Ethiopian Technical University

Faculty of Mechanical Technology-department of Manufacturing

Technology

Advanced Metal Casting Technology (MAT515)

Assignment – One Part One

By: Bizuayehu Tadesse Azene

ID.No. MTR/489/13 Section 1

Submitted To Instructor: Dr. Asmamaw Tegegne (PhD)

June 2021
Addis Ababa Ethiopia
 Acknowledgment
I would like to express sincere and special thanks to my instructor Asmamaw Tegegne (PhD) for
his interested and critical question. I am review different recourses to complete this assignment so
that its updates my knowledge, skill and aptitudes.
I would like thanks also my college staff members for sporting by office, internet and computer
accesses to doing this assignment.

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 ABSTRACT
This presentation presents the Solidification phase diagram of nodular cast iron, solidification
character, solidification parameters, and phases in the diagram, properties and applications of
each phase.
Nodular or ductile iron was first developed in 1943 and it is widely used in automotive industry.
The difference between cast iron and ductile iron is due to the presence of spheroid graphite in the
matrix of ductile iron which is not found in brittle cast iron. Ductile iron possesses higher ductility
and tensile strength than in cast iron. It is inexpensive and cast ability compared to steel.
Magnesium is an effective modularization agent and it is added into the molten iron to produce
nodular shape of cast iron. This is happened through a mechanism called heterogeneous
nucleation. In this project, it is divided into two stages, foundry laboratory and parameters
investigation. Magnesium ferrosilicon is used as the modularization agent for the modularization
process. “In mould” treatment is a method of late inoculation. A special reaction chamber is built
and placed in the gating system. This is an effective technique to obtain highest magnesium
recovery and eliminate fading problem. The production of ductile iron is obtained through sand
casting process. It is controlled by using different amount of magnesium ferrosilicon and casting
size. Then, the ductile iron casting is investigated to observe corresponding material behavior and
mechanical properties through hardness test and metal analysis. As a result, these parameters are
significantly influence on the modularization of ductile iron casting.

Keywords: - Solidification, Ductile iron, Phase diagram, Heat treated ductile iron, Microstructure,
temperature, Nodularity, Graphite Area Fraction

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Contents
Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................................. I
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................................... II
List of Table .................................................................................................................................................. VII
1. CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Purpose of the assignment (project) ................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Objective of the (project) ................................................................................................................. 3
1.4.1 General objective ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.2 Specific objective ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Significance of the assignment (project) .......................................................................................... 3
1.6 Benefits and beneficiaries of the assignment (project) .................................................................... 4
1.6.1 Benefits of the assignment (project) ........................................................................................ 4
1.6.2 Beneficiaries of the study......................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Scope of the study ............................................................................................................................ 4
2 CHAPTER LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Nodular or ductile cast irons ............................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Solidification .................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Solidification curves ................................................................................................................ 6
2.2.2 Solidification in alloys ............................................................................................................. 6
3 CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES ............................................................. 7
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Phase Diagram ................................................................................................................................. 7
3.3 Unary Phase Diagram ...................................................................................................................... 7
3.4 Binary Phase Diagram ..................................................................................................................... 8
3.5 Types of phase diagrams .................................................................................................................. 9
3.5.1 Construction of a phase diagram ............................................................................................ 10
3.5.2 Interpretation of a phase diagram........................................................................................... 10
3.6 INVARIANT REACTIONS .......................................................................................................... 11
3.6.1 Eutectic reaction..................................................................................................................... 11
3.6.2 Eutectoid transformation ........................................................................................................ 14
3.6.3 Paratactic reaction .................................................................................................................. 14
3.6.4 Peritectoid transformation ...................................................................................................... 15

III
3.7 IRON – CARBON ALLOY SYSTEM .......................................................................................... 16
3.7.1 Description of phases and structures ...................................................................................... 18
3.7.2 Invariant reactions in Fe – C system ...................................................................................... 19
3.7.3 Solidification of steel and cast iron ........................................................................................ 19
3.8 Applications of Phase Diagram...................................................................................................... 23
3.9 Limitations of Phase Diagrams ...................................................................................................... 26
3.9.1 Three-phase reactions in the phase‟s diagrams: ..................................................................... 28
3.10 Nodular iron: .................................................................................................................................. 31
3.10.1 Composition of SG Iron: ........................................................................................................ 31
3.11 Production of SG iron .................................................................................................................... 31
3.12 Properties of SG iron ..................................................................................................................... 34
3.12.1 Structure ................................................................................................................................. 34
3.12.2 Graphite: ................................................................................................................................ 34
3.12.3 Ferrite: .................................................................................................................................... 34
3.12.4 Pearlite: .................................................................................................................................. 34
3.12.5 Martensitic: ............................................................................................................................ 35
3.12.6 Austenite: ............................................................................................................................... 35
3.12.7 Bainite: ................................................................................................................................... 35
3.13 Types of ductile iron ...................................................................................................................... 35
3.13.1 Ferritic Ductile Iron ............................................................................................................... 35
3.13.2 Ferrito- Pearlitic Ductile Iron ................................................................................................. 35
3.13.3 Pearlitic Ductile Iron .............................................................................................................. 36
3.13.4 Martensitic Ductile iron ......................................................................................................... 36
3.13.5 Austenitic Ductile Iron ........................................................................................................... 36
Austempered Ductile iron (ADI) ........................................................................................................ 36
3.14 Various grade of S.G. irons ............................................................................................................ 36
3.15 Factors that affect the properties of the ductile iron:...................................................................... 37
3.15.1 Effect of graphite shape ......................................................................................................... 37
3.15.2 Effect of Nodule Count .......................................................................................................... 37
3.15.3 Effect of Matrix...................................................................................................................... 38
3.15.4 Effect of silicon ...................................................................................................................... 39
3.15.5 Effect of molybdenum ........................................................................................................... 39
3.15.6 Effect of Manganese .............................................................................................................. 39
3.15.7 Effect of Copper ..................................................................................................................... 39

IV
 3.15.8 Effect of Nickel ...................................................................................................................... 40
4 CHAPTER FOUR CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...................................................... 41
4.1 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 41
4.2 RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................. 42
5 References ............................................................................................................................................. 43

V
List of figure

Figure 1 Cooling curve for alloys ...................................................................................................... 6

Figure 2 Unary phase diagram........................................................................................................... 8
Figure 3 Binary Phase diagram for a Cu-Ni System ......................................................................... 8
Figure 4 Construction of a phase diagram from the cooling curves ................................................ 10
Figure 5 Interpretation of a binary phase diagram .......................................................................... 10
Figure 6 Bi - Cd eutectic system with no solid solubility ............................................................... 12
Figure 7 Cu- Ag eutectic system showing partial solubility .......................................................... 13
Figure 8 Part of Fe - C system showing eutectoid transformation .................................................. 14
Figure 9 Development of a peritectic wall (+) ............................................................................... 15
Figure 10 Part of Fe - C system showing peritectic reaction ........................................................... 15
Figure 11 Cooling curve for pure iron ............................................................................................. 17
Figure 12 Iron Carbon equilibrium diagram.................................................................................... 18
Figure 13 A tie line representing eutectoid reaction....................................................................... 19
Figure 14 Solidification of eutectoid steel and the resulting microstructure ................................... 20
Figure 15 Solidification of hypo-eutectoid steel and the resulting microstructure ......................... 21
Figure 16 Solidification of hyper-eutectoid steel and the resulting microstructure ........................ 21
Figure 17 Solidification of eutectic cast iron and the resulting microstructure............................... 22
Figure 18 Effect of alloying elements on Iron - Carbon diagram ................................................... 23
Figure 19Illustration of different graphite morphologies of graphitic cast irons, such as grey iron,
compacted graphite iron and ductile iron. ....................................................................................... 27
Figure 20 rtion of the iron–carbon phase diagram which called the Fe–Fe3C phase diagram ....... 28
Iron–Figure 21 Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram ................................................................ 30
Figure 22 Fe-C binary system – Phase transformations .................................................................. 30
Figure 23. ASTM Quality Index graph for ductile iron .................................................................. 33
Figure 24 Microstructure of ferritic ductile iron(100X,2 % Nital etched) ...................................... 38
Figure 25 Microstructure of pearlitic ductile iron(100X,2 % Nital etched). ................................... 38
Figure 26 Microstructure of Ferrito-pearlitic ductile iron (100X,2 % Nital etched) ....................... 39

