Testing the Difference between Two Means, Proportions and Variances

Chapter Outline
• Testing the difference between Two Means & Proportions
• Testing the difference between Two Variances.
• Testing the difference between Two Means: Small independent
& dependent samples.
• Hypothesis Testing With Categorical Data.

1
 Setting Up the Hypothesis:
For Difference between Two Means

H0: m1 = m2 H0: m1 - m2 = 0 Two

OR
H1: m1  m2 H1: m1 - m2  0 Tail

H0: m1  m2 H0: m1 - m2  0 One

H1: m1 > m2 OR H1: m1 - m2 > 0 Tail

H0: m1  m2 H0: m1 - m2  0 One

H1: m1 < m2 OR H1: m1 - m2 < 0 Tail

Setting Up the Hypothesis:

For Difference between Two Proportions

H0: p1 = p2 H1: p1  p2 OR H0: p1 - p2 = 0 H1: p1 - p2  0

H0: p1  p2 H1: p1 > p2 OR H0: p1 - p2  0 H1: p1 - p2 > 0
H0: p1  p2 H1: p1 < p2 OR H0: p1 - p2  0 H1: p1 - p2 < 0
2
1. Testing Hypothesis About Difference Between Two Population Means.
(General Procedure).
(i) (a) H0: m1 - m2 = 0 and H1: m1 - m2  0 (Two Tailed Test)
(b) H0: m1 - m2  0 and H1: m1 - m2 > 0 (One Tailed Test)
(c) H0: m1 - m2  0 and H1: m1 - m2 < 0 (One Tailed Test)
(ii) Choose the level of significance .
(iii) The Test Statistic is
( x1 − x2 ) − ( m1 − m 2 ) (When population
z= standard deviations are
 12  22 known)
+ 𝑥ҧ1 − 𝑥ҧ2 ) − (𝜇1 − 𝜇2 (When population
n1 n2 𝑍=
OR 1 1
𝜎 𝑛 +𝑛
standard deviations are
known & common)
1 2 ( ∴ 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎 ൯
( x1 − x2 ) − ( m1 − m 2 )
z= (When population
S12 S 22 standard deviations are
+ unknown & n1, n2  30)
n1 n2

(iv) The critical region is

z
(a) H1: m1 - m2  0, CR: | z |  
(b) H1: m1 - m2 > 0, CR: z > z
(c) H1: m1 - m2 < 0, CR: z < –z

(v) The calculation of the test statistic.

(vi) Conclusion :
Reject Ho If calculated z lies in the critical region, otherwise accept it.
3
2. Testing Hypothesis About Difference Between Two Proportions.
(General Procedure).
(i) (a) H0: p1 - p2 = 0 and H1: p1 - p2  0 (Two Tailed Test)
(b) H0: p1 - p2  0 and H1: p1 - p2 > 0 (One Tailed Test)
(c) H0: p1 - p2  0 and H1: p1 - p2 < 0 (One Tailed Test)
(ii) Choose the level of significance .
(iii) The Test Statistic is

𝑍=
𝑝Ƹ1 − 𝑝Ƹ 2 ) − (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 X1 + X 2 n1 pˆ1 + n2 pˆ 2
where p = or p =
𝑝ҧ 𝑞ത
1
+
1 n1 + n2 n1 + n2
𝑛1 𝑛2
and q =1− p

(iv) The critical region is

(a) H1 : p1  p2, CR: | z |  z 

(b) H1 : p1 > p2, CR: z > z
(c) H1 : p1 < p2, CR: z < –z

(v) The calculation of the test statistic.

(vi) Conclusion :
Reject Ho If calculated z lies in the critical region, otherwise accept it.

4
Example # 1
A researcher hypothesizes that the average number
of sports colleges offer for males is greater than the
average number of sports colleges offer for females.
The results are shown below. At  = 0.10, is there
enough evidence to support the claim?
Males: X1 = 8.6 1 = 3.3 n1 = 50
Females: X2 = 7.9 2 = 3.3 n2 = 50

H0: m1 - m2  0
H1: m1 - m2 > 0 (claim)
 = 0.10
Test statistic is
( x1 − x2 ) − ( m1 − m 2 )
z= = 1.06
 12  22
+
n1 n2
The critical region is
CR: z > z0.10 = 1.28 - 1.28 
0
Conclusion :
Accept Ho calculated Z lies in the acceptance region. 5
Example # 2
The same physical fitness test was given to a group
of 100 scouts and to a group of 144 guides. The
maximum score was 30. The guides obtained a
mean score of 26.81 and the scouts obtained a
mean score 27.53. If the fitness scores are normally
distributed with a common population standard
deviation of 3.48, test at 5% level of significance
whether the guides did not do as well as the scouts
in the fitness test.
H0: m1 - m2  0
H1: m1 - m2 > 0 (claim)
 = 0.05
Test statistic is
𝑥ҧ1 − 𝑥ҧ2 ) − (𝜇1 − 𝜇2
𝑍= = 1.589
1 1
𝜎 𝑛 +𝑛
1 2

The critical region is

CR: z > z0..05 = 1.645 - 1.645 
0
Conclusion :
Accept Ho calculated Z lies in the acceptance region. 6
Example # 3
In a sample of 100 store customers, 43
used a Master Card. In another sample of
100, 58 used a Visa card. At  = 0.05, is
there a difference in the proportion of
people who use each type of credit card.

