Water 2013, 5, 1865-1889; doi:10.

3390/w5041865
OPEN ACCESS

water
ISSN 2073-4441
www.mdpi.com/journal/water
Article

Perceptions of Water Ownership, Water Management, and the

Responsibility of Providing Clean Water
Jacqueline Noga 1 and Gregor Wolbring 2,*
1
Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary AB T2N 4N1,
Canada; E-Mail: [email protected]
2
Stream of Community Rehabilitation and Disability Studies, Department Community Health
Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW,
Calgary AB T2N 4N1, Canada

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected];

Tel.:+1-403-210-7083.

Received: 16 September 2013; in revised form: 8 November 2013 / Accepted: 11 November 2013 /
Published: 19 November 2013

Abstract: Perceptions of water and water related issues still render many under-researched
topics. This study aims to further our knowledge regarding people’s perceptions of water
and our understanding about the different ways individuals use water. The authors asked
the question: Does the way an individual perceives water (i.e., as a commodity, a human
right, private resource, public resource and/or natural resource) influence consumption and
conservation of water, and sentiments towards control and allocation of water? An
exploratory online questionnaire was designed to generate qualitative and quantitative data
of survey participants’ perceptions, beliefs and actions towards water issues, such as
overconsumption and scarcity. Data analysis included comparison of the quantitative data
regarding the non-statistical association between how an individual perceives water and the
individual’s beliefs, as well as qualitative analysis of the comments using an iterative
pattern coding technique. One hundred and sixty four individuals participated in the survey
(75% completion rate) and over 430 comments were made. Themes that emerged from the
comments included: responsibility, scarcity, the value of water, knowledge gained and
education needed. Comparison of the different perceptions of water revealed that different
perceptions of what water is resulted in different beliefs about what the cost of water
should be. These findings have implications for future water use, including what needs to
change in order to increase appreciation for water issues.
Water 2013, 5 1866

Keywords: water; attitudes; perceptions; water conservation; water consumption

1. Introduction

This research aims to better understand individuals’ perceptions of water and how it impacts
individuals’ beliefs and actions toward water. Perceptions are the lens in which the participants
identify water, and beliefs and actions are how the individuals react based on their perceptions; in this
research, perceptions refers to how the individual perceives water i.e., as a commodity, a human right,
private resource, public resource and/or natural resource. The authors asked the question: Does the
way an individual perceives water influence consumption and conservation of water, and sentiments
towards control and allocation of water? Our study differs from existing research by addressing
perceptions of water itself, and comparing those perceptions/beliefs about water consumption,
conservation and management.
Various studies have used surveys to collect information on public attitudes and perceptions of
water [1]. In regards to water quality, many studies have found that concern for pollution in water is
increasing, particularly in drinking water [2,3]. This has led to a steady increase in the consumption of
bottled water, as participants in these studies have indicated they are not happy with their tap
water [4–7]. Doria found that perceptions of drinking water quality are highly influenced by
organoleptic factors, such as taste and odour [8]. Research on willingness to pay for improved water
sources in order to get better quality water has found a range of results. People’s willingness to pay for
improved water sources ranges from a distinct lack of willingness to pay [9,10] to the majority being
willing to pay a good deal more than what is currently being charged [11,12]. Recycling waste water
for direct use is not a new idea, nor are the studies that have looked at people’s perceptions of it. These
studies have found that better understanding of how the water is recycled, including the treatment
process and how it flows back into the system is crucial to uptake [13,14]. One example of a study that
looked at attitudes towards water quality is by Syme and Williams, who compared attitudes to
psychological and experiential factors, attitudes and demographics [15].
However there are several topics related to public attitudes and perceptions of water that have not
been well researched. These topics include people’s perceptions of the value of water, water
consumption, water regulations, the water footprint, and water scarcity Although studies exist that
covered attitudes these studies did not ask exactly how participants perceive water, meaning what they
consider water to be (i.e., a natural resource, a commodity, a public resource, etc.). Instead, many
surveys simply make assumptions about how an individual perceives water [1]. Most of the surveys
assume water is recognized as a natural resource. The following topics are inadequately covered in
current water surveys.
Some surveys ask questions about the value of water [12,16,17]. How people value water is an
important concern, particularly when addressing mitigation of overconsumption of water. While there
is willingness to pay for water surveys, the value of water does not necessarily fall within the
measurements used in willingness to pay estimates. Evaluations of people’s perceptions of the value of
Water 2013, 5 1867