VI
List of Table
Table 3-1 Invariant reactions ......................................................................................................................... 16
Table 3-2 International standard ISO 1083: 1987 .......................................................................................... 36

VII
 1. CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
Nodular cast iron is a material that has found an increasing number of applications in the
automotive industry during the last decade. It has a static strength comparable to cast steels and a
greater fatigue strength and ductility than grey irons. Cast ability and machinability is good, and
all these properties make it an economic alternative for medium stressed components and for
safety critical applications. A reduction of 30% or more in component cost can be made when
nodular iron is substituted for cast or forged steel .
Nodular iron is however a material that contains different kinds of defects, such as inclusions,
dross, surface defects, slag stringers and micro shrinkage pores. It has been found that cracks will
initiate and propagate from these defects. The degree to which these different defects will lower a
components service life is not fully investigated. A rule of thumb is that the rough cast surface
lowers the fatigue performance to the same level independently of the grade of the material.
The present work is a study of the lifetime for test specimens in nodular cast iron with an as cast
surface marred by surface defects. The analysis and calculations are based on fracture mechanics.
Spheroidal graphite iron is also known as nodular iron or ductile iron. This is obtained by making
small ladle additions of a modifier such as magnesium or cerium to liquid metal. Unlike flaky
graphite in grey cast iron, Spheroidal graphite does not weaken the matrix considerably. For this
reason, the mechanical properties of SG iron are superior to grey iron. Ductile iron has very good
damping characteristics and impact strength. Because of its mechanical characteristics ductile iron
is widely used in various industries‟ equipment. Required characteristics can be impart in ductile
iron using various heat treatments i.e. austempering, tempering annealing and normalizing.
Various Heat treatments are carried out to impart required matrix/phase in the specimen. Different
matrix has different mechanical properties. Presence of phases is confirmed by microstructures
observed in metallurgical optical microscope. Austempered and hardened ductile iron has better
required mechanical properties than conventional ductile iron. Annealing treatment increases the
ductility at the expense of strength and hardness by transforming the parent matrix into fully
ferritic, whereas high strength and hardness can be obtained by quenching the specimen into a salt
bath (austempering) from the austenitizing temperature resulting in formation of upper or lower
bainitic structure depending on the cooling rate. Mechanical properties of ductile cast iron, like
UTS and hardness increases with the increase in pearlite content and on the other hand ferritic
matrix leads to increase in ductility and impact strength.
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1.2 BACKGROUND
Discovery of nodular iron or ductile iron was first born in 1943. A young metallurgist named
Keith Millis who work for International Nickel Company had facing the shortage of chromium to
manufacture the wear resistant of iron. From his project research, he had found an alternative to
overcome the crisis of chromium where the magnesium alloy was added into molten iron to
produced spheroidal graphite structure of iron, namely as ductile iron.
Development of spheroidal graphite shape of iron had energized the production of ductile iron
since 1949. The demand of ductile iron was steadily increased in the sector of automotive such as
producing crankshaft, camshaft, piston, diesel engine parts and valves. This was due to the
addition of magnesium into cast iron results a high strength to weight ratio of ductile iron. Besides,
ductile iron is inexpensive and cast ability compared to steel.
The formation of ductile iron is due to the degeneration of brittle cast iron with flakes structure of
graphite and turn into spheroidal graphite in structure. Compared to cast iron, ductile iron has
higher ductility, tensile strength, resistance to elevated temperature oxidation, and machinability.
Besides, ductile iron was continuously developed and become an alternative to steel due to its
superior mechanical properties.
There are two types of inoculation, early inoculation and late inoculation. In mould treatment is a
method of late inoculation. A specific location called as reaction chamber is essential to build in
the gating system for magnesium treatment. It is the most effective technique to obtain highest
magnesium recovery and eliminate the fading problem compared to tundish process, sandwich
treatment, and open ladle treatment. Besides, it consumes less inoculant agent during inoculation.
As a result, the formation of ductile iron is influence by the addition of magnesium and technique
used for inoculation. These factors will directly give impact to the grain size, shape and
distribution of graphite which tends to change the microstructure, physical properties and
mechanical properties

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1.3 Purpose of the assignment (project)
The purpose of this assignment was to assess the Solidification phase diagram of nodular cast iron,
solidification character, solidification parameters, phases in the diagram, properties and
applications of each phase.in the foundry industries from different books and researches.
1.4 Objective of the (project)
1.4.1 General objective
The whole objective of this assignment is create an awareness on the participants of know how
about the Solidification phase diagram of nodular cast iron, solidification character, solidification
parameters, phases in the diagram, properties and applications of each phase in detail .
1.4.2 Specific objective
The specific objective of this assignment depicted as follows.
 To study Solidification phase diagram of nodular cast iron,
 To study Solidification character nodular cast iron,
 To study Solidification parameters nodular cast iron
 To study Phases in the diagram nodular cast iron
 To investigate on mechanical properties and machinability characteristics nodular cast iron
and
 To study Applications of each phase
1.5 Significance of the assignment (project)
The significances of this project are mentioned as follows:
 To increase the cutting tool life through reducing sudden breakage by giving attention on
casting defects as a major factor for tool life.
 To improve mechanical properties and machinability characteristics of cast aluminum
materials by focusing on casting process.
 Lowering process time and total unit cost through giving attention on casting process to
minimize casting defect.
 To improve productivity of machining processes through eliminating defective parts at
foundry level
 To increase attentions of researchers on elimination of casting defects
 To reduce material rejection and rework processes at machining level.

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1.6 Benefits and beneficiaries of the assignment (project)
1.6.1 Benefits of the assignment (project)
The benefits of the assignment are the following:
 Improving the knowledge of the student about Solidification phase diagram of nodular cast
iron, solidification character, solidification parameters, and phases in the diagram, properties
and applications of each phase.
 Increasing the knowledge student about writhing of research.
1.6.2 Beneficiaries of the study
Beneficiaries from this study are depicted as follows:
 Ethiopian technical university BSc and MSc students by using like reference book
 Metals and a like industries by gaining feedback regarding to casting defect‟s influence on
mechanical properties of machined product and machinability characteristics supported by
experimental tests.
 The researchers who needs to do further on this issue and related ideas.
 The researcher for acquiring knowledge and skills in the study and for the award of the
master‟s degree.
1.7 Scope of the study
The scope of the Project is to study the Solidification phase diagram of nodular cast iron,
solidification character, solidification parameters, phases in the diagram, properties and
applications of each phase.