H0: p1 - p2 = 0
H1: p1 - p2  0 (claim)
43 + 58
where p = =0.505
 = 0.05 100 + 100
Test statistic is and q = 1 − 0.505 = 0.495
𝑝Ƹ1 − 𝑝Ƹ 2 ) − (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 (0.43 − 0.58) − 0
𝑍= = = −2.12
1 1  1 1 
𝑝ҧ 𝑞ത + 0.505  0.495  + 
𝑛1 𝑛2  100 100 

^p = 0.43 ^p = 0.58 q^1 = 0.57 ^ = 0.42

q
1 2 2

The critical region is

CR: | z |  z  = ± 1.96 - – 1.96 1.96 
 0
Conclusion :
Reject Ho calculated Z lies in the rejection region. Proportions are different. 7
Question # 1
A researcher claims that students in a private
university have exam scores that are at most 8
points higher than those of students in public
universities. Random samples of 60 students from
each type of university are selected and given an
exam. The results are shown below. At  = 0.05,
test the claim?
Private University: X1 = 110 S1 = 15 n1 = 60
Public University: X2 = 104 S2 = 15 n2 = 60
Ans: z = - 0.73, CR: 1.65
Question # 2
Is there a difference in average miles traveled for
each of two taxi companies during a randomly
selected week? The data are shown bellow. Use
 = 0.05. Assume the populations are normally
distributed. Use the P-value method.
Moonview Cab Starlight Taxi
Company Company
X1 = 837 X2 = 753
1 = 30, n1 = 35 2 = 40, n2 = 40 8
Ans: z = 10.36 P-value = 0.0008
Question # 3
A form of intelligence test was given to random
samples of soldiers and sailors in a certain
country. The following results were recorded.
Number in Mean Sample Standard
Samples Score Deviation
Soldiers 332 12.78 2.43
Sailors 615 12.99 2.48
At  = 0.01, test the hypothesis that there is no
difference between the mean scores. Assume the
populations of scores to be normal. Ans: z = - 1.24, CR: ± 2.58
Question # 4
A random sample of size 36 from a normal
population with variance 24 gave x1 = 15. A
second sample of size 28 from a normal
population with variance 80 gave x2 = 13. Test
Ho: m1 − m2 = 0 against H1: m1 − m2  0. Let  = 0.05
Ans. Z = 1.06

9
Question # 5
A potential buyer of light bulbs bought 50 bulbs of
each of 2 brands. Upon testing the bulbs, he
found that brand A had a mean life of 1282 hours
when 1 = 80 hours, whereas brand B had a mean
life of 1208 hours when 2 = 94 hours. Can the
buyer be quite certain that the two brands do differ
in quality? Use  = 0.05. Ans: z = 4.29, CR: ± 1.96

Question # 6
An examination was given to two classes of 40
and 50 students, respectively. In the first class,
mean grade was 74 with standard deviation of 8,
while in the second class the mean grade was 78
with a standard deviation of 7. Is there a
significant difference between mean grades at
5% level of significance? Ans. Z = - 2.48

Question # 7
In a sample of 200 men, 130 said they used seat
belts. In a sample of 300 women, 63 said they
used seat belts. Test the claim that men are
more safety-conscious that women, at  = 0.01. 10
Ans. Z = 10.7
Question # 8 Men
A study found a difference in the proportion of

Use Alternative Medicine Therapy

adult men and women who use alternative 48.9%

medicines, massage, spiritual healing, and

acupuncture. In the study, 450 men and 400
Women
women were asked if they used at least one
alternative medicine therapy during the past 37.8%
year. The results are shown at right. At  =
0.05, is there enough evidence to support the
claim that there is a significant difference in use of alternative medicines
between men and women? Ans: z = 3.28

Question # 9
A telephone service representative believes
Utility South 50%
that the proportion of customers completely Satisfaction West 43%
satisfied with their local telephone service is Customers
give their local

greater in the South than in the West. If the phone service

a higher

representative’s belief is based on the results

satisfaction
rating than
other services.
of the survey, is there enough evidence to Those
“completely
support the representative’s belief? Assume satisfied”
with local
the survey included 978 southern residents phone
service by

and 1100 western residents. Use  = 0.01. region: 11

Ans: z = 3.194
Question # 10
A random sample of 150 light bulbs manufactured
by a firm X showed 12 defective bulbs while a
random sample of 100 light bulbs manufactured
by another firm Y showed 4 defective bulbs. Is
there a significant difference between the
proportions of two firms? Use  = 0.01. Ans: z = 1.35

