
of
knowledge,
freedom,
voluntariness,
and
so
make
them
less
perfectly
human'
(Glenn
1965:
25).
The
following
are
the
modifiers
of
human
acts
(See
Agapay
2008:34-‐39;
Glenn
1965:
32-‐47;
Panizo
1964:
28-‐37):
1.
Ignorance
Ignorance
is
the
absence
of
necessary
knowledge
which
a
person
in
a
given
situation,
who
is
performing
a
certain
act,
ought
to
have.
Ignorance
therefore
is
a
negative
thing
for
it
is
a
negation
of
knowledge.
Ignorance
is
either
Vincible
or
invincible.
Vincible
ignorance
can
easily
be
remedied
through
ordinary
diligence
and
reasonable
efforts
on
the
part
of
the
person
who
is
in
this
particular
mental
state.
This
specific
type
of
ignorance
is
therefore
conquerable
since
it
is
correctible.
The
ignorance
of
a
student,
for
instance,
regarding
a
particular
assignment
that
he/she
missed
because
of
having
been
absent
in
class
is
vincible,
since
he/she
can
easily
ask
from
his/her
classmates
about
it
through
a
simple
act
of
texting.
Hence,
the
student
here,
can
be
considered
"at
fault"
of
his/her
ignorance.
Invincible
ignorance
is
the
kind
of
ignorance
which
an
individual
may
have
without
being
aware
of
it,
or,
having
knowledge
of
it,
simply
lacks
the
necessary
means
to
correct
and
solve
it.
This
type
of
ignorance
is
unconquerable,
and
thus
not
correctible.
The
ignorance
of
someone
who
lost
something
and
has
tried
all
humanly
possible
ways
to
find
it
is
having
an
invincible
kind
O
ignorance.
Sometimes,
it
may
happen
that
a
person
performs
a
certain
a
without
realizing
certain
facts.
Thus,
for
example,
a
waiter
in
a
restaurant
might
be
totally
unaware
that
the
food
he
is
serving
to
the
customers
contains
harmful
bacteria.
Under
the
classification
of
vincible
ignorance
is
the
affected
type
ol
ignorance.
This
is
the
kind
of
ignorance
which
an
individual
keeps
by
positive
efforts
in
order
to
escape
blame
and
accountability.
It
is
affected
ignorance
when,
for
example,
a
student
refuses
or
Simply
1gnores
to
read
a
school
memo
well
posted
in
bulletin
boards
precisely
so
that
he
or
she
may
be
exempted
from
what
it
requires,
which
the
student
finds
burdensome.
Principles
Governing
Ignorance
(See
Agapay
2008:35;
Glenn
1965:
32-‐47,
Panizo
1964:
28-‐37):
a.
Invincible
ignorance
renders
an
act
involuntary.
A
person
cannot
be
a.
held
morally
responsible
or
liable
if
he
or
she
is
not
aware
of
the
state
of
his
or
her
ignorance.
To
illustrate
this
kind
of
ignorance
in
the
concrete,
take
a
student
who
is
not
truly
aware
that
the
money
he
or
she
has
paid
for
his
or
her
tuition
is
actually
counterfeit
money,
cannot
be
held
for
committing
an
act
of
deception.
b.
Vincible
ignorance
does
not
destroy,
but
lessens
the
voluntariness
and
the
corresponding
accountability
over
the
act.
A
person
who
becomes
aware
and
conscious
of
the
state
of
ignorance
he
or
she
is
in
has
the
moral
obligation
to
correct
it
by
employing
enough
diligence
in
finding
the
information
required
to
make
one's
ignorance
disappear,
"To
act
with
vincible
ignorance
is
to
act
imprudently."
An
example
of
this
specific
kind
of
ignorance
is
when
a
student-‐
nurse
who
is
not
sure
whether
the
reading
that
he
or
she
did
on
a
patient's
BP
is
accurate
or
not,
and
has
failed
to
double
check,
when
it
could
have
easily
been
done,
is
guilty
of
this
kind
of
ignorance.
Here,
it
is
worth
noting
that
the
degree
of
the
person's
responsibility
laving
vincible
ignorance
depends
on
three
things:
the
amount
of
spent
to
obtain
the
necessary
information
when
it
is
available
to
c
said
ignorance,
the
gravity
of
the
matter
concerned
where
there
ignorance,
and
the
obligation
of
the
person
involved
to
acquire
proper
1gnorance,
a
Knowledge
on
the
matter.
c.
Affected
or
pretended
ignorance
does
not
excuse
a
person
from
his/her
bad
actions;
on
the
contrary
it
actually
increases
their
malice,
This
specific
kind
of
ignorance
happens
When
a
person
C.
really
wants
and
chooses
to
be
ignorant
so
that
he/she
can
eventually
escape
any
accountability
arising
from
the
Wrongfulness
of
the
act
later
on.