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 2 CHAPTER LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Nodular or ductile cast irons
Cast irons are a group of ferrous alloys containing more than 2wt% carbon. The high carbon
content gives the alloys a low melting point and high fluidity, which provides them with good cast
ability.
2.2 Solidification
Solidification is a process in which atoms are converted into an ordered solid state from a liquid
disordered state.
Graphitic cast irons are formed by solidification according to the stable system in the Fe-C phase
diagram, allowing graphite precipitates to form. This type of solidification is controlled by a low
cooling rate, large number of nucleating sites and addition of graphitizing elements, such as C, Si,
Cu and Ni. There are generally three types of such cast irons: grey irons, compacted graphite irons
and ductile irons, classified according to their graphite shape,. Grey irons contain graphite with
flaky morphology and is commonly found in applications where thermal conductivity is of high
importance, such as in brake discs. In exhaust applications, where strength and ductility are of
high importance, ductile cast irons, containing spheroidal graphite, are preferred. The nodular
graphite shape is achieved by adding Mg to the melt. Compacted graphite iron has graphite shapes
intermediate between flake and spheroidal.
If the cooling rate during solidification is high, if the number of nucleating sites are low or if the
melt contains carbide stabilizing elements, such as V, Cr, Mo and Mn, the solidification can occur
according to the metastable system, allowing cementite, Fe3C, instead of graphite to be formed.
However, for exhaust gas components, primary carbides are generally of the M6C-type, whose
formation is not so dependent on cooling rate.
Secondary carbides are formed at lower temperatures during the decomposition of austenite,
forming ferrite grains surrounding the graphite nodules and filling the intercellular regions with
pearlite and isolated carbides of Cr, Mo or Si. Pearlite itself, is a lamellar structure of Fe3C and α-
ferrite, and contributes to strength of the material. However, it is not desirable in exhaust
manifolds as its cementite component decomposes to graphite at elevated temperatures resulting in
a volume expansion. Carbides also add strength to the material but may contribute to detrimental
brittleness if they are present in excessive amounts. By adding high amounts of nickel, a fully
austenitic material can be received at all temperatures. Elements, such as Mn, Cu and N also have
the effect of stabilizing the austenitic phase. Similarly, the ferritic phase can be stabilized by
adding Cr, Ti, Mo, W, Si or Al. With stabilizing, it means that the thermodynamically stable
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temperature range of the phase is being extended, i.e. the transformation temperature, at which
Ferrite is transformed into austenite on heating (or vice versa on cooling) is changed. This
temperature is referred to as the A1-temperature.

2.2.1 Solidification curves

A solidification curve (or cooling curve) is a record of material temperature vs. time, as it cools
down from its molten state to room temperature. It can be used to determine the phase transition
temperatures of materials (pure metals or alloys).
2.2.2 Solidification in alloys
Solidification in solid solution alloys occurs over a range of temperature as below. In alloys the
amount of undercooling required is less as compared to pure metals and hence the nucleation
occurs with ease. A rapidly solidifying alloy may show considerable amount of undercooling
owing to differential freezing.

Figure 2-1 Cooling curve for alloys

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3 CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter materials to be used for the assignment and the methods to be followed to achieve
the specific objective of the assignment will be described. This also must be achieved by using
clear methods and proper materials for the assignment. The data to be used here will be both
qualitative and quantitative data in order to assure the research both in terms of quality and
quantity. The source of these dada will be acquired from primary sources (workshop observation,
the result of the tests, and observing materials on services) and secondary sources (literatures,
books, and scientific journals
3.2 Phase Diagram
A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the various phases of a substance and the
conditions at which thermodynamically those distinct phases can exist at equilibrium. A phase
diagram is also called as equilibrium or constitutional diagram.

Phase diagrams are classified as:

I. Unary phase diagram or one component phase diagram

II. Binary phase diagram or two component phase diagram
III. Ternary phase diagram or three component phase diagram

3.3 Unary Phase Diagram

In single component systems the composition remains same for any variation of temperature and
pressure but it may undergo change of phase (solid, liquid and gaseous phase). A unary phase
diagram is a plot of pressure (P) vs. temperature (T) as shown in Figure 5.1. The lines on the
diagram represent conditions (T & P) at which a phase change occurs under equilibrium. That is,
at a point on a line, it is possible for two (or three) phases to coexist at equilibrium. At the triple-
point, three phases can coexist at equilibrium. In other regions of the plot, only one phase exists at
equilibrium.
Example: Water exists as ice, liquid water, and water vapour.

7
 Figure 3-1 Unary phase diagram
Beyond certain value of temperature and pressure it is not possible to distinguish between the gas
and liquid phase. This is known as critical point and the corresponding temperature and pressure
are known as the critical temperature (Tc) and critical pressure (Pc) respectively.

3.4 Binary Phase Diagram

A binary phase is a two component system; it is the most commonly used phase diagram in alloy
designing. For most systems, pressure is constant and independently variable parameters are
temperature and composition. Thus a binary phase diagram is a plot of temperature vs.
composition.
Example: The simplest binary system is the Cu-Ni which exhibits complete solubility in liquid and
solid
state.

Figure 3-2 Binary Phase diagram for a Cu-Ni System

8
 The line above which the solid solution is liquid is called as a liquids line.
 The line below which solidification completes is called as solidus line, here only α-solid
 Solution exists at any temperature below the solidus line (for complete solubility).
 The line between these two regions is called as an intermediate phase; where both liquid and
solid co-exist.
 It can be noted that the two metals are soluble in each other in the entire range of
 Compositions in both liquid and solid state. This kind of system is known as „Isomorphs‟
system.
 Liquids line separates liquid from liquid + solid, solidus line separates solid from liquid + solid

3.5 Types of phase diagrams

The binary phase diagrams are classified according to the various reactions or transformations
observed as follows;
A. Isomorphous system (solid solution - complete solid solubility)
B. Eutectic reaction
C. Peritectic reaction
D. Eutectoid transformation Invariant reactions
E. Peritectoid transformation
F. Monotectic and Syntectic reaction
A few alloy systems show an unlimited solid solubility for any composition, such an alloy system
is called an Isomorph us system. But for most alloy systems at some specific temperature, there is
a maximum concentration of solute atoms that may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid solution;
this is called a solubility limit. The addition of solute in excess of this solubility limit results in the
formation of another solid solution or compound that has a distinctly different composition; these
are represented as invariant reactions. Phase diagrams are helpful in predicting these phase
transformations and the resulting microstructures.

9
3.5.1 Construction of a phase diagram
A phase diagram can be constructed from cooling curves; that is by plotting the variation of
temperature and the phase transformations during heating or cooling of an alloy system of
compositions under equilibrium conditions. The equilibrium condition means that the phases
present at a particular temperature and composition will not change with time. Such an
equilibrium state can be achieved by slow heating or cooling.