Question # 11
In a population that has COVID – 19 , samples of
100 males and 100 females are taken. It is found
that 31 males and 24 females have positive
COVID – 19. Can we conclude at 0.01 level of
significance that proportion of men who has
COVID – 19 is greater than proportion of
women? Ans: z = 1.11

Question # 12
The two samples A and B detailed below were taken from normal
populations of standard deviation 0.8. Test whether the difference of means
is significant. 𝐴: 𝑋ത1 = 12.800, 𝑛1 = 7 𝐵: 𝑋ത2 = 13.675, 𝑛2 = 8 Use  = 0.05
12
Ans: z = - 2.11, CR: ± 1.96
3. Testing Hypothesis About Difference Between Two Variances.
(General Procedure).
(i) (a) H0: 21 = 22 and H1: 21  22 (Two Tailed Test) (Equality of variances)
(b) H0: 21  22 and H1: 1 >  (One Tailed Test)
(c) H0: 21  22 and H1: 1 <  (One Tailed Test)
(ii) Choose the level of significance .
(iii) The Test Statistic is
s12
where s1  s 2
2 2
F=
s 22
with V1 = n1 – 1 and V2 = n2 – 1 d.f.
(iv) The critical region is
(a) H1 : 21  22 F  F (v1 , v2 )

(b) H1 : 21 > 22 F  F ( 1 , 2 )

(c) H1 : 21 < 22 F  F ( 2 ,  1 )

0 F +
(v) The calculation of the test statistic.
(vi) Conclusion :
Reject Ho If calculated F lies in the critical region, otherwise accept it.

When the degree of freedom cannot be found in table,

the lowest value on the smaller side should be used.
13
Example # 4
A medical researcher wishes to see whether the
variances of the heart rates (in beats per minute)
of smokers are different from the variances of the
heart rates of people who do not smoke. Two
samples are selected, and data are shown.
Using  = 0.05, is there enough evidence to
support the claim?
Smokers: s21 = 36 n1 = 26
Nonsmokers: s22 = 10 n2 = 18

H0: 21 = 22

H1: 21  22 (claim)
 = 0.05
Test statistic is
s12
F = 2 = 3.6 where s12  s 22
s2
The critical region is
H1 : 21  22 : F  F (v1 , v2 ) = F0.025 (25, 17) = 2.56 +
 0 2.56
Conclusion :
Reject Ho because calculated F = 3.6 lies in the critical region and conclude that
the variances of the heart rates of smokers and nonsmokers are different. 14
Example # 5
The percent moisture content in a puffed corn cereal
where samples are from two different ”guns” showed
Gun – I: 3.6 3.8 3.6 3.3 3.7 3.4
Gun – II: 3.7 3.9 4.2 4.2 4.9 3.6 3.5 4.0
Using  = 0.05, test the hypothesis Ho: 21  0.03 22
with an alternative H1: 21 > 0.03 22

H0: 21  0.0322

H1: 21  0.0322 (claim)
 = 0.05
Test statistic is 2 2
1 σ𝑋1 1 21.4
s12 where 𝑠12 =
𝑛1 − 1
෍ 𝑋 12 −
𝑛1
= 76.5 −
5 6
= 0.034
F=
0.03  s 22 1 σ𝑋2 2
1 32.02
and 𝑠22 = ෍ 𝑋 22 − = 129.40 − = 0.2
𝑛2 − 1 𝑛2 7 8
0.034
F= = 5.67
0.03  0.2
The critical region is
H1 : 21  0.0322 : F  F ( 1 , 2 ) = F0.05 (5, 7) = 3.97
0 3.97 +
Conclusion :
Reject Ho because calculated F = 5.67 lies in the critical region, and conclude that
21  0.0322 . 15
Question # 13
A researcher wants to compare the variances of the
heights (in inches) of private university basketball players
with those of players in public universities. A sample of 30
players from each type of university is selected, and the
variances of the heights for each type are 3.15 and 2.43,
respectively. At  = 0.10, is there a significant difference
between the variances of the heights in the two types of
universities? Ans: F = 1.296, CR: 1.90

Question # 14
An instructor claims that when a composition
course is taught in conjunction with a word-processing
course, the variance in the final grades will be larger than
when the composition course is taught without the word-
processing component. Two groups are randomly selected.
The variance of the exams of the group that also had word-
processing instruction is 103, and the variance of
the exams of the students who did not have the word-
processing component is 73. Each sample consists of 20
students. At  = 0.05, can the instructor’s claim be
supported? Ans: F = 1.41, CR: 2.23 16
Question # 15
A researcher claims that the variation of blood pressure of
overweight individuals is greater than the variation of
blood pressure of normal-weight individuals. The
standard deviation of the pressures of 25 overweight
people was found to be 6.2 mm Hg, and the standard
deviation of the pressures of 21 normal-weight people
was 2.7 mm Hg. At  = 0.01, can the researcher conclude
that the blood pressures of overweight individuals are
more variable than those of individuals who are of normal
weight? Ans: F = 5.27, CR: 2.86

Question # 16
A researcher wishes to test the variation in the
number of pounds lost by men who follow two popular
liquid diets. Ten men follow diet A for four months, and the
standard deviation of the weight loss is 6.3 pounds. Twelve
men follow diet B for four months, and the standard
deviation of the weight loss is 4.8 pounds. At  = 0.05, can
the researcher substantiate the claim that the variation in
pounds lost following diet A is greater than the variation in
pounds lost following diet B? Ans: F = 1.72, CR: 2.90 17
 4. Testing the Difference Between Two Means: small independent samples.
(General Procedure).
H 0:  2 1 =  2 2 and H1: 21  22
Choose the level of significance . s12
The Test Statistic is F= where s12  s 22
s 22

Determine critical value F (v1 , v2 ) and add them to your sketch.


