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20, 2021

A new decade
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ISSN 2668-7798

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Philosophy of Approaches in Social Sciences: A Review of

Positivism, Phenomenology and Critical Social Sciences in
Qualitative Research

K. P. Mathotaarachchi1, K. A. A. N. Thilakarathna2
12
Institute of Human Resource Advancement, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka

[email protected]

Abstract. Qualitative approach so as to speak has become one of the most utilized methodologies
when it comes to studies that have been conducted in the realm of social sciences. While this
being said, when compared to the quantitative approach, qualitative studies focus more on the
textual articulation of the study than with empiricism. In this context, it often uses many of the
already established theories in proceeding with its studies. This paper in particular examines how
qualitative studies are conducted under the philosophical underpinnings rooted in positivism,
phenomenology and critical social science.

Keywords. Qualitative Methodology, Positivism, Phenomenology, Critical Social Sciences

1. Introduction
In the modern-day world social research has become a common phenomenon with over
millions of studies conducted every year across the globe. Social research can be defined as a
purposive and rigorous investigation that aims to generate new knowledge. It is the intellectual
tool of social scientists, which allows them to enter contexts of personal and/or public interest
that are unknown to them, and to search for answers to their questions. Social research is about
discovery, expanding the horizons of the known, of confidence, new ideas and new conclusions
about all aspects of life (Sarantakos, 2012).
Social research is different from that of natural sciences, since social researchers have
to do their research about people and their interactions, whereas it becomes difficult of
mathematical precision, which we find under studies conducted by natural scientists. While
natural scientists have formulas that could be utilized for their studies, social scientist have to
find rationalization for their studies through the philosophical underpinnings. General
philosophy of science is in large part about clarifying general scientific concepts, especially
explanation and confirmation. The goal is to produce a set of necessary and sufficient conditions
for application of these concepts (Kincaid, 2012).
If there are questions the sciences cannot answer and questions about why the sciences
cannot answer them, why should a scientist, in particular a behavioural or social scientist, take
any interest in them? The reason is simple. Though the sciences cannot answer philosophical
questions, individual scientists have to take sides on the right answers to them. The stance
scientists take on answers to philosophical questions will decide upon the questions they

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consider answerable by science and choose to address, as well as the methods and techniques
they employ to answer them. Sometimes scientists take sides consciously. More often, they take
sides on philosophical questions by their very choice of question, and without realizing it. The
philosophy of science may be able to vindicate those choices. (Rosenberg, 2018).
The philosophy of social science examines some of the perennial questions of
philosophy by engaging with the empirical study of human society. The questions distinctive
of the philosophy of the social sciences are encompassed within three broad themes:
normativity, naturalism, and reductionism. The questions of normativity concern the place of
values in social scientific inquiry, the questions of naturalism concern the relationship between
the natural and the social sciences and the questions of reductionism ask how social structures
relate to the individuals who constitute them (Risjord, 2014).
Social scientist employs many mythologies in conducting their studies and the
qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches are often used in studies. This paper
discusses on the philosophical approaches of positivism, phenomenology and critical social
sciences as used in qualitative studies.

2. Nature of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research strategy that usually emphasizes words rather than
quantification in the collection and analysis of data. As a research strategy it is broadly
inductivist, constructionist, and interpretivist