Figure 3-3 Construction of a phase diagram from the cooling curves

3.5.2 Interpretation of a phase diagram
The interpretation of a binary phase diagram for a specified temperature and composition reveals
the following details;

Figure 3-4 Interpretation of a binary phase diagram

10
 A. the number of phases present
B. the composition of each phase (Tie line) and
C. the relative amount of each phase (Lever rule)
In single-phase regions the above details can be obtained easily but for a point located within a
two-phase region the calculations can be done as follows; At a point „x‟ on the phase diagram in
figure 3.19 (specified temperature and composition)
 The number of phases present: two (solid and liquid)
 The composition of each phase: it can obtained from a horizontal tie line (AB) connecting
the solidus and liquids curves drawn a the specified temperature (Tx); a perpendicular dropped
from the intersection of the tie line with the liquids and solidus curves to the horizontal
composition axis gives the composition of liquid and solid respectively.
Composition of phase 1 (liquid) = CL
Composition of phase 2 (solid) = CS
 The relative amount of each phase: it can be calculated by applying lever rule. (i.e., the amount
of each phase can be calculated as the fractional length of the tie line from the specified
composition to the phase boundary of the other phase)

The amount of phase 1 (liquid)

The amount of phase 2 (solid)

3.6 INVARIANT REACTIONS

A phase diagram contains certain points specified by particular temperature, pressure and
composition at which multiple phases can coexist in equilibrium. Any change in these variables
causes the disappearance of phases i.e. phases are not in equilibrium anymore. These points are
known as invariant points and they represent an Invariant reaction. The alloy systems featuring
invariant reactions may show limited or no solid solubility.
3.6.1 Eutectic reaction
Most of the binary systems with limited solubility are of eutectic type. The term „eutectic‟ is
derived from Greek word „eutektos‟ which means „easily melted‟. It is so called because an alloy
system having a eutectic composition melts (or solidifies) at the lowest possible temperature than
all the other compositions of the binary alloy. The point corresponding to this lowest temperature
at which the solid and liquid phases coexist under equilibrium condition is known as the eutectic

11
point. There are three phases present at the eutectic point; two solid phases which are obtained
upon solidification from a liquid phase.

Further, a eutectic system can be of two types based on the solid solubility; i.e. a eutectic system
with limited or no solid solubility.

A. Eutectic with no solid solubility

For the above alloy system containing metals A and B, there exists unlimited liquid solubility but
upon cooling the eutectic mixture forms two solid phases without forming any compound or
intermediate phases. The two solid phases A and B has no solid solubility in each other.
Example: Bi – Cd, Al – Si alloy systems

Figure 3-5 Bi - Cd eutectic system with no solid solubility

The bismuth -
Cd and 45% Bi which can be represented as;

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b) Eutectic with partial solid solubility
When there exists a limited solubility of one solid phase in the other;

I.e. for an alloy system containing metals A and B, upon solidification two solid phases are formed
which are generally represented as α and β; where α is a solid solution rich in metal A
and β is a solid solution rich in metal B.
Example: Cu – Ag alloy system, Fe – C alloy system, etc.
Most of the eutectic alloy systems show partial solid solubility in each other. The construction
details and phase regions for a eutectic reaction with partial solubility can be explained with the
help of a copper – silver phase diagram as shown in figure 5.8.

Figure 3-6 Cu- Ag eutectic system showing partial solubility

The copper – silver alloy system forms a eutectic at 779 0C and for a composition of 71.9% Ag
and 28.1% Cu which can be represented as;

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3.6.2 Eutectoid transformation
The term eutectoid means „eutectic-like‟ i.e. the eutectoid reaction is similar to eutectic reaction
except that it features a solid to solid transformation where one solid phase is converted into two
solid phases upon cooling.

Example: Fe –
wt. % carbon in iron.

Figure 3-7 Part of Fe - C system showing eutectoid transformation

It can be represented as,

3.6.3 Paratactic reaction

A peritectic reaction is also an invariant reaction where three phases (two solids and a liquid)
coexist under equilibrium conditions. It occurs in binary alloy systems whose melting points are
significantly different where one of the solid phases precipitates out of the liquid upon cooling and
as the solidification proceeds further, the already formed solid and the remaining liquid transforms
into a new solid completely at a specified temperature and pressure.

14
The term peritectic means „surrounded by‟. It is so called because the product phase (solid 2) will
form at the boundary between the two reacting phases (liquid and solid 1) as shown in figure5.10
(for a reaction L + α ) thus separating them, and slowing down any further reaction.

Figure 3-8 Development of a peritectic wall (+)

Example: Fe – C system undergoes peritectic reaction at 1495 0C for a composition of 0.16 wt. %
carbon in iron.

Figure 3-9 Part of Fe - C system showing peritectic reaction

It can be represented as

3.6.4 Peritectoid transformation

The peritectoid is a solid to solid transformation where the two solid phases react to form a single
product phase which is also a solid.

15
Example: Silver – Aluminum alloy system
5.3.5 Monotectic and Syntactic reactions
Another three phase invariant reaction that occurs in some binary system is monotectic reaction
in which a liquid transforms to another liquid and a solid.

Example: Cu-Pb system

A syntactic is formed when two liquid phases react to form a single solid product phase.

Example: Na – Zn system

Table 3-1 Invariant reactions

3.7 IRON – CARBON ALLOY SYSTEM

Iron and its alloys are the most extensively used engineering material as it is abundantly available
and has fair mechanical properties. Pure iron is soft and ductile; with alloying its mechanical
properties can be enhanced. Of all the alloying elements the carbon has profound influence on the
microstructure and the properties of iron. The steel and cast iron are the alloys of iron and carbon
16
which are widely used in all engineering applications; and hence of all the binary alloy systems,
the Iron – Carbon systems are of at most importance. Iron is an allotropic metal, i.e., it can
crystallize in various structures, where each crystal structure defines a separate phase which is
stable in a specified temperature range. Thus, an allotropic metal can exist in more than one solid
phase at different temperatures.
There are three separate solid phases for iron, each denoted by a Greek symbol: alpha α),gamma
(γ) and delta (δ); where α - iron is BCC structured being stable at room temperature and up to 910
0C
, beyond 910 0C iron exists as γ – iron having FCC – structure which is retained till
1395 0C. At 1395 0C it changes back once again to BCC structure called δ – iron and is retained

Figure 3-10 Cooling curve for pure iron

Pure iron exists as different phases for various range of temperatures, the addition of carbon not
only changes the transformation temperature but also alters the phase existence owing to limited
solubility of carbon in iron. Carbon when added within its solid solubility limit occupies the
interstitial position in an iron lattice forming a single phase solid solution but when exceeded
beyond its solubility limit alters the lattice structure as a result multiple phase formation occurs.

The phase diagram for an iron-carbon system with the existence of various phases at equilibrium
for different condition of temperature and carbon composition is as shown in figure 5.13.

17
 Figure 3-11 Iron Carbon equilibrium diagram
The iron – carbon diagram is usually plotted only up to 6.67 % carbon by weight. This is because
a maximum of 6.67 % carbon is dissolved by molten iron forming a chemical compound
Cementite (Iron Carbide, Fe3C); any excess carbon will just float over the melt owing to its low
density and for this reason an Iron – Carbon diagram is actually referred to as Iron – Iron carbide
diagram (Fe – Fe3C) with pure iron and pure cementite as the extremities.