Make the decision to reject or accept the null hypothesis.
+
H0: m1 - m2 = 0 and H1: m1 - m2  0 0 Fa/2

H0: m1 - m2  0 and H1: m1 - m2 > 0

H0: m1 - m2  0 and H1: m1 - m2 < 0
If we accept H0: 21 = 22

Choose the level of significance .

If we accept H1: 21  22

( x1 − x2 ) − ( m1 − m 2 ) ( x1 − x2 ) − ( m1 − m 2 )
t = The Test Statistic is t =
1 1 s12 s22
sp + OR +
n1 n2 n1 n2
= (n1 – 1)s1 + (n2 – 1)s2
2 2
where sp Where the d.f are equal to the
(n1 + n2 – 2 )
The critical region is smaller of n1 – 1 or n2 – 1 .
(a) H1 : m1  m2, | t |  t/ (d.f) d.f = (n1 + n2 – 2 )
(b) H1 : m1 > m2, t > t(d.f)
(c) H1 : m1 < m2, t < – t(d.f)
Conclusion : 18
Reject Ho If calculated t lies in the critical region, otherwise accept it.
Example # 6
A professor thinks that math majors can
write and debug computer programs faster
than business majors. A sample of 12 math
majors took an average of 36 minutes to
write a specific program and debug it; a
sample of 18 business majors took an
average of 39 minutes. The standard
deviations were 4 minutes & 9 minutes,
respectively. At  = 0.10, is there enough evidence to support the claim?
H0: 21 = 22 H0: m1 - m2  0 The critical region is
H1: 21  22 H1: m1 - m2 < 0 (claim) CR = t 0.10 (11) = – 1.363
 = 0.10  = 0.10
Test statistic is
Test statistic is
s 22 81
F= 2 = = 5.06 ( s 2  s1 )
2 2
( x1 − x2 ) − ( m1 − m 2 )
s1 16 t =
The critical region is s12 s22
CR = F0.05 (17, 11) = 2.72 + - 
n1 n2 - 1.363 0
Conclusion :
t = – 1.24 Accept Ho and conclude
that no evidence to support
0 2.72 +
the claim. 19
Conclusion :
Accept H1 and conclude that  1   2
2 2
Question # 17
The average price of 15 cans of
tomatoes from different stores is £0.73,
and the standard deviation is £0.05. The
average price of 24 cans of potatoes
from different stores is £0.91, and the
standard deviation is £0.03. At  = 0.05,
is there a significant difference in price?
Ans: F = 2.78, t = -12.59

Question # 18
The average income of 10 families
who reside in a large metropolitan
East Coast city is $26800, with a
standard deviation of $600. The
average income of 8 families who
reside in a rural area of the
Midwest is $25400, with a standard
deviation of $450. At  = 0.05, can
it be concluded that the families
who live in the cities have a higher
income than those of live in the 20
rural areas? Ans: F = 1.78, t = 5.47
Question # 19
Two samples are randomly selected from two
classes of students who have been taught by
different methods. An examination is given, and the
results are shown as follows.
Sample Size Means Variances
Class I n1 = 8 x1 = 95 s12 = 47
Class II n2 = 10 x 2 = 97 s22 = 30
Test the hypothesis that two different methods of
teaching are equally effective at  = 0.01.
Ans: F = 1.57, F 0.005 (7, 9) = 6.88, t = - 0.6889 , |t| ≥ t0.005(16) = 2.921

Question # 20
A sample of 15 teachers from Rhode Island has an
average salary of $35270, with a standard deviation
of $3256. A sample of 29 teachers from New York
has an average salary of $29512, with a standard
deviation of $1432. Is there a significant difference
in teacher’s salaries between the two states? Use 
= 0.02. Ans: F = 5.17, F 2.90, t = 6.53 , t = ±2.624
0.01 (14, 28) = 0.01(14)

21
5. Testing Hypothesis about Two Means with Paired Observations.
(General Procedure). (Dependent Samples.)