A
good
example
here
is
a
student
who
intentionally
misses
committee
meeting
in
order
not
to
be
given
any
ask
he/she
Suspects
to
be
assigned
to
members
so
as
to
avoid
any
responsibility
that
goes
with
it.
2.
Passion
or
Concupiscence
Passion
or
concupiscence
is
here
understood
as
a
strong
or
powerful
feeling
or
emotion.
It
refers
more
specifically
to
those
bodily
appetites
or
tendencies
as
experienced
and
expressed
in
such
feelings
as
fear,
love,
hatred,
despair,
horror,
sadness,
anger,
grief
and
the
like.
Passion
or
concupiscence
is
also
known
by
other
names
such
as
sentiments,
affections,
desires,
etc.
(Although
each
of
this
term
connotes
different
meaning.)
Passion
or
concupiscence
is
either
an
inclination
towards
desirable
objects,
or,
a
tendency
away
from
undesirable
or
harmful
things.
It
includes
both
positive
and
negative
emotions.
According
to
St.
Thomas
Aquinas,
In
themselves
passions
are
indifferent;
they
are
not
intrinsically)
evil...inasmuch
as
they
are
the
movements
of
the
irrational
appetite,
have
no
moral
good
or
evil
in
themselves.
But
if
they
are
subject
to
the
reason
and
will,
then
moral
good
and
evil
are
in
them.
God
has
endowed
the
human
person
with
these
appetites
which
pervade
his/her
whole
sensitive
life.
They
are
instruments
and
means
for
self-‐
preservation
of
the
individual
and
the
human
race.
Every
person
needs
them
for
self-‐defense,
growth,
and
improvement.
The
saints
and
Christ
Himself
expressed
their
passions
(as
cited
in
Salibay
2008:
40).
Passions
are
either
classified
as
antecedent
or
consequent.
Antecedents
are
those
that
precede
an
act.
It
may
happen
that
a
person
emotionally
aroused
to
perform
an
act.
Antecedent
passions
predispose
person
to
act.
Principle
governing
Antecedent
Passion
Antecedent
passions
do
not
always
destroy
voluntariness,
but
they
diminish
accountability
for
the
resultant
act.
Antecedent
passions
weaken
the
will
power
of
a
person
without,
however,
completely
obstructing
his
freedom.
Thus
the
so
called
'crimes
of
passion
are
voluntary.
But
insofar
as
passions
interfere
with
the
freedom
of
the
will,
one’s
accountability
is
diminished'"
(Panizo
1964:
53).
Principle
governing
Consequent
Passion
Consequent
passions
do
not
lessen
voluntariness,
but
may
even
increase
accountability.
This
is
because
consequent
passions
are
the
direct
results
of
the
will
which
fully
consents
to
them
instead
of
subordinating
them
to
its
control"
(Panizo,
ibid.).
Here,
the
person
concerned
who
willfully
acts
following
his/her
passion,
allows
himself/herself
to
be
completely
controlled
by
it
and
hence,
is
considered
morally
responsible
for
it.
3.
Fear
Fear
is
defined
as
"the
disturbance
of
the
mind
of
a
person
who
is
confronted
by
an
impending
danger
or
harm
to
himself
or
loved
ones"
(Agapay2008:
36-‐37).
"Fear
may
be
considered
a
passion
which
arises
as
an
impulsive
movement
of
avoidance
of
a
threatening
evil,
ordinarily
accompanied
by
bodily
disturbances
(Panizo
1964:
34).
Here,
it
is
treated
as
a
"special
kind"
of
passion,
and
hence
also
treated
as
another
distinct
modifier
of
human
act
since
it
is
a
kind
of
a
test
of
one's
mental
character.
In
addition,
a
distinction
must
be
made
between
an
act
done
"with"
fear
and
an
act
done
"out"
or
"because"
of
fear.
It
is
only
those
acts
done
out
or
because
of
fear
are
considered
as
a
modifier
of
a
human
act
since
it
"modifies
the
freedom
of
the
doer,
Inducing
him
to
act
in
a
certain
predetermined
manner,
often
without
his
full
consent"
(Agapay
1991:
24.)
Principles
governing
Fear
3.1
Acts
done
"with"
fear
are
voluntary.
This
is
so
since
the
person
acting
with
fear
is
acting
in
spite
of
his/her
fear,
and
thus,
still
very
much
in
control
of
his/
her
conduct.
Therefore
the
person
Concerned
remains
morally
responsiblep
of
his/her
action,
whether
g0od
or
bad,
right
or
wrong.