3.7.1 Description of phases and structures

Following are the phases and structures obtained upon very slow cooling of iron carbon system
 δ - Ferrite: It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in BCC iron. The maximum solid
solubility of carbon in δ –
 Austenite (γ): It is again an interstitial solid solution of carbon but in FCC iron. The maximum
solid solubility of carbon in γ – iron is 2.1% at 1147 oC. Austenite is not stable below 723 oC
and will not be present in the microstructure at room temperature upon normal cooling.
 α Ferrite: It is also an interstitial solid solution of carbon in BCC iron. The maximum solid
solubility of carbon in α – iron is 0.02% at 723 oC. It is a relatively soft and low temperature
phase.
 Cementite (Fe3C): It is a typical hard and brittle chemical compound containing 6.67% carbon
and having an orthorhombic crystal structure. It is also known as Iron carbide. It is the hardest

18
 structure that appears on Fe – C diagram. Cementite has low tensile strength but high
compressive strength.
 Pearlite (α + Fe3C): When austenite containing exactly 0.8% carbon is cooled very slowly
below 723 oC it transforms into a lamellar structure having alternate layers of α-ferrite and
cementite, this structure is known as pearlite.
 Ledeburite (γ + Fe3C): it is the eutectic lamellar mixture of austenite and cementite. The
austenite in the eutectic mixture of ledeburite is unstable below 723 oC and hence transforms
into α-ferrite and cementite.
3.7.2 Invariant reactions in Fe – C system
There are three principal invariant reactions that appear on a Fe - Fe3C diagram, they are;
peritectic, eutectic and eutectoid. The peritectic reaction of a Fe - C system has already been
discussed in section 5.3.3. The eutectoid and eutectic reactions are important to understand the
microstructural development of steel and cast iron and will be discussed further in section 5.4.4

3.7.3 Solidification of steel and cast iron

The Fe - C alloy system can be classified as steels and cast irons based on their carbon
composition.
Steels (up to 2.1% carbon)
Cast iron (beyond 2.1% carbon)
The eutectoid reaction is important to understand the solidification of steels and the eutectic
reaction for the solidification of cast iron.
3.7.3.1 Solidification of Steels (slow cooling)
A tie line can be constructed at the eutectoid reaction ( + 3 to represent the phase transformation
and the resulting microstructure of steels as shown below;

Figure 3-12 A tie line representing eutectoid reaction

19
Eutectoid steel (exactly 0.8% carbon)

Iron (austenite) with a carbon composition of 0.8% upon normal cooling below 723 oC forms a
complete lamellar structure comprising alternate layers of ferrite and cementite, this structure is
known as pearlite.

Figure 3-13 Solidification of eutectoid steel and the resulting microstructure

The pearlite contains α-ferrite and cementite (Fe3C), the relative amount of each phase in it can

be calculated using lever rule as follows (refer tie line for carbon compositions);

Thus, pearlite contains α-ferrite and cementite in the ratio 7:1.Hypo-eutectoid steel (less than 0.8%
carbon)

The solid solubility of carbon reduces below the upper critical temperature (A3) and hence the
excess carbon comes out of austenite and forms α-iron as the proeutectoid phase. The austenite in
not stable below the lower critical temperature (A1 = 723 oC) and hence transforms int pearlite.
Thus at carbon percentages less than 0.8, ferrite and pearlite appear in separate patche where
ferrite is a soft and ductile phase and the cementite is hard and brittle.

20
 Figure 3-14 Solidification of hypo-eutectoid steel and the resulting microstructure
Hyper-eutectoid steel (more than 0.8% carbon)

Beyond 0.8% carbon, the cooling of austenite below the upper critical temperature (Am) results in
rejection of carbon along the grain boundaries due to lattice reorientation, the austenite cannot
hold all the carbon below this temperature and hence the excess carbon forms proeutectoid
cementite (Fe3C). The austenite in not stable below the lower critical temperature (A1 = 723 oC)
and hence transforms into pearlite. Thus, the microstructure of a hyper-eutectoid steel contains
proeutectoid cementite along with pearlite and it becomes more prevalent as the carbon increases;
hence there is an enhanced strength and hardness characteristic at the expense of ductility.

Figure 3-15 Solidification of hyper-eutectoid steel and the resulting microstructure

21
3.7.3.2 Solidification of Cast irons (slow cooling)
The solidification of cast iron falls in the range of eutectic reaction where the eutectic composition
of 4.3% C yields a lamellar structure of ledeburite (
4.3 % carbon other than the eutectic, the microstructure contains a proeutectic austenite but the
solubility of carbon in austenite reduces below the eutectic temperature as a result the excess
carbon comes out of austenite and forms secondary cementite. For composition beyond 4.3%
carbon, the cementite forms as the primary phase and the eutectic ledeburite forms on these
already formed cementite.

Figure 3-16 Solidification of eutectic cast iron and the resulting microstructure
The austenite within eutectic and proeutectic phase is not stable below 723 C and hence
transforms into pearlite. Thus according to Fe-C diagram, the phases that are observed in the
microstructure of cast iron at room temperature are -ferrite and cementite. But cementite being a
metastable compound under certain circumstances decomposes into -ferrite and C (graphite).
And the actual microstructure of cast irons would contain the phases -ferrite and free carbon in
the form of graphite rather than -ferrite and cementite. Therefore, cast irons can be distinguished
22
by the presence of carbon as an elemental carbon in the form of graphite or in the combined
carbon as Fe3C (iron carbide). The amount, size, shape and distribution of the graphite, if present
in cast irons may greatly influence their properties. 5.4.5 Effect of alloying elements The most
common alloying additives viz. Ti, Mo, Si, W, Cr, Mn, Ni, etc. when added to Fe-C alloy system
alters the phase transformation temperature; they either increase or decrease the eutectoid
transformation temperature, and are according classified as ferrite and austenite stabilizers

respectively.

Figure 3-17 Effect of alloying elements on Iron - Carbon diagram

 Ferrite Stabilizers: these elements being more soluble in -iron than -iron raise the
eutectoid temperature. Example: Titanium, Molybdenum, Silicon, Tungsten, Chromium,
etc.
 . Austenite Stabilizers: these elements when added lower the eutectoid temperature and
raises the peritectic point, thereby increasing the austenite stability range. Example:
Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt, Copper, etc
3.8 Applications of Phase Diagram
Phase Diagrams are useful to metallurgists, materials engineers, and materials scientists in four
major areas:
(1) Development of new alloys for specific applications
(2) Fabrication of these alloys into useful configurations
(3) Design and control of heat treatment procedures for specific alloys that will produce the
required mechanical, physical, and chemical properties, and
23
(4) Solving problems that arise with specific alloys in their performance in commercial
applications, thus improving product predictability. In all these areas, the use of phase
diagrams allows research, development, and production to be done more efficiently and cost
effectively. In the area of alloy development, phase diagrams have proved invaluable for
tailoring existing alloys to avoid over design in current applications, designing improved
alloys for existing and new applications, designing special alloys for special applications, and
developing alternative alloys or alloys with substitute alloying elements to replace those
containing scarce, expensive, hazardous, or “critical” alloying elements. Phase diagrams are
used to:
 Predict the temperature at which freezing or melting begins or ends. For any specific alloy
composition in an alloy system. A vertical line represents the composition of a specific alloy,
for example, point X in Fig. 14.1. Its intersections with the solidus (T2) and liquids (T1)
indicate, respectively, the temperature below which, at equilibrium, the alloy is completely
solid, and above which it is completely liquid. On heating, melting begins at T2, and the alloy
is completely liquid above temperature T1. If an alloy is to be cast, then the temperature of the
molten alloy has to be higher than T1. In order to fill the mold completely before freezing
blocks of any thin section, the alloy should be at least 50 °C (28 °F) higher than its liquidus
temperature, T1.
 Predict the safe temperature for hot working or heat treatments. The temperature of hot
working, or heat treatment, should be at least 30 °C (17 °F) lower than its solidus temperature
to allow for any impurities present and for furnace temperature fluctuations. Heating the alloy
above temperature T2 causes partial melting, called burning of the alloy. The “sweat out”
molten metal leaves behind voids whose interior surfaces become oxidized at elevated
temperature. Because a burnt

Figure 3-18 Eutectic phase diagram with partial solid solubility

24
Alloy cannot be repaired by welding during hot working; a burnt alloy is essentially scrap. If the
alloy contains coring, then a homogenizing temperature above T3 will also cause “burning” of the
alloy. A safer temperature is T4. During precipitation hardening, if the solution zing temperature
T5 is chosen instead of T6, grain growth of α phase will occur at the higher temperature.