(i) Ho : md = 0 (or m1 – m2 = 0 )
(a) H1 : md  0 (Two Tailed Test) There are many
(b) H1 : md  0 (One Tailed Test) situations in which
(c) H1 : md < 0 (One Tailed Test) samples are not
(ii) Choose the level of significance . independent. This
happens when the
d − md observations are found a
(iii) The Test Statistic is t = pairs as the two
sd
observations of a pair
n are related to each
other. Pairs occurs
(iv) The critical region is either naturally or by
(a) t
H1 : md  0, CR: | t |   ( n − 1) design. Natural pairing
2
occurs whenever
(b) H1 : md > 0, CR: t > t (n −1) measurement is taken
on the same unit or
(c) H1 : md < 0, CR: t < – t (n − 1) individual at two
different times. Like
(v) The calculation of the test statistic. before-and-after.
(vi) Conclusion : Observations are also
Reject Ho If t lies in the critical region, otherwise accept it. paired to eliminate
effects in which there is
no interest.

22
Example # 7
The following data give a paired yield of two
varieties of wheat. Each pair was planted in
a different locality. Test the hypothesis that
the mean yields are equal. Use  = 0.05.
Variety I 45 32 58 57 60 38 47 51 42 38
Variety II 47 34 60 59 63 44 49 53 46 41
Solution
Ho : md = 0
d − md
H1 : md  0 The Test Statistic is t=
 = 0.05 sd
Computation n
1  2 ( d) 
2
−28
x y d=x−y d2 d = = − 2.8 sd =  d − 
45 47 −2 4 10 n −1  n 
32 34 −2 4
(−28)
2
1 
58 60 −2 4 sd =  94 −  = 1.32
57 59 −2 4
9 10
−3 −2.8 − 0
60 63 9 t = = − 6.71
38 44 −6 36 1.32 / 10
47 49 −2 4
51 53 −2 4
Critical region is |t|> − t0.025(9) = 2.262
42 46 −4 16
38 41 −3 9 Conclusion:
∑ −28 94 Since our calculated value t = − 6.71 falls in the region of
rejection; we will accept H1 and conclude that mean yields are
23
not equal.
 Question # 21
The weight of four persons before they stopped
smoking and 5 weeks after they stopped
smoking are as follows:
Person 1 2 3 4
Before 148 176 153 116
After 154 176 151 121

At  = 0.05, test the hypothesis that giving up

smoking has no effect on person’s weight.
Ans: Ho : Giving up smoking has no effect on person’s weight. md = 0 (claim), H1 : Giving up smoking has effect on person’s weight md  0 t = − 1.165,
CR: ± 3.182 𝑑ҧ = −2.25, 𝑠𝑑 = 3.862, Accept Ho, and may conclude that data do not provide sufficient evidence to indicate that the Giving up smoking
has effect on person’s weight.

Question # 22
Ten young recruits were put through a strenuous physical
training program by the Army. Their weights were
recorded before and after the training with the following
results.
Weight before 125 195 160 171 140 201 170 176 195 139
Weight after 136 201 158 184 145 195 175 190 190 145

Using  = 0.05, would you say that the program affects

the average weight of recruits?
Ans: Ho: Program do not affects the average weight of recruits H1 : Program affects the average weight of 24
recruits md  0 (claim), t = − 2.09, CR: ± 2.262 𝑑ҧ = − 4.7, 𝑠𝑑 = 7.09, Accept Ho
 Question # 23
A sports-shoe manufacturer claims that joggers who wear its brand of
shoe will jog faster than those who don’t. A sample of eight joggers is
taken, and they agree to test the claim on a 1-mile track. The rates (in
minutes) of the joggers while wearing the manufacturer's shoe and
while wearing any other brand of shoe are shown here. Test the claim
at  = 0.025.
Runner 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Manufacturer’s brand 8.2 6.3 9.2 8.6 6.8 8.7 8.0 6.9
Other brand 7.1 6.8 9.8 8.0 5.8 8.0 7.4 8.0
Ans: Ho : Joggers who wear its brand of shoe will not jog faster than those who don’t md ≥ 0, H1 : Joggers who wear its brand of shoe will jog faster than
those who don’t md < 0 (claim), t = 0.765, CR: − 2.365 𝑑ҧ = 0.225, 𝑠𝑑 = 0.831. Conclusion: Accept Ho, and conclude that there is not enough evidence to support the
claim that Joggers who wear its brand of shoe will jog faster than those who don’t.

Question # 24
An experiment was performed with seven hop plants. One half of
each plant was pollinated, and the other half was not pollinated.
The yield of the seed of each hop plant is tabulated as follows:
Plant Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pollinated 0.78 0.76 0.43 0.92 0.86 0.59 0.68
Non-Pollinated 0.21 0.12 0.32 0.29 0.30 0.20 0.14
Determine at the 5% level whether the pollinated half of the plant
gives a higher yield in seed than the non-pollinated half.
Ans: Ho : Pollinated half does not give a higher mean yield than the non-pollinated half md ≤ 0, H1 : Pollinated half
gives a higher mean yield of seed than the non-pollinated md > 0 (claim), t = 6.96, CR: 1. 𝟗𝟒𝟑 𝑑ҧ = 0.491, 𝑠𝑑 =
0.1868 Conclusion: Accept H1, and conclude that there is enough evidence to support the claim that Pollinated half
gives a higher mean yield of seed 25
Question # 25
A physical education director claims by taking a special vitamin, a
weight lifter can increase his strength. Eight athletes are selected
and given a test of strength, using the standard bench press. After
two weeks of regular training, supplemented with the vitamin, they
were tested again. Test the effectiveness of the vitamin regimen at
 = 0.05. Each value in the data that follow represents the
maximum number of pounds the athlete can bench press. Assume
that the variable is approximately normally distributed.
Athlete 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Before 210 230 182 205 262 253 219 216
After 219 236 179 204 270 250 222 216