water external to willingness to pay have not been well documented. In this research survey, the value
of water was related to other values, such as aesthetic and health related values.
Surveys that inquire about the different uses of water do not include questions about what the
individual thinks about the way he/she is using water, or the way he/she thinks it should be used. It is
important to understand not only how individuals use water, but how they believe it should be used,
and moreover, what they perceive as necessary (i.e., water for drinking, for sanitation, etc.) water use.
Questions in the survey address this.
There has been some research regarding how water should be controlled and allocated. For
example, surveys conducted for the European Union have focused primarily on private versus a public
water distribution system [18]. However, there are many other questions related to the control and
allocation of water that have not yet been addressed, such as who should be in control (i.e., local
versus national governments). The survey used in this research addresses those questions, and relates
them to the individuals’ perceptions of water.
Only one survey was found that included questions on the water footprint, and no surveys were
found that looked at people’s perceptions or attitudes toward the water footprint [19]. The water
footprint is a measurement of water consumption akin to the carbon footprint [20]. This survey
includes an explanation and questions about the water footprint.
Water scarcity issues have been surveyed mostly in water scarce areas [21]. In the RBC survey of
Canadian water attitudes, there are only two questions related to water quantity, and neither addresses
concern around running out of water [22]. In Quebec, there has been several studies on people’s
perceptions of water quality and consumption, including a study on fluoridated water [23], and two
studies that included the impact of taste and demographics on perceptions of water [24,25]. These
studies address consumption, but are related more to water quality than to scarcity issues. In this
research, individuals’ perceptions of water quantity were addressed.
The rationale for the study is to address the current literature gap between individuals’ perceptions
of water and perceptions of the value of water, water consumption, water regulations, the water
footprint, and water scarcity, and further our knowledge regarding people’s perceptions of water and
our understanding about the different ways individuals use water. This is important in order to better
understand the views of the public, the actions the public considers as necessary, and how the public
would like to have water issues addressed, including elements such as who is seen to be the
appropriate regulating body. Such knowledge will provide a foundation for further research and help to
guide policy. Syme and Williams and, more recently, Hu et al. concluded that perceptions of water
influence the actions of individuals, particularly in regards to perceptions of water quality and
consumption of bottled water [3,15]. Similar to an older study by Doria et al. [26], Hu et al. suggest
that when trying to understand people’s behaviour concerning water use, it is useful to first understand
how people perceive their water [3]. This study aims to discover how people perceive water and how it
relates to their use of water.
Water 2013, 5 1868

2. Methods

2.1. Method

An exploratory online questionnaire was designed to generate qualitative and quantitative data with
the purpose of providing researchers and policy makers with a better understanding of a variety of
perceptions, beliefs and actions towards water issues such as overconsumption and scarcity. The
mixed-methods approach included quantitative questions but also allowed the individual to expand on
any ideas using comment fields if so desired. Using both quantitative and qualitative data allows a
better representation of the data and increases validity by providing the participant with the ability to
expand on any ideas not offered in the quantitative questions [27]. It also permits the researchers to
compare the qualitative comments with the quantitative responses [28], as well as allows for multiple
measurements of the same question [29]. The data from the exploratory questionnaire provides a
foundation for further research on the topic of perceptions of individuals on water issues in comparison
to their actions and beliefs in relation to these water issues, as this is a recent and under-researched
area [30,31]. Using an online survey allowed as many participants to be reached as possible; as well,
the online link allowed a variety of individuals access to the survey [32].

2.2. Survey Design

The 37 questions address the following: (a) perceptions of water; (b) personal water consumption
habits and beliefs about consumption and conservation; (c) whose responsibility it is to provide clean
water; and (d) water regulations including water pricing, as well as attitudes towards; (e) the water
footprint—defined as a measurement of water consumption akin to the carbon footprint; and (f) water
security—defined as having ensured access to clean water (see Appendix). The survey was formatted
so each of these topics had one page that included all related questions. This organization was meant to
keep participants focused on the topic, and to ensure readability and comprehensibility of the survey [33].
Questions include multi-answer and single-answer multiple choice, and ranking scale questions
(Likert scale ranked one to seven). Comment boxes were provided to address the possibility of a lack
of choices in the multiple choice and ranking scale as well as to allow the participant to expand on any
ideas. The results of the multiple choice and Likert scale questions are considered quantitative whereas the
results of the comments are considered qualitative. There are questions regarding demographic-related
information, namely age, gender, and country in which the participant is currently residing. The survey
was pilot tested on a group of peers, to check for readability, internal reliability and validity [34].
Survey Monkey, an online website, was used to design and distribute the survey; it provided a quick
link for participants to easily access the survey at their own leisure. Data collection was conducted
from October 2012 to January 2013.

2.3. Recruitment

The survey link was sent to various contacts of the authors, including peers and coworkers, as well
as to relevant listservs (such as water and environment listservs). The participants in the initial group
Water 2013, 5 1869

were encouraged to forward the survey; this resulted in the link being added to a Facebook page and an
online downhill SKI forum.

2.4. Sampling

Snowball convenience sampling was used in order to obtain the greatest number and widest variety
of participants in order to understand key perceptions from a range of perspectives. This sampling
method was chosen as a means of gathering initial information on the subject in order to create a
foundation for further research. The use of snowball sampling meant participants were encouraged to
forward the link to their own peers and co-workers [35]. No inclusion or exclusion criteria were used;
therefore all of the responses from all of the participants were used for data analysis.