 Determine the number of phases, type of phases, and composition of phases present in
any given alloy at a specific temperature. One of the primary functions of an equilibrium
phase diagram is to graphically show the extent and boundaries of composition-temperature
regions within which an alloy exists as a single phase or as two phases. Thus, the fields of the
diagram are labeled so that the number and the general nature of the phases present are
indicated at a specific temperature. If the point with coordinates at a specific composition and
a particular temperature lies in a single-phase field, then the alloy is either an unsaturated
homogeneous liquid or a solid solution with the composition of the alloy. A point in a two-
phase field indicates that both the phases are saturated solutions, which could be liquids,
solids, or a liquid and a solid. If the composition of the alloy is changed at the same
temperature but still lying within the two-phase field, the number, type, and composition of the
phases do not change, but their relative amounts change. A horizontal line in a binary phase
diagram indicates a particular temperature and a range of alloy compositions at which three
phases can coexist at equilibrium. The horizontal line separates either a two phase field from
some other two-phase field that has only one phase in common with it, or a two-phase field
from a one-phase field that is different from both of these two phases.
 Calculate the relative amounts of the phases present in a two-phase • alloy. The lever rule
can be used to calculate the amounts of the two phases present in a two-phase field.
 Describe the freezing or melting of an alloy. • Cooling of an alloy from the molten state to
room temperature can be observed with the help of an equilibrium diagram. During slow
heating of the alloy, the changes would be exactly reversed.
 Predict the microstructure of an alloy at a given temperature.• A major advantage of
phase diagrams is to make fairly accurate predictions of the microstructure developed in an
alloy at a specific temperature or after an actual or proposed heat treatment. This is important
because the microstructure controls the properties of an alloy. For example, the structure of the
pure element that is freezing is quite important. Zinc has hexagonal close-packed crystal
eutectic reaction, it freezes as a finely distributed phase with the other phase in the eutectic
mixture.

25
 Predict possible heat treatments. • The presence of a solves line in a phase diagram, which
shows decrease of solid solubility (line oD in Fig. 14.1) with the decrease of temperature,
indicates the chance of using a precipitation-hardening heat treatment. The presence of a
eutectoid reaction in a phase diagram helps to predict possible heat treatments such as
annealing, normalizing, or hardening. It is also possible to predict what heat treatments are
likely to be harmful and must be avoided. For example, if an alloy is not going to be cold
worked, and if no phase transformation occurs during heating (or cooling), then heating such
an alloy to high temperatures can result in grain growth and inferior properties.
 Choose the alloy composition to develop the best properties. The composition of the alloy
that gives the best properties can be chosen. An alloy having maximum solute content
indicated by the solubility limit by the solves line may develop maximum strength by
precipitation hardening if it develops a coherent precipitate. If the solute content is more (or
less) than optimal, then the maximum strength will be less. The cast ability of an alloy system
is usually best at the eutectic composition. Structure and is strongly anisotropic. When zinc
crystals are growing in liquid zinc, growth tends to be more along one or another of its close-
packed directions. Acicular (needle-shaped) crystals develop. however, when zinc is part of a
3.9 Limitations of Phase Diagrams
 Phase diagrams play an extremely useful role in the interpretation of the microstructures
developed in alloys, but they have several limitations:
 Phase diagrams only show the equilibrium state of alloys (i.e., under • very slow cooling
rates); however, in normal industrial processes, alloys are rarely cooled slowly enough to
approach equilibrium.
 Phase diagrams do not indicate whether a high-temperature phase can • be retained at room
temperature by rapid cooling.
 Phase diagrams do not indicate whether a particular transformation • (e.g., a eutectoid
transformation) can be suppressed, and what should be the rate of cooling of the alloy to avoid
the transformation.
 Phase diagrams do not indicate the phases produced by fast cooling • rates. For example, the
formation of marten site is not shown in theFe-Fe3C phase diagram. Thus, they do not indicate
the temperature of the start of such transformations (e.g., the Ms. Temperature) and their
kinetics of formation.
 Even under equilibrium conditions, phase diagrams do not indicate the • character of the
transformations. They do not indicate the rate at which the equilibrium will be attained.

26
Phase diagrams only give information on the constitution of alloys, • such as the number of phases
present at a point, but do not give information about the structural distribution of the phases; that
is, they do not indicate the size, shape, or distribution of the phases, which affects final mechanical
properties. The structural distribution of phases is affected by the surface energy between phases
and the strain energy produced by the transformation. For example, if the β phase, in a mixture of
α and β, is present in small amounts and is totally distributed with the grains, the mechanical
properties will largely be governed by the α phase. However, if β is present around the grain
boundaries of α, then the strength and ductility of the alloy is largely dictated by properties of the
β phase.

Figure 3-19 Illustration of different graphite morphologies of graphitic cast irons, such as
grey iron, compacted graphite iron and ductile iron.

27
 Figure 3-20 ration of the iron–carbon phase diagram which called the Fe–Fe3C phase
diagram
The following phases exist on Fe-Fe3C diagram
3.9.1 Three-phase reactions in the phase‟s diagrams:
In addition to the eutectic, other invariant points involving three different phases are found for
some alloy systems. One of these occurs for the Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) system.
The five most important three-phase reactions that occur in phases diagrams are:

28
 1- Eutectic – a liquid transforms into two solids upon cooling.
2- Eutectoid – a solid transforms into two new solids
3- Peritectic – a liquid plus a solid transforms into a new solid.
4- Peritectoid – two solids transforms into a new solid.
5- Monotectic – a liquid transforms into a new liquid and a solid

1- L - Liquid solution of carbon in iron;

2- δ -ferrite – Solid solution of carbon in iron. Maximum concentration of carbon in δ-ferrite
is 0.09% at (1493ºC) – temperature of the peritectic transformation. The crystal structure of
δ-ferrite is BCC.
3- Austenite (γ) – Solid solution of carbon in γ-iron. Austenite has FCC crystal structure,
permitting high solubility of carbon – up to 2.06% at (1147 ºC).
4- α-ferrite – Solid solution of carbon in α-iron. α-ferrite has BCC crystal structure and low
solubility of carbon – up to 0.025% at (723ºC). α-ferrite exists at room temperature.
5- Cementite (Fe3C) – iron carbide, hard and brittle intermetallic compound, the
concentration of carbon in Cementite is 6.67%.
6- Pearlite (α + Fe3C) - is a mixture of phases which are alternating layers of ferrite and
cementite formed simultaneously from the austenite when temperature reaches (723°C)
and carbon content (0.83% C) (Eutectoid reaction).
7- Ledeburite (γ + Fe3C) - is a mixture of phases which are alternating layers of austenite
and cementite formed simultaneously from the liquid when temperature reaches(1147°C)
and carbon content(4.3% C) (Eutectic reaction).
Three-phase reactions that occur in Fe-Fe3C phase diagram are:
1- Eutectic – at (1147 ºC ) and (4.3 wt% C),
[ L ↔ Ledeburite (γ + Fe3C)].
2- Eutectoid – at (723 ºC) and (0.83 wt% C),
[ γ ↔ Pearlite (α + Fe3C)].
3- Peritectic – at (1493 ºC) and (0.16 wt% C),
[ L + δ ↔ γ ].
Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

29
In their simplest form, steels are alloys of Iron (Fe) and Carbon (C). The Fe-C phase diagram is a
fairly complex one, but we will only consider the steel part of the diagram, up to around 7%
carbon.