Ans: In order for vitamins to be effective, the “ before” weight must be significantly less than the “after” weights;
hence, the mean of the differences must be less than zero: H1 : md < 0 (claim), Ho : md ≥ 0, t = − 1.388,
CR: − 1.895 𝑑ҧ = −2.375, 𝑠𝑑 = 4.84. Conclusion: Accept Ho, and conclude that there is not enough evidence to support the claim that vitamin
increases the strength of weight lifters.

26
 PRACTICE
( Basic Skills & Concepts )
• A Doctor wants to determine if the life expectancy of people in Africa is less
than the life expectancy of people in Asia. The data obtained is shown in the
table below. Use  = 0.05 • (1) H :  o
Africa Asia • (2) - 1.65
1. What is the null hypothesis.
X 55.3 65.2 •
2. Calculate the critical value. (3) - 5.45
 8.1 9.3 • (4) - 13.46 < m1 – m2 < -6.34
3. What is the test value.
n 53 42
4. Determine the 95% C.I. of the difference in means.

PRACTICE
1. negative
Complete the following statements 2. t-test
3. dependent
4. numerator
1. The value of F cannot be ______________.
2. To determine whether two sample variances are equal, a researcher can use a
____________.
3. When the subjects are paired or matched in some way, samples are considered to
be __________.
4. When finding the F test value, the smaller of the variances is placed in the
__________. 27
 Chi-Square Test
The chi-square can be used for tests concerning frequency distribution
(goodness-of-fit), such as “If a sample of buyers is given a choice of
automobile colors, will each color be selected with the same frequency?”

The chi-square distribution can be used to test the independence of two

variables. For example, do the Muslim League feel one way and Anti-
Muslim League feel differently, or do they have the same opinion?

Finally, the chi-square distribution can be used to test the homogeneity of

proportions. For example, is the proportion of high school seniors who
attend college immediately after graduating the same for the northern,
southern, eastern, and western parts of the Pakistan.

28
 1. c2 Test for Goodness of Fit
Example # 8
A market analyst wished to see whether
consumers have any preference among five
flavors of a new fruit soda. A sample of 100
people provided the following data:
Cherry Strawberry Orange Lime Grape
32 28 16 14 10
At  = 0.05, test the claim that there is no
preference in the selection of fruit soda
flavors.
H0: Consumers show no preference for flavors. (claim)
H1: Consumers show preference.
For expected frequency
 = 0.05 ( f0 − fe )
2

Test Statistic is: c =

2  fe = 18.0
= 100 / 5 = 20.
d.f. = k – 1 = 5 – 1 = 4
Frequency Cherry Strawberry Orange Lime Grape
fo 32 28 16 14 10
fe 20 20 20 20 20
CR: c2  c2 = 9.488
0.05,( 4)
0 c2 = 9.488 29 + 
Conclusion: Accept H1 and conclude that consumers show preference.
Question # 26
The owner of a sporting-goods store wishes to see
whether his customers show any preference for the
month in which they purchase hunting rifles. The sales
of rifles for the end of last year are shown below. At  =
0.05, test the claim that there is no preference for the
month in which the customers purchase guns.
Month Sept Oct Nov Dec
No. sold 18 23 28 15 Ans: c2 = 4.67, CR : 7.815

Question # 27
The dean of students of a University wishes to test the
claim that the distribution of students is as follows; 40%
business (BU), 25% computer science (CS), 15% science
(SC), 10% social science (SS), 5% liberal arts (LA), and
5% general studies (GS). Last semester, the program
enrollment was distributed as shown below. At  = 0.10,
is the distribution of students the same as hypothesized?
Major BU CS SC SS LA GS
Number 72 53 32 20 16 7 Ans: c2 = 5.613, CR : 9.24 30
 Contingency Table: A table that consists of two or more rows and two
or more columns, into which n observations are classified according to two
different criteria (or variables) is commonly called a contingency table.
Contingency tables provide a useful method of comparing two variables. It is
widely used in marketing.

2. c2 Test for Independence: Procedure

1. Set Hypotheses:
H0: The 2 variables of classification are independent
H1: The 2 variables of classification are not independent i.e. they are associated or related
2. Choose  and 3. Compute expected Frequencies: fe
4. Calculate Test Statistic:

( f0 − fe )2
c2 =  fe

5. Set Up Contingency Table. Determine the CR which depends on  and the number
of Degrees of Freedom.

CR: c2  c2,( r – 1 )( c – 1 )
0 CR: c2 +  31
6. Compare Test Statistic with Table Value and Make Decision.
Example # 9: A Survey was conducted to determine
whether there is a relationship between architectural
style (Split level or Ranch) and geographical location
(Urban or Rural). Survey data given below:
House Location
House Style Urban Rural
Split Level 63 49
15 33
Ranch

Test at the  = 0.01 level to determine whether there is a relationship

between location and architectural style.