2.5. Data Analysis

One part of data analysis was the comparison of the quantitative data on the possible association
between how an individual perceives water (that was addressed in the first set of questions in the
survey) and the individual’s beliefs regarding: (1) the price of water; (2) whose responsibility it is to
provide the public with clean water; and (3) the importance of conservation and regulation (these
questions were addressed throughout the survey). Survey Monkey provides a tool that “filters” the
results to show only the responses to all of the questions from those who answered one particular
question in a particular way. This tool was used to filter the data in order to see the responses to all
questions based on the response to the first question regarding perception of water. Filtering the results
allowed for exploration of how the different perceptions impacted responses to the other questions in
order to analyze whether there is a non-statistical association between individual water perceptions
compared to beliefs and actions. Using comparison illuminates the associations between how the
individual perceives water and the various beliefs the individual has regarding the different topics and
the actions they take. This comparison is crucial in understanding the impact of attitudes on water use.
Comments provided further information on an individual’s beliefs and ideas; the comments were
coded using an inductive pattern coding technique, where the comments were read and when a theme
became apparent, a code was developed to indicate the presence of this theme in the comment
(Table 1). The use of software during analysis of qualitative data increases validity and reliability
because it allows the researcher to develop and test classifications and connections using software that
provides a system of rules based logic, thereby mitigating potential bias [36,37]. Atlas.ti has been
identified as a useful tool when conducting pattern coding [38] and was used for qualitative analysis of
the comments. The comments were read repeatedly, using an iterative technique, adding new codes as
they appeared until no new themes were emerging. Some codes were auto-codes, meaning the theme
was apparent in a particular word used, and thus the code could be identified using the Atlas.ti
auto-coding tool that automatically searches and identifies the word in comments. Other codes were
hand codes, meaning the text had to be identified by hand. Pattern coding is a thorough and rigorous
coding strategy that provided the best technique for coding the comments due to the continuous,
iterative nature of the method [38].
Water 2013, 5 1870

2.6. Limitations

This study used an online exploratory survey that was distributed via snowball sampling. Therefore
the results are not generalizable because only those who received the survey link through social
networks of the researchers and who had access to a computer could complete the survey [39]. As
well, the survey was written in English, thus limiting the potential number of participants to 20% of
the world’s population. Furthermore, because the participants are limited to those with a computer
who were reached through snowball sampling there may be a sampling bias. In future studies, a
researcher could change the sampling protocol to obtain data that might be generalizable related to a
certain group. For example, administering the survey online and in person using stratified random
sampling to locals, for example Calgarians, could help make the results more applicable to Calgary,
Alberta, Canada.
Furthermore, within the survey, the questions used language that required basic reading skills,
understanding of certain words in context (such as commodity, human right, etc.), and knowledge of
water consumption rates. While the survey was targeted to fit all age groups and used language that
was simplified to the best of the authors’ ability, there is the possibility that internal validity was
compromised by the language used in the survey. This limits the sample to well-educated and
privileged groups, who are already more likely to answer online surveys. This issue could be resolved
by testing the questions on a sample group who represent a more diverse study population, and by
providing definitions and statistics that are pertinent to answering the question. Furthermore,
descriptive results are presented, but there is not any advanced statistical analysis. Overall percentages
(Tables 1–6) and ranking average (Table 7) are provided; as well, the cross tabulation function of the
software is used to give percentages and ranking average based on how a certain question was
answered (Question 5: Imagine a full glass of clean drinking water. In your opinion, this water is
primarily: a commodity, a natural resource, a private resource, a public resource, a human right;
see Figure 1). The authors believe that as this is an exploratory study the findings still provide the
reader with useful knowledge related to the research question. However a study that leads to
generalizable results and that uses advanced statistical analysis might be useful as a next step.
Ethics approval was granted by the University of Calgary Conjoint Health Research Ethics Board
21 September 2012.

3. Results

3.1. Demographics of the Sample

The final population of our study included 164 participants of that 75% completed the survey.
Of the participants, 108 identified as being male and 49 identified as female; 45 indicated being under
18 years of age, 90 indicated being between 18 and 24 years old, 15 between 25 and 39 years old, and
nine over 39 years old. Of the participants, 74 indicated that they currently live in Canada, 65 from the
United States of America, and one from each of the following countries: Taiwan, France, Austria, UK,
Norway, Finland, and Italy. This variety of participants offered a wide collection of responses,
opinions and ideas, however the large majority of the participants were from younger age groups in
Canada and the US. Based on the qualitative comments of participants the authors posit that the
Water 2013, 5 1871

participants were from areas that are typically water abundant, for example, “seeing those who do not
have instant access to clean water from a tap makes me feel instant gratitude for my access to clean
water” and “For those of us who have unlimited access to water…”. The authors submit that a question
around water climate in the area the research participant resides would add to better understand
recipients’ answers on scarcity. This may be considered a limitation, as there may be little insight from
participants residing in water scarce regions.
As well, there is potential bias within the results based on the respondents, as well as the
non-response rate. Furthermore, over-reporting on good behaviour may also be a cause of bias in the
results. The authors acknowledge these possible biases, and believe the results still offer insight to the
research question.

3.2. Themes

The comment boxes provided participants with a chance to expand on their answers to the
quantitative questions and offer further insight. The codes found in the comments revealed common
themes: Education needed (n = 35), Free water (n = 20), Bottled water (n = 16), Government (n = 16),
Conserving behaviour (n = 15) and Responsibility (n = 15), Accessibility (n = 11), Human right (n = 11),
Life (n = 11), Knowledge gained (n = 9), Mitigate consumption (n = 9), Non-monetary cost (n = 9),
Availability (n = 8), Affordability (n = 7), Monetary cost (n = 6), Increase the price of water (n = 5),
First Nations (n = 2), Government control (n = 2), and Indirect use (n = 1). Over 430 comments
provided a wealth of information, including more detailed answers to the question, questions about the
question, and comments about the question.