Iron–Figure 3-21 Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

Figure 3-22 Fe-C binary system – Phase transformations

30
3.10 Nodular iron:
Ductile iron or nodular iron or spheroidal graphite cast iron is a type of cast iron where
graphite is present in the form of nodules, tiny balls or spheroids [3]. It derives its name from
the fact that in the as-cast structure it exhibits measurable ductility. Other types of cast iron do
not exhibit this much of ductility. Based on the matrix present SG iron may be classified into
different types namely, ferritic, pearlitic, martensitic and austenitic. Depending on the cooling
rate the matrix may vary from a soft ductile ferritic structure through a hard and higher
strength pearlitic structure to an austenitic structure. One of the most fascinating feature of
ductile iron is that the tensile elongation is as high as 17% which is not comparable to other
types of cast iron [4].
3.10.1 Composition of SG Iron:
In unalloyed ductile iron the contents of various elements ranges as follows:
Carbon 3.0 wt. % to 4.0 wt. %
Silicon 1.8 wt. % to 2.8 wt. %
Manganese 0.1 wt. % to 0.5 wt.%
Phosphorous 0.005 wt.% to 0.03 wt.%
Sulphur should be maximum 0.015 wt.%[5,6]
3.11 Production of SG iron
 Desulphurization: Sulphur has deleterious effects on the properties of SG Iron as the growth
of graphite flakes depends on the content of sulphur. The sulphur content in SG Iron should
be as low as possible (<0.015%). If the sculpture content exceeds this limit than
desulphurization is done during melting by adding desulphurising agent like soda ash or
calcium carbide.
 Nebulizing: Magnesium on reacting with oxygen form highly stable MgO which floats on
the surface and can be skimmed off easily and the oxygen content is reduced from typical
levels of 90-135ppm to about 15-35ppm. Magnesium on reacting with sulphur produces less
stable Magnesium sulphide. Solubility of Mg is less in the metal and it is volatile, so a
chance of reverse reaction is there if losses are not taken care of. For deoxidation Si is also
added. Cerium forms stable oxides and sulphides with O and S respectively and is less
volatile than Mg. Mg is added when the temperature of the melt is at 1500˚C but Mg
vaporizes at 1100˚C. Mg being lighter floats on the bath and being reactive burn off at the
surface. Mg is generally added as Ni-Si-Mg, Ni-Mg alloy or magnesium coke to reduce the
violence of the chemical reaction and to have saving in Mg. After nodulising treatment,
31
 inoculants like Mg have their spherodising effect on the graphite structure so that graphite
nodules can be formed.

 . Inoculation: For precipitation and subsequent growth of graphite at number of points

inoculation does the purpose. In this process small amounts of inoculants are added to the
molten metal either just before or during pouring. High levels promote graphite structure while
low levels result in the formation of either mottled structure or white irons. A high level of
nucleation increases as cooling rate increases.
 Solidification: For solidification of SG iron undercooling is required. The graphite nuclei grow
slowly and are then is surrounded by the austenite. At eutectic temperature the combination of
austenite and graphite corresponds to the eutectic point. Super saturation of Austenite with
carbon takes place and on cooling a new equilibrium is established at the graphite-austenite
interface. Towards the graphite nodule the excess of carbon diffuses and precipitates out.

Ductile iron or nodular iron is made by treating the liquid metal with magnesium or cerium
before tapping followed by proper inoculation. This accelerates the precipitation of graphite
in the form of spherical shapes precipitate uniformly in the matrix. This iron is ductile in
nature and can be used in critical application for different components or machinery part in
the industries.

1
CE= C% + Si %
3

Quality index has been made to compare the mechanical properties of SG iron. The formula
used for this is

[Tensile Strength‟s]sq *[Elongation%]

Q=
1000
Where Q is a constant. The larger value of Q indicates a combination of higher strength and
elongation which results higher performance in the material.

32
Figure 3-23. ASTM Quality Index graph for ductile iron

33
3.12 Properties of SG iron
Depending on the grade of SG Iron its properties can vary. The tensile strength can vary from
400 MPa for ferritic grades to as high as 1300 MPa for austempered ductile iron grades. The
yield strength can also vary over the range of 250 MPa to 800 MPa. The elongation can
sometimes be as high as 25%, only for ferritic grades. High fluidity enables the castability of
SG Iron. Also good machinability properties because of the graphite present which makes
chip formation easier. And also ductile iron is highly corrosion resistant.[7,8]
3.12.1 Structure
The microstructure of ductile iron constitutes of: the morphological forms taken by carbon
and the metal matrix in which the carbon and/or carbide particles are dispersed. The
following important microstructural components are found in ductile iron.
3.12.2 Graphite:
Graphite is the most stable form of pure carbon in cast iron.
Some of the physical properties of graphite are as follows:
Low density
low hardness
High thermal conductivity
Lubricant.

In cast iron graphite shape may vary from flake to spherical. In ductile iron all of its graphite
occurs in spheroidal form microscopically and it constitutes about 10% by volume of ductile
iron
3.12.3 Ferrite:
This is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in Alpha Iron and also the purest iron phase in a
cast iron. Ferrite offers lower strength and hardness, but it is very ductile in nature which gives
high ductility and toughness. Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) contain acicular ferrite (very fine
grained), which provides a good combination of strength with ductility and toughness. In
ferritic ductile iron the strength properties are generally increased by the elements, which go
into the solution. [10]
3.12.4 Pearlite:
Pearlite is a eutectoid mixture of cementite and ferrite produced by the eutectoid reaction. It
34
provides higher strength but at the expense of reduction in the ductility which meets the
requirements of many engineering applications
3.12.5 Martensitic:
It is a supersaturated solid solution of carbon in iron produced by rapid cooling or “quenching”.
It is very hard and brittle but ductility is very low. To increase the ductility it is normally
“tempered” i.e. heat treated which reduces the carbon content by the precipitation of carbides.
3.12.6 Austenite:
It is a high temperature phase consists of carbon dissolved in iron. Nickel stabilizes the austenitic
irons and the amount of Ni should be in the range of 18 to 36%.In austempered ductile irons,
austenite is produced by a combination of
 Rapid cooling, suppress the pearlite formation.
 Supersaturation of carbon during austempering, depresses the start of the transformation
of the austenite to marten site far below room temperature.
The austenite matrix provides
 Ductility and toughness at all temperatures
 corrosion resistance
 And good high temperature properties, especially under thermal cycling conditions
3.12.7 Bainite:
Bainite is a mixture of ferrite and carbide (Fe3C, Fe2.4C) produced by heat treatment or alloying
3.13 Types of ductile iron
The different types of ductile iron are as follows:
3.13.1 Ferritic Ductile Iron
Ferritic ductile iron is formed when graphite spheroids are present in a matrix of ferrite. It
provides an iron with good ductility and impact resistance with a tensile and yield strength
equivalent to low carbon steel. It can be produced as-cast and an annealing heat treatment may
be given to assure maximum ductility and low temperature toughness.
3.13.2 Ferrito- Pearlitic Ductile Iron
These are the most common grade of ductile iron where the graphite spheroids are present in a
matrix containing both ferrite and pearlite. It is produced as-cast and its properties are
intermediate between ferritic and pearlitic grades along with good machinability and low
production cost

35
3.13.3 Pearlitic Ductile Iron
In these type of ductile iron the graphite spheroids are present in a matrix of pearlite which
results in high strength, good wear resistance, and moderate ductility and impact resistant. It
also shows good machinability.
3.13.4 Martensitic Ductile iron
The graphite spheroids are present in a matrix of martensitic. Sufficient alloy additions to
prevent pearlite formation, and a heat treatment (quench and tempered) produces this type of
ductile iron. This type of ductile iron develops very high strength and wear resistance but with
lower levels of ductility due to tempered marten site matrix.
3.13.5 Austenitic Ductile Iron
When the iron is alloyed to produce an austenitic matrix this type of ductile iron is produced.