H0: The 2 categorical variables (Architectural Style and Location) are independent.
H1: The 2 categorical variables are related.
 = 0.01 (
f0 − fe
2
)
Test Statistic: c2 =  fe

32
 Computation of expected frequencies:

House Location
House Style Urban Rural Total

Split Level 54.6 57.4 112

Ranch 23.4 24.6 48

Total 78 82 160
0
6.64 +
Now we calculate the chi-square statistic as below:
f0 fe (f0 - fe) (f0 - fe)2 (f0 - fe)2 / fe
63 54.6 8.4 70.56 1.292
15 23.4 -8.4 70.56 3.015
49 57.4 -8.4 70.56 1.229
33 24.6 8.4 70.56 2.868
CR: c2  c2 0.01,( 2 – 1 )( 2 – 1 ) = 0.01(1) = 6.64 c2 = 8.404

Decision: Reject Ho at  = 0.01

Conclusion: There is evidence that the choice of architectural style and 33
location are related.
Example # 10: Calculate the value of c2 and test the
association between general ability and mathematical
ability at  = 0.01:
Mathematical ability
General ability V.Good Good Fair Poor

V.Good 20 30 20 2
Good 14 125 85 12
Fair 3 140 165 125
Poor 3 37 68 151

H0: The 2 categorical variables (Mathematical and general ability) are independent.
H1: The 2 categorical variables are related.
 = 0.01
Test Statistic:
( f0 − fe )
2

c2 =  fe
Computation of expected frequencies:
Mathematical ability
General ability V.Good Good Fair Poor Total

V.Good 2.88 23.90 24.34 20.88 72

Good 9.44 78.35 79.77 68.44 236
Fair 17.32 143.76 146.35 125.57 433
Poor 10.36 85.99 87.54 75.11 259
Total 40 332 338 290 1000

34
 Now expected frequencies are:

✓ General ability
Mathematical ability
V.Good
+ Good
Fair Poor Total

V.Good 26.78 24.34 20.88 72

Good 87.79 79.77 68.44 236
Fair 161.08 146.35 125.57 433 0 16.81 +
Poor 96.35 87.54 75.11 259
Total 372 338 290 1000 CR: c2  c20.01,( 4 – 1 )( 3 – 1 ) = 0.01(6) = 16.81
Now we calculate the chi-square statistic as below:
f0 fe (f0 - fe) (f0 - fe)2 (f0 - fe)2 / fe
50 26.78 23.22 539.17 20.133
139 87.79 51.21 2622.46 29.872
143 161. 08 -18.08 326.89 2.029
40 96.35 -56.35 3175.32 32.956
20 24.34 -4.34 18.84 0.774
85 79.77 5.23 27.35 0.344
165 146.35 18.65 347.82 2.377
68 87.54 -19.54 381.81 4.361
2 20.88 -18.88 356.45 17.072
12 68.44 -56.44 3185.47 46.544
125 125.57 -0.57 0.325 0.003
151 75.11 75.89 5759.29 76.678

c2 = 233.143
Decision: Reject Ho at  = 0.01
Conclusion: There is evidence that the Mathematical and general ability are not
35
independent.
When the c2 test value is significant, and there is relationship between the variables, the
strength of this variable is measured by using the contingency coefficient. (Pearson’s
coefficient of mean square contingency)
The formula for contingency coefficient is
c2
C =
n + c2
Contingency coefficient will always be less than one.

From example # 10 find the Contingency coefficient .

233.143
C = 1000 + 233.143 = 0.4348

When there is complete independence, C = 0. When the two classifications are

(k − 1)
perfectly associated, C = k
where k is the smaller of r and c.
(k − 1)
Thus C lies between 0 < C k
, The larger the value of C, the stronger is the
association or dependence.
(3 − 1)
Thus in example # 10, r = 4 & c = 3, so k = 3 therefore maximum value of C = = 0.82
0 < C  0.82 3