3.2.1. Theme: Responsibility

Responsibility was discussed frequently in the comments, both in response to the questions about
responsibility and in other contexts. The majority of respondents believed that it is the responsibility of
the government to ensure access to clean water (78.6% = Local government and 71.4% = Federal
government) and very few respondents thought that it is at all the responsibility of the individual
(20.0%) (Table 1). Many reacted to the question “Would you be in favour of putting restrictions on the
amount of water an entire community is allowed to use on a daily basis?” by commenting that if there
was a restriction on an entire community, individuals would act selfishly. For example, one participant
responded “Only if house to house was also restricted, otherwise one house would obey the restrictions
while another used the entire amount”. A fear of individuals acting solely for their own best interest
resonated with the majority of the participants indicating that the government should be in charge.

Table 1. Beliefs about responsibility for providing clean water: All participants.
Responsible entity Response rate (%)
The local government 78.6
The federal government 71.4
Non-governmental organizations 15.7
Trans/International bodies 26.4
It is the responsibility of the individual 20.0
Water 2013, 5 1872

Scarcity was discussed in relation to the need for conservation and restrictions, and the general
consensus is that water restrictions are only necessary in water scarce areas. Comments included:
“In areas where water is less abundant, for example the Vegas area, restrictions should exist”, “I avoid
beef as much as I can, particularly if it is produced in water poor regions”, and water should be “Free if
abundant”. The sentiment of the respondents who were opposed to restrictions (48.61%) (based on
responses to a Likert scale question) may be related to the lack of concern for running out of water in
the participant’s community (61.4%) (Table 2). Yet, while nearly half of the participants were opposed
to restrictions, conservation efforts were still apparent: the majority of participants acknowledged
making an effort to conserve water (54.75%).

Table 2. Beliefs about water scarcity: All participants.

Level of concern Response rate (%)
Yes, very concerned 6.3
No, not in this life time 61.4
Maybe, but not for a long time 25.2
Not sure 7.1

3.2.2. Theme: The Value of Water

There were a wide variety of comments regarding the value of water. Many respondents
commented that the value of water is best seen in non-monetary ways. In response to the question
“The greatest way to appreciate the value of water is to… (a) Look at the price of a bottle of water in a
convenience store; (b) Look at a waterfall; (c) Compare the condition of those who have clean water to
those who do not have clean water; (d) Water does not have a value; (e) Other (Table 3), no respondents
indicated that the true value of water is reflected in the price of a bottle of water, and only one
respondent commented that the value of water is reflected in the cost of obtaining it. Based on the
results, the value of water is most commonly seen by comparing those who have clean water to those
who do not (80.7%). This is reflected in the comments: four respondents commented that the value of
water is truly appreciated when one becomes thirsty.

Table 3. Beliefs about the value of water: All participants.

Ways to value water Response rate (%)
Compare the condition of those who have clean water to those
80.7
who do not have clean water
Other 8.6
Water does not have a value 6.4
Look at a waterfall 4.3
Look at the price of a bottle of water in a convenience store 0

On the other hand, the monetary value of water is also mentioned: “I would say the value of water
is how much the average person would pay for water in an area i.e., the average water bill/ how many
people purify their own water”. Comments such as “Just raise water rates” were found five times
throughout the survey. This indicates that some participants thought that raising the price of water will
Water 2013, 5 1873

encourage conservation. However, although some participants acknowledge the use of raising the price
of water in order to promote water conservation, the majority indicated they were opposed to charging
more money for water. This opposition is reflected in the question “Which do you prefer, a tax or a
reimbursement?” in which the respondents had to choose between the two; 84.3% preferred a
reimbursement, (n = 4) commented “neither”, and 43 respondents skipped the question. This illustrates
opposition to paying more for water.
Yet when asked “Would you be willing to pay an additional amount on your monthly bill in order
to ensure a sustained supply of water for yourself?” 37.1% of respondents indicated they would be
willing to pay to guarantee a sustained supply of water (32.8% were Unsure and 30.2% said No). And
when asked about putting a price on guaranteeing a sustained water supply (“Regardless of whether
you are currently paying for your water, how much would you be willing to pay out of a pocket
monthly in order to ensure a sustained supply of water for your household?”), 87.1% indicated they
would be willing to pay some amount more than CAD$1.00 (Table 4). This appears contradictory, as
30.2% of respondents indicated they would not be willing to pay an additional fee on a monthly bill,
yet only 12.9% indicated “None” when asked how much they would be willing to pay.

Table 4. Beliefs about payment for a guaranteed water supply: All participants.
Amount individual is willing to pay Response rate (%)
As much as is necessary to maintain a secure water supply 37.9
Between CAD $1.00–5.00 28.4
Between CAD $5.01–7.50 20.7
None 12.9

3.2.3. Theme: Knowledge Gained

Several comments indicated that knowledge was gained during participation in the survey. One
participant commented that “After completing this survey, I would try to make an effort to cut back
regardless of a reimbursement”. In response to reading that it takes 15,400 L of water to produce one
kilogram of beef [20], a participant commented “I had no idea, that is unreal”. In response to the
question of whether to add a water footprint label on consumer goods a participant commented “This is
a really good idea.” Based on the comments, it seems that participants learned more about water issues.