It offers
Good corrosion and oxidation resistance

Good strength and dimensional stability at elevated temperatures

Austempered Ductile iron (ADI)

ADI is the most recent one added to the ductile iron family produced by austempering of the
conventional ductile iron. It is nearly twice as strong as pearlitic ductile iron along with high
elongation and toughness. This combination of properties provides a material with superior
wear resistance and fatigue strength.
3.14 Various grade of S.G. irons
These grades are accepted as per international norms.
Table 3-2 International standard ISO 1083: 1987

Grade Tensile Strength 0.2 % Proof Strength Elongation (%)

(N/mm2 ) (N/mm2 )
900-2 900 600 2
800-2 800 480 2
700-2 700 420 2
600-3 600 370 3
500-7 500 320 7

36
 450-10 450 310 10
400-15 400 250 15
400-18 400 250 18
400-18L 400 250 18
350-22 350 220 22
350-22L 350 220 22

3.15 Factors that affect the properties of the ductile iron:

Ductile iron exhibits a good combination of strength and ductility its huge application in
heavy engineering industries. For its typical mechanical properties Some important
constituents are listed.
3.15.1 Effect of graphite shape
The graphite shape plays a significant role in determining the properties of ductile iron. The
nodularity affects the mechanical properties of ductile iron. When nodularity is decreased i.e.
the nodules become elongated, but do not become sharp or “spiky”, yield strength decreases by
10 % and tensile strength by 15% when nodularity is reduced to 30%.
3.15.2 Effect of Nodule Count

Nodule Count is expressed as the number of graphite nodules/mm2. High nodule count ensures
good metallurgical quality, but excess nodule count may result in the degradation of the
properties of ductile iron. Some of the effects of nodule count on microstructure are as follows:
 The pearlitic content of as-cast ductile iron decreases with increase in nodule
count.
 It also affects the carbide content and with increasing nodule count the
volume fractions of chill carbides or segregation carbides decreases which
ultimately improves ductility and machinability.
 Increasing nodule count produces more homogeneous and finer
microstructure.
 Nodule count is inversely proportional to the graphile nodule size. Increase in
nodule count decreases the graphite nodule size.

Nodularity and nodule count also can affect the mechanical properties and it depends upon the
factor as follows.
37
 Inoculation fading.

Mg recovery and Mg treatment temperature

pouring temperature and cooling rate

3.15.3 Effect of Matrix

In Ductile Iron the mechanical properties are determined primarily by the constituents of matrix
and their hardness. The common grades of ductile iron has matrix consists of ferrite and/or
pearlite. Ferrite in ductile Iron offers low strength and hardness but high ductility, toughness and
good machinability.
These irons are cast after treatment of the molten metal with a small quantity of magnesium to
change the graphite forms a flake to nodular or spheroidal form.
Graphite nodules are small and constitute only small planes of weakness in the steel – like
matrix,these being about one two – hundredth the size of those occurring when flake graphite is
present.

Figure 3-24 Microstructure of ferritic ductile iron(100X,2 % Nital etched)

Figure 3-25 Microstructure of pearlitic ductile iron(100X,2 % Nital etched).

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 Figure 3-26 Microstructure of Ferrito-pearlitic ductile iron (100X,2 % Nital etched)
3.15.4 Effect of silicon
At elevated temperature for stabilizing ferritic matrix in ductile iron silicon is normally used. It
forms a silicon-rich surface layer which helps in inhibiting oxidation. Silicon generally raises
the critical temperature of the transformation of ferrite to austenite. Content.
3.15.5 Effect of molybdenum
Molybdenum helps in increasing the creep and stress-rupture properties of steels. On adding 0.5
% molybdenum to ferritic Ductile Iron there is significant increases in creep and stress-rupture
strength, which results in high temperature properties.
3.15.6 Effect of Manganese
It is a mild pearlite promoter which improves properties like hardness and proof stress to a small
extent. It generally
Retards the onset of the eutectoid transformation

Decreases the rate of diffusion of carbon in ferrite

Stabilizes cementite (Fe3C).
3.15.7 Effect of Copper
It is a strong pearlite promoter which increases the proof stress along with tensile strength and
hardness. There is no embrittlement in matrix. In the pearlitic grade of the ductile iron the
amount of copper is kept between 0.4 to 0.8% .

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3.15.8 Effect of Nickel
It helps in increasing the UTS (Ultimate Tensile Strength) without affecting the impact values.
It is used in the range between 0.4 to 2.0%. As compared to silicon it also strengthens ferrite but
is less effective in reducing ductility. It is also a mild pearlite promoter and increases proof
stress but have little effect on tensile strength. It is very costly so it is present as traces in the
matrix.

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4 CHAPTER FOUR CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 CONCLUSION
As it can be observed from the assignment, casting is a major manufacturing process used for all
types of materials, as it is cost effective, reusable, used for more intricate shapes, and due to its
ability to cast high melting point materials in refractory materials. Beside thus advantages it
needs its own requirements to perform the casting process as per the need of the customers. To
meet the customers need it is important to produce defect free castings or products at tolerable
level of defects. It is known that most gas porosities (pin holes and blow holes) are occurring
from the upper layer of the cast to underneath of the products. Thus defects are revealed more,
either during machining process or during using cast products.
Cast irons are a group of ferrous alloys containing more than 2wt% carbon. The high carbon
content gives the alloys a low melting point and high fluidity, which provides them with good
cast ability.
Solidification is a process in which atoms are converted into an ordered solid state from a liquid
disordered state

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4.2 RECOMMENDATION
Solidification in solid solution alloys occurs over a range of temperature as below. In alloys the
amount of undercooling required is less as compared to pure metals
Ductile Iron the mechanical properties are determined primarily by the constituents of matrix and
their hardness.
A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the various phases of a substance and the
conditions at which thermodynamically those distinct phases can exist at equilibrium. A phase
diagram is also called as equilibrium or constitutional diagram.
Solidification is a process in which atoms are converted into an ordered solid state from a liquid
disordered state.
Graphitic cast irons are formed by solidification according to the stable system in the Fe-C
phase diagram, allowing graphite precipitates to form. This type of solidification is controlled by
a low cooling rate, large number of nucleating sites and addition of graphitizing elements, such
as C, Si, Cu and Ni. There are generally three types of such cast irons: grey irons, compacted
graphite irons and ductile irons, classified according to their graphite shape
Pure iron exists as different phases for various range of temperatures, the addition of carbon not
only changes the transformation temperature but also alters the phase existence owing to limited
solubility of carbon in iron.
Iron and its alloys are the most extensively used engineering material as it is abundantly
available and has fair mechanical properties.

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5 References
1. Asmamaw Tegegne (Dr.), lecture note (2021).
2. Fundamentals of Materials Science & Engineering – William D. Callister
3. Material Science and Metallurgy – K.R.Phaneesh
4. Material Science and Metallurgy – Kesthoor Praveen
5. Materials Science for Engineers – James F. Shackleford
6. Physical Metallurgy Principles – Robert E. Reed-Hill

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