36
 3. c2 Test for Homogeneity of Proportions
Example # 11
A researcher selected a sample of 150 seniors from
each of three area colleges and asked each senior,
“Do you drive to college in a car owned by either you
or your parents? The data are given below.
College 1 College 2 College 3
Yes 18 22 16
No 32 28 34
At  = 0.05, test the claim that the proportion of students who drive their own
or their parents’ cars is the same at all three colleges.
H0: p1 = p2 = p3
H1: At least one proportion is different from others.
 = 0.05 ( f0 − fe )2
Test Statistic is: c2 =  fe = 1.596
College 1 College 2 College 3
Yes 18 (18.67) 22 (18.67) 16 (18.67) 56
No 32 (31.33) 28 (31.33) 34 (31.33) 94
50 50 50 150
CR: c2  c20.05,( 2 – 1 )( 3 – 1 ) =  c2 0.05,(2) = 5.991 c2 = 5.991
0 37 + 
Conclusion: Accept H0 and conclude that proportion of students who drive their own or their parents’ cars is the same at all three colleges.
Question # 28
A study is being conducted to determine
whether there is a relationship between
jogging and blood pressure. A random
sample of 210 subjects is selected, and
they are classified as shown in the table.
At  = 0.05, test the claim that jogging and
blood pressure are not related.
Blood pressure
Jogging status Low Moderate High Ans: c2 = 6.799, CR : 5.991
Joggers 34 57 21
Non joggers 15 63 20

Question # 29
A researcher wishes to see whether the age of an individual
is related to coffee consumption. A sample of 152 people is
selected, and they are classified as shown in the table. At 
= 0.01, is there a relationship between coffee consumption
and age? Calculate the coefficient of mean square
contingency. What is the maximum value for C?
Coffee consumption
Age Low Moderate High
21 – 30 18 16 12
31 – 40 9 15 27
41 – 50 5 12 10 Ans:
38
c2 = 15.824, CR : 16.812, Coefficient of MS = 0.3071, Maximum C = 0.82
51 & over 13 9 6
Question # 30
According to a recent survey, 64% of American
females between the ages of 16 and 20 cannot
pass a basic fitness test. A physical education
instructor wishes to determine if the
percentages of such students in different
universities in her district are the same. She
administers a basic fitness test to 120 students
in each of four universities. The results are
shown below. At  = 0.05, test the claim that
the proportions who pass the test are equal.
Ans: c2 = 5.317, CR : 7.851
Southside West End East Hills Jefferson
Passed 49 38 46 34
Failed 71 82 74 86

Question # 31
The grades in a statistical examination were at
follows. Test the hypothesis at the 0.01 level of
significance, that the distribution of grades is
uniform.
Grade A+ A B C D
39
f 14 18 32 20 16 Ans: c2 = 10, CR : 13.277
Question # 32
Discuss the association between the two criteria of
classification, i.e. degree and hobbies. If the null
hypothesis is rejected, calculate the Pearson’s
coefficient of mean square contingency. What could
be its maximum value for this contingency table?
Use  = 0.05. Degree
Hobby
Marketing TQM HRM
Gardening 24 83 17
Craftwork 11 62 28
Reading 32 121 34
Cooking 10 26 44
Ans: c2 = 54.06, CR : 12.59, Coefficient of mean SC = 0.315, maximum value of C = 0.816, so range 0 < C  0.816
Question # 33
An investigation into colour-blindness and sex of a
person gave following results.
Colour Blindness
Sex
Colour Blind Not Colour Blind
Male 36 964
Female 19 981
Is there evidence, at 5% level of significance for
40
the association between sex and colour blindness.
2 Ans: c = 5.4, CR : 3.84
 CRITICAL THINKING PROBLEM

TOO LONG ON THE TELEPHONE

A company collects data on the lengths of telephone calls made by

employees in two different divisions. The mean and standard deviation
for the sales division are 10.26 and 8.56 respectively. The mean and
standard deviation for the shipping and receiving division are 6.93 and
4.93 respectively. A hypothesis test was run and the computer output
follows. Test statistic……F = 3.01477, P-value ……= 0.01071
df = 56, CI limits = - 0.18979, 6.84979, t = 1.89566, P-value = 0.06317,
 = 0.05, CR = +– 2.0037
1. Are the samples independent or dependent?
2. Why was the F- test run?
3. Were the results of F – test significant ? 1. Independent.
4. How many employees were in the study? 2. To test for any significant
differences in the variances.
5. Which number from the output is compared to the significance level to
3. Yes.
check if the null hypothesis should be rejected?
4. 58.
6. Which number from the output is the result of dividing the two sample
5. 0.06317
variances?
6. 3.01477
7. Was a right, left, or two tailed test run? Why? 7. Two tailed, two critical values.
8. What are your conclusions? 8. Accept. 41
9. What would your conclusion be if the level of significance was initially 9. Reject.
set at 0.10?
 Homework
EXERCISES. (Elementary Statistics, Bluman, 4th Edition)
• Examples on Page # 402, 416, 425, 426, 447 ~ 450, 457, 459.
Example #: 10.1, 10.2, 10.6, 10.7, 10.9, 10.10, 10.13, 10.15 ~ 10.17.
• Exercises on Page # 406, 416, 408. 419, 429, 441, 451.
• Problems #: 10.6 ~ 10.21, 10.29 ~ 10.33, 10.45 ~ 10.52, 10.56, 10.57,
10.71 ~ 10.82.
• Examples on page # 516, 525, 528.
Example # 12.3, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7.
• Exercises on page # 520, 533, 534, 535.
Problems # 12.5 ~ 12.10, 12.35 ~ 12.42, 12.44 ~ 12.51.

42