3.2.4. Theme: Education Needed

However, a lack of knowledge on many water related issues also became apparent. Comments
indicated that education is needed in the following areas: (1) water conservation actions, e.g.,
“How does the container you drink your water from have anything to do with water conservation?”
(2) water recycling technology, e.g., “would toilet water be reused after flushing? you need a hell of a
purification system for that.” and “Does it smell bad?” and most prominently; (3) awareness of the
water consumption rates and the possibility of water scarcity, e.g., in response to a question regarding
adding the water footprint label to consumer goods “Need to get the idea out there that this is
important first before it will be beneficial putting them on consumer goods” and “I am not sure if it
would influence the general public until more awareness is raised”. Another example of awareness
Water 2013, 5 1874

issues became apparent in the responses to the question “Given what you know about water
consumption, how many litres of water would you estimate you use in one day?” in which there were
twelve comments akin to “I really have no idea”. Only 10.8% of the participants indicated they think
they use over 100 L of water a day. The majority (50.8%) indicated that they think that they use
between 20 and 50 L of water a day (Table 5). In reality, the average Canadian uses 329 L of water a
day [40]. One respondent admitted: “Without knowing more about my current consumption level, I
cannot judge what cutting back 10 litres would require”. Also related to consumption are the indirect
uses of water, which many seemed to be unaware of: “Again, maybe I just don’t know the relation
between eating beef and eating meat is to water consumption, but I don’t see the relevance”. These
comments indicate that there is a lack of knowledge on water conservation, water reuse, and water
consumption rates.

Table 5. Beliefs about personal daily water consumption (in liters): All participants.
Believed water daily consumption in litres Response rate (%)
20–50 50.8
50–100 22.5
10–20 15.8
100 or more 10.8

3.3. Perceptions of Water versus Beliefs and Actions

The final results were cross tabulated using Survey Monkey data analysis tools, filtering for
demographics, including gender, current country of residence and age, and for each perception of
water (commodity, human right, private resource, public resource, natural resource).
As all participants did not answer all the questions, data is presented as percentages. The
individual’s perception of water was addressed in the first question, in which the participant could
select more than one response; all of the answers were chosen by at least fifteen participants. A natural
resource was selected by 67.9% of the participants, a human right by 51.4%, a public resource by
40.7%, a commodity by 30.0%, and a private resource by 10.7% (Table 6). We addressed how these
perceptions are related to beliefs about the price of water, about whose responsibility it is to provide
access to clean water, about the importance of conservation, and about personal consumption habits, in
order to better understand the non-statistical association between perceptions and beliefs and actions.

Table 6. Perceptions of water: All participants.

Water is seen as… Response rate (%)
A natural resource 67.9
A human right 51.4
A public resource 40.7
A commodity 30.0
A private resource 10.7

Several beliefs were found to be similar throughout the different perceptions. First was the
sentiment that the government, both local and federal, should be in charge of ensuring the public has
access to clean water. The only exception to this belief was within those who indicated that water is a
Water 2013, 5 1875

private resource, where 86.7% thought it was the responsibility of the local government, but only
46.7% thought it was the responsibility of the federal government. Thus, in the case of those who
perceived water to be a private resource it was still seen as the government’s responsibility, but
specifically the local government. Furthermore, when asked “How much of an effort do you put into
conserving water” on a scale of one to seven, seven being “I always make an effort”, the average
among the different perceptions was between 4.00 and 4.44. As well, there was no difference in the
water conserving behaviours between the groups; in all groups the majority take short showers and do
only full loads of laundry.
The difference amongst the perceptions was found in beliefs about the cost of water (Figure 1).
From highest to lowest number of participants who thought water should be free: #1. participants who
perceived clean drinking water to be a human right (63.8%); #2. participants who perceived clean
drinking water to be a commodity (61.9%); #3. participants who perceived clean drinking water to be a
public resource (58.2%); #4. participants who perceived clean drinking water to be a natural resource
(51.6%); and #5. participants who perceived clean drinking water to be a private resource (13.3%).

Figure 1. Comparison of beliefs about the cost of water. If water was to be sold on a
drop-by-drop basis, how much would you charge for one litre? (%)

A human right A public resource A private resource

A natural resource A commodity
100
87
90
80
70 64 62
58
60 52
47
50
36 36
40
30
20 13
10 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2
0
Nothing, water Price would be The same price as The same price as
should be free based on supply- Brand 1 Brand 2
demand (approximately (approximately
$3.50) $4.50)

The beliefs of those who perceive water to be a private resource are particularly unique. Those
believed water is a private resource felt differently about the importance of conserving water: when
asked how important it is to conserve water on a Likert scale of one to seven, seven being “very
important”, all the other participants indicated an average between 5.68 and 5.97 while the average
response of those who perceived water as a private resource was 4.85 (Table 7). More respondents
(86.7%) think water should have a price based on supply and demand than those who think water
should be free (13.3%). Of those who perceive water to be a private resource, 27% believe it is the
responsibility of the individual to ensure access to clean water, which is the largest portion compared
to the beliefs of the other perceptions.
Water 2013, 5 1876

Table 7. Comparison of beliefs about the importance of conserving water.