3.2
Acts
done
"because
of
intense
fear
or
panic
are
Simply
involuntary.
A
person
when
acting
out
of
extreme
fear
is
not
morally
accountable
of
his/her
action
or
conduct,
A
good
example
is
a
cashier
who
hands
the
money
to
a
robber
who
is
poking
a
gun
on
his/her
head
is
acting
out
of
intense
fear
and
panic,
and
thus,
doing
something
involuntarily
and
without
his/her
consent.
Such
action
exempts
the
person
from
any
moral
or
even
legal
responsibility.
4.
Violence
Generally,
violence
refers
to
"any
physical
force
exerted
on
a
person
by
another
free
agent
for
the
purpose
of
compelling
[the]
said
person
to
act
against
his
will"(Agapay
1991:24).
Any
act
where
great
and
brutal
force
is
inflicted
to
a
person
constitutes
violence.
This
includes
acts
such
as
torture,
mutilation
and
the
like.
Principles
governing
Violence
Any
action
resulting
from
violence
is
simply
involuntary,
However,
the
person
whose
physical
external
conduct
emanates
from
and
emanates
from
and
controlled
by
violence
should
always
be
in
defiance
in
terms
of
one's
will.
This
means
that
even
one
is
compelled
to
do
something,
one
should
not
consent
to
it.
A
good
example
is
a
woman
whose
body
may
be
violated
but
remained
defiant
in
the
presence
of
an
unjust
and
brutal
aggressor,
whose
superior
strength
overpowers
that
of
the
woman
victim.
When
a
person
experiences
so
much
fear
in
the
face
of
an
unjust
aggressor
who
is
armed
and
extremely
dangerous,
he
or
she
is
not
held
morally
responsible
of
his
or
her
action.
However,
as
the
above
example
tried
to
show,
"active
resistance
should
always
be
offered
to
an
unjust
aggressor.
[But]
If
resistance
is
impossible,
or
it
there
is
a
serious
threat
to
one's
life,
a
person
confronted
by
violence
can
always
offer
intrinsic
resistance
by
withholding
consent,
that
1s
enough
to
save
one’s
moral
integrity"
(Panizo
as
cited
in
Agapay
1991:25).
Absolute
violence
excludes
any
voluntariness
from
the
forced
action.
The
reason
is
that
lack
of
consent
precludes
a
human
act
and
consequently
imputability"
(Peschke
1985:260).
However,
relative
violence
does
not
impair
voluntariness
completely
but
Voluntariness
is
not
completely
taken
away
since
there
is
partial
consent
of
the
will.
But
voluntariness
is
lessened
because
relative
violence
makes
a
person
carry
out
what
otherwise
he
would
not
do
(Peschke
ibid.).
5.
Habit
Habit,
is
a
"constant
and
easy
way
of
doing
things
acquired
by
the
Repetition
of
the
same
act"
(Panizo
1964:37).
Also,
"habit
is
the
readiness,
born
of
frequently
repeated
acts,
for
acting
in
a
certain
manner
(Agapay
2008:38).
Principles
governing
Habit
"Actions
done
by
force
of
habit
are
voluntary
in
cause,
unless
a
reasonable
effort
is
made
to
counteract
the
habitual
inclination"
(Agapay
2008:38-‐39).
This
means
that
if
a
person
will
simply
let
his/her
habit
take
control
of
his/her
action
without
doing
anything
about
it
whatsoever,
then
we
can
say
that
he/she
is
morally
accountable
of
his/her
action
by
allowing
the
habit
to
determine
his/her
conduct.
A
deliberately
admitted
habit
does
not
lessen
voluntariness
and
actions
resulting
therefrom
are
voluntary
at
least
in
their
cause"
(Peschke
1985:262).
Here,
the
person
concerned
is
also
still
morally
responsible
for
his/her
action
which
is
the
outcome
of
habit
since
such
necessarily
includes
approval
of
all
the
consequences
which
the
person
is
well
aware
from
the
very
beginning.
Habits
are
voluntary
in
cause,
because
they
are
the
result
of
previously
willed
acts
done
repeatedly
as
a
matter
of
fact.
Thus,
every
action
emanating
from
habit
is
said
to
partake
of
the
voluntariness
of
those
previous
acts.
Therefore,
for
as
long
as
the
habit
is
not
corrected,
evil
actions
done
by
force
of
that
habit
are
voluntary
and
thus,
the
person
concerned
is
still
very
much
morally
accountable
(Agapay
2008:
39).
An
opposed
habit
lessens
voluntariness
and
sometimes
precludes
it
completely.
The
reason
is
that
a
habit
weakens
[both
the]
intellect
and
Will
in
the
concrete
situation
in
a
similar
way
as
passion
does
(Peschke
1985:262).