Those who believe water is primarily… Importance of conserving water (1–7)
A public resource 5.98
A human right 5.97
A natural resource 5.87
A commodity 5.68
A private resource 4.85

4. Discussion

4.1. Theme: Responsibility

The majority of the participants indicated that control of water is the responsibility of the
government, both local and federal. There is apparent opposition to leaving the responsibility of
allocating water up to the individual. This is similar to a study conducted in Iowa that found that in
total, two thirds of the participants think that it is the responsibility of either the local or state
government to protect water quality; the only population that thought that it was up to the individual
were farmers [41]. Another study in Pakistan also found that 78.4% of participants were willing to
accept the government having control over water sources; in this same study it was found that
individuals were not making any effort to improve their own water quality [42]. Syme and Williams,
who looked at perceptions of water quality, found that “trust in institutions” was common [15].
Preference for government control is revealed as a common sentiment.
One possible reason for a preference for government-level management rather than individual is
something known as “perception of externalities”, which is when an individual acts based on the
behaviour of others; this is a commonly cited reason for a lack of personal responsibility and
conservation effort [43]. That is, when an individual perceives that others are not conserving water that
individual feels he/she must also use water excessively. This is also known as inter-personal trust, and
a lack of inter-personal trust has been cited as a reason for not conserving water [44]. This is related to
the Tragedy of the Commons, a theory that all of the community will act as individuals and consume
as much as possible [43]. Interestingly, the Tragedy of the Commons was mentioned by an individual
in the survey: “If restriction is placed on the community rather than individuals, each individual will
over consume (much like the famous ‘Tragedy of the Commons’.” Responsibility was found to be
closely related to opinions about personal consumption, and it is apparent that respondents feel that the
government must remain responsible in order to ensure reasonable allocation and use.

4.2. Theme: Scarcity

It is clear that there is very little concern exhibited by the survey participants for running out of
clean water, particularly in the participants’ communities. This could be due to the majority of the
participants living in Canada and the US where water is abundant, or the government has an
emergency plan for drought or scarcity [45–47]. This finding is somewhat inconsistent with other
studies: a nationwide study of the US found that the majority of participants are aware of water
scarcity issues and want to see reforms to improve these problems [48], which was similar to another
Water 2013, 5 1877

study in Colorado [49]. Studies in Australia have found that individuals are only somewhat aware of
water scarcity issues, and have found further education is needed to enhance public knowledge about
water scarcity issues [50,51]. There is no known survey of Canadians’ perceptions of water scarcity,
therefore any direct comparison of the findings is not possible.
This lack of concern for the possibility of water scarcity is not reflected in the respondents’
substantial average conservation efforts. These efforts may instead be due to a perceived moral
obligation where individuals feel the need to act in environmentally friendly ways for ethical
reasons [40,52]. Overall, while the participants’ seemed unconcerned about running out of water,
conservation efforts are still apparent.

4.3. Theme: The Value of Water

The value of water is seen to be primarily non-monetary, thus it is possible that encouraging water
conservation may be more successful if ecological reasons are given as incentive to conserve water,
rather than raising the price of water as a punishment for not conserving. Similarly, one study of urban
and rural participants in Southern Alberta (Canada) found that urban participants considered water for
the environment to be of greater concern than water for humans, and that conservation efforts are
important [53]. Based on the results, a policy that addresses water as a valuable natural resource may
be effective in encouraging conservation; this is reinforced by research that suggests that conservation
actions come from self-motivation to conserve a valuable resource [43,54]. The results also suggest
that raising the price of water will not be effective as there is resistance and dislike for raising the price
of water. These results contradict the findings of other studies that indicate water costs increase
conservation [55,56]. The respondents are opposed to an increase in water prices but open to
adopting water conserving behaviour, which is an important consideration for policy makers when
making recommendations.
Further research is needed to study the association between beliefs about increased water prices in
comparison to willingness to pay for a guaranteed water supply. While individuals are opposed to
having the price raised on their current water supply, they would be willing to pay more if they could
guarantee their water supply. This association needs to be further investigated to better understand the
circumstances in which individuals are willing to pay more for water.

4.4. Themes: Knowledge Gained and Education Needed

Awareness of water issues is a topic covered in this survey, however the comments of respondents
who indicated that they felt they learned something new about water through taking the survey
indicates that knowledge gained and education of survey participants was an unintended yet beneficial
outcome. It also illuminates the lack of awareness about water issues that were assumed to be known
and that more education is needed. There are many comments by study participants regarding
confusion about the water issue being addressed in the question and these comments point to a gap in
knowledge regarding water issues. Greater awareness and education is needed in order to enhance the
promotion of water conservation. This has been found in other studies as well, for a variety of water
topics including water scarcity [50,51], drinking water quality [57], and water reclamation [58]. One
study that looked specifically at the consumption of bottled water instead of tap water in Brazil
Water 2013, 5 1878

discussed similar findings: education is critical for understanding the implications of consuming water
from different sources [5]. This need for more information is pertinent for policy makers when
designing educational tools related to water issues.

4.5. Perceptions of Water versus Beliefs and Actions

The different perceptions of water did not impact beliefs about responsibility and conservation, and
there was no discernible difference in the actions taken to conserve water between the groups of
different perceptions. However, variance was found in the participants’ beliefs about the price of
water. The distinction between those who thought that water should be free compared to those who
thought that there should be a price varied only slightly among individuals who perceived water as a
commodity, human right, or a public resource, all three groups mostly believed water should be free.
There was a slightly larger difference in those who perceived water to be a natural resource, and a
large difference in those who perceived water to be a private resource, most of who indicated water
should have a price.
There is a dichotomy between the ideas that water is a private resource versus water being an open
resource. These views are linked to perceptions about the price of water: those who think water is a
private resource strongly believe water should have a price. Further research is needed in order to identify
what views a person may hold that may influence him/her to see water as a private or public good.

5. Conclusions

The results of this survey indicate that water issues are not often considered by the participants, and
there is a large spectrum of beliefs about water consumption, conservation, control, and management
that need further investigation. From the results of this survey it is apparent that some perceptions may
influence certain beliefs, such as perceiving water as a private resource and believing water should
have a price, however many other beliefs were not correlated to any specific perception.
The beliefs and perceptions of the participants indicate that clean water is seen as a human right and
as a public resource, that conservation is important and that the value of water goes beyond monetary
worth. These results are a product of participants who mostly live in water abundant areas, and therefore
must be considered in context. As indicated in the results, further education and public understanding
of water issues is needed. This has implications for water policy makers and governments. Water is
essential for life and the world is coming to the end of a golden age of water [59]; greater awareness
and understanding of water use and management will promote a sustainable future for water use.

Acknowledgments

Thank-you to the Wolb Pack for support and guidance, to Tom Jack for insight, and to Stephanie
Noga for being there from the beginning. This work was in part supported by a Genome Canada and
Genome Alberta research grant.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Water 2013, 5 1879

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Appendix: Survey Questions

Demographics

1. Male or Female
2. Age:
a. Under 18
b. 18–24
c. 25–39
d. Over 39
3. Country:

All the following questions are to be answered based on the participant’s personal beliefs and current
knowledge of water issues.

Personal Sentiments Regarding Water

1. Imagine a full glass of clean drinking water. In your opinion, this water is primarily (please
indicate as many as you feel are accurate in numerical order, 1 being the most accurate):
 A commodity
 A natural resource
 A private resource
 A public resource
 A human right
Water 2013, 5 1883

2. Imagine a fresh water lake in a field on the side of a highway. In your opinion, this water is
primarily (please indicate as many as you feel are accurate in numerical order, 1 being the
most accurate):
 A commodity
 A natural resource
 A private resource
 A public resource
 A human right
3. Having access to clean water for drinking and sanitation is:
a. A human right
b. A luxury
c. Similar to income, one must earn his/her own
4. In your opinion, whose responsibility is it to ensure a community has access to clean water for
drinking and sanitation? (you may select more than one answer)
a. The local government
b. The federal government
c. Non-government organizations
d. Trans/International bodies (ex. United Nations)
e. It is the responsibility of the individual
5. In your opinion, whose responsibility is it to ensure clean water for drinking and sanitation is
provided to those who currently do not have it? (you may select more than one answer)
a. The local government
b. The federal government
c. Non-government organizations
d. Trans/International bodies (ex. United Nations)
e. It is the responsibility of the individual
6. Which of the following organized groups are you most comfortable with having control of water
quality and water supply in your community?
a. The local government
b. The federal government
c. Non-government organizations
d. Trans/International bodies (ex. United Nations)
7. Which of the following organized groups are you most comfortable with having control of water
quality and water supply globally?
a. The local government
b. The federal government
c. Non-government organizations
d. Trans/International bodies (ex. United Nations)
Water 2013, 5 1884

8. If water was to be sold on a drop-by-drop basis, how much would you charge for one litre?
a. Nothing, water should be free
b. Price would be based on supply-demand
c. The same price as Aquafina (approximately $3.50)
d. The same price as Fiji (approximately $4.50)
9. The greatest way to appreciate the value of water is to:
a. Look at the price of a bottle of water in a convenience store
b. Look at a waterfall
c. Compare the condition of those who have clean water to those who do not have clean water
d. Water does not have a value
e. Other (please specify)

Water Consumption

10. How important do you think it is to conserve water? (please mark on the line)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Not important Very important
11. Would you be in favour of putting restrictions on the amount of water an individual household is
allowed to use on a daily basis? (please mark on the line)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly opposed Indifferent Strongly in favour
12. Would you be in favour of putting restrictions on the amount of water an entire community is
allowed to use on a daily basis? (please mark on the line)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly opposed Indifferent Strongly in favour
13. Are you mindful of your own water consumption?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Somewhat
14. How much of an effort do you put into conserving water? (please mark on the line)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I never make an effort I always make an effort
Water 2013, 5 1885

15. How often do you consider where the water is coming from when you turn on the tap?
a. Every time
b. Almost every time
c. A few times a day
d. A few times a week
e. Never

Water Conservation Behaviours

16. Check all that apply in the following categories

Where you live there is/are:
o Low flow shower heads
o Low flush toilets
o A “smart technology” washing machine and dryer
o Rain barrels
o A pitcher of water in the fridge
o A laundry rack/line for air drying
o A vegetable garden
o A dishwasher
Currently in your everyday life, do you:
o Take short showers
o Drink bottled water
o Drink water taken directly from the tap
o Drink water from a filtered pitcher (such as Brita)
o Do only full loads of laundry
o Take baths
o Eat meat more than five times a week
o Know where your master water shut-off valve is located
17. Given what you know about water consumption, how many litres of water would you estimate
you use in one day?
a. 10–20 litres
b. 20–50 litres
c. 50–100 litres
d. 100 or more litres
18. List three uses of water which you think are necessary and should not be restricted
(1)

(2)

(3)
Water 2013, 5 1886

19. Are you aware of the current rates at which water is being consumed globally?
a. Yes (not necessarily an exact number)
b. No
c. Somewhat
d. Not sure
20. Are you concerned about the possibility of running out of clean water globally?
a. Yes, very concerned
b. No, not in this life time
c. Maybe, but not for a long time
d. Not sure
21. Are you concerned about running out of clean water in your community?
a. Yes, very concerned
b. No, not in this life time
c. Maybe, but not for a long time
d. Not sure
22. Which of the following would you be willing to give up in order to conserve water? Check all that
apply, if applicable:
o Showering everyday
o Taking showers longer than 10 minutes
o Taking baths
o Your grass lawn
o Washing your car more than once a month
o Buying disposable water bottles
o Eating beef
o Eating all meat
o Drinking bottled water
23. Would you be willing to use recycled water for watering your lawn, washing your car, and other
activities which do not involve direct personal contact with or ingestion of the water? (Recycled
water is water which has been flushed down the drains, filtered, purified, tested, and brought back
in a different pipe)
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure
24. When considering all of your daily activities which require water, how much do you feel a
restriction on water consumption would affect your lifestyle?
a. Significantly, I would have to actively change my habits and behaviours
b. Somewhat, I would have to constantly keep in mind my water use
c. Not much/very little, I would have to remember to be cautious
d. Not at all, my habits would not have to change
Water 2013, 5 1887

Organized Water Conservation Methods

25. If a proposal of taxing water from the first drop was proposed for your community and you were
given a vote, how would you vote?
a. In favour
b. Opposed
c. Unsure
26. If a proposal of a monetary reimbursement based on the amount of water not consumed within a
limit was proposed, and you were given a vote, how would you vote?
a. In favour
b. Opposed
c. Unsure
27. Which do you prefer, a tax or a reimbursement?
a. A tax
b. A reimbursement
28. If a new policy was implemented which restricted the amount of water each industry could use
(Example: 25% to agriculture, 30% to oil production, etc.), and the public vote was taken into
consideration, would you choose to vote?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure
29. There is a not-for-profit organization called BlueW (bluew.org), which registers local businesses
who are willing to provide free tap water to anyone with a reusable water bottle without requiring
the person to make a purchase. Would you be willing to participate in this?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Maybe
30. If you could get CAD$1.00 for each day that you used 10 litres of water less than your usual
amount, would you make the effort to cut back 10 litres?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure

The Water Footprint

31. A new tool is emerging known as the ‘water footprint’, which can be used to measure the amount
of water individuals, families, businesses and industries use. It is akin to a carbon footprint.
Although it takes water to produce electricity, food, and clothing, these water uses are commonly
unknown. Are you aware of the water footprint?
a. Yes
b. No
Water 2013, 5 1888

32. It takes 15 400 litres of water to produce one kilogram of beef. Do you believe that knowing this
will influence how much beef you consume? Or if you already knew this, does it influence how
much beef you eat?
a. Yes
b. Maybe a little
c. No
d. Unsure
33. Do you believe it would be beneficial to create a water footprint label for consumer goods? For
example, adding a water footprint label next to the ‘Nutrition Facts’ on a package of rice.
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure
34. Would seeing that one product required a large amount of water to produce while a similar
product required much less affect your choice between the two goods?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure
35. Which is more likely to influence your decision (1) comparing carbon footprints or (2) comparing
water footprints?
a. Comparing carbon footprints
b. Comparing water footprints
c. Neither would affect my decision
d. Unsure
36. Which, if either, is more likely to influence your decision to NOT buy a product (1) seeing a
product required a large amount of carbon emissions to be produced (carbon footprint) or (2)
seeing a product required a large amount of water to be produced (water footprint)?
a. A large carbon footprint
b. A large water footprint
c. Neither, that would not influence my decision
d. Unsure

Other Utilities Related to Water

37. Rank the following utilities and services in order of importance to you:
 Electricity
 Water
 Heat
 Air conditioning
 Telephone service (both cellular and land line)
 Wireless internet
Water 2013, 5 1889

Water Security

38. Would you be willing to pay an additional amount on your monthly bill in order to ensure a
sustained supply of water for yourself?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure
39. Regardless of whether you are currently paying for your water, how much would you be willing to
pay out of a pocket monthly in order to ensure a sustained supply of water for your household?
a. None
b. Between CAD $1.00–5.00
c. Between CAD $5.01–7.50
d. As much as is necessary to maintain a secure water supply
40. Is there anyone you can think of in your community who does not have access to clean water
and/or sanitation?
a. No
b. Yes; please indicate who ___________

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