When
a
person
decides
to
fight
his
habit,
and
for
as
long
as
the
effort
towards
this
purpose
continues,
actions
resulting
from
such
habit
may
be
regarded
as
acts
of
man
and
not
accountable.
The
reason,
as
pointed
out
Glenn,
is
that
the
cause
of
such
habit
is
no
longer
expressly
desired
(as
cited
in
Agapay,
ibid.).
APPLY
WHAT
YOU
HAVE
LEARNED
Questions
1.What
makes
an
act
truly
human?
2.
What
are
the
various
elements
of
a
human
act?
3.
Distinguish
human
acts
from
acts
of
man
4.
What
determines
the
morality
of
a
human
act?
5.
How
do
we
know
whether
one
is
morally
responsible
for
his/her
actions?
6.
What
are
the
various
modifiers
of
human
acts?
7.
What
are
the
two
types
of
ignorance?
Which
one
is
forgivable?
8.
What
are
the
various
principles
governing
fear
and
violence?
Can
one
be
held
morally
liable
by
acting
out
of
fear
because
of
violence?
Why
or
why
not?
9.What
are
the
two
types
of
passion?
Which
one
we
still
have
moral
accountability?
10.
What
are
the
principles
governing
habit?
When
does
a
habit
become
voluntary?
Things
to
Do
1.
Make
a
list
of
specific
actions
that
can
be
classified
as
human
acts,
as
well
as
actions
that
can
be
considered
as
acts
of
man.
Provide
a
justification
for
your
list.
2.
Cite
a
particular
case
where
the
person/s
involved
acted
out
of
ignorance.
Point
out
what
kind
of
ignorance
is
present.
Then
assess
the
moral
responsibility
of
the
person/s
Concerned.
3.
Evaluate
the
morality
of
"Fake
News"
by
applying
both
the
elements
of
human
act,
determinants
of
morality
and
the
modifiers
of
human
act.
Exercise
A.
1.
Concisely
define
the
following:
1.1
Human
act:
1.2
Act
of
Man
2.
What
are
the
five
modifiers
of
human
act?
2.1__________________________________
2.2__________________________________
2.3__________________________________
2.4__________________________________
2.5__________________________________
3.
Enumerate
the
three
determinants
of
the
morality
of
human
acts:
3.1__________________________________
3.2__________________________________
3.3__________________________________
B.
1.
State
concisely
four
principles
under
the
motive
or
intention
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
Enumerate
and
briefly
describe
the
four
types
of
circumstances
that
affect
the
morality
of
the
act.
a.
b.
c.
d.
c.
TRUE
OR
FALSE
________1.Human
acts
refer
to
actions
that
are
done
freely
or
voluntarily.
________2
Human
acts
that
are
good
are
the
only
one'
s
subject
to
morality.
________3.
Human
acts
are
also
actions
that
are
done
with
ignorance.
________4.
Freedom
and
consent
are
essential
elements
of
human
acts.
________5.
Acts
of
man
and
human
acts
are
both
the
concern
of
ethics.
________
6.
All
human
acts
are
acts
of
man,
but
not
all
acts
of
man
are
human
acts.
________7.
An
example
of
an
act
of
man
is
the
act
of
sleepwalking.
________
8.
Human
acts
are
the
ones
that
emanate
from
our
instinctive
sensual
nature.
________9
Human
acts
are
those
that
we
share
with
animals.
________10.
Human
acts
are
responsible
acts,
unlike
in
the
act
of
man.
________11.
The
act
of
mindless
breathing
can
be
considered
as
a
human
act.
________12.
The
presence
of
voluntariness
turns
the
act
into
an
act
of
man.
________13.
All
elements
of
a
human
act
must
be
present
to
be
truly
a
human
act.
________14.
Determinants
of
morality
define
the
morality
of
an
act.
________15.
These
determinants
specifically
define
the
rightness/wrongness
of
an
act.
________16.
There
are
three
major
determinants
of
morality.
________17.
The
act
itself
is
considered
as
the
secondary
determinant
of
morality.
________18.
The
act
itself
is
also
known
as
the
object
of
the
act.
________19.
It
is
also
the
act
that
the
will
chooses
to
perform
voluntarily.
________20.
The
motive
is
different
from
the
intention
of
the
act.
________21.
The
motive
is
the
purpose
of
which
something
is
done
deliberately.
________22.
Circumstance
is
a
minor
determinant
of
morality.
________23.
There
are
four
types
of
circumstances
that
affect
the
morality
of
the
act.
________24.
The
circumstances
that
ethics
deals
with
are
purely
internal
in
the
act.
________25.
Circumstances
refer
to
the
various
internal
conditions
of
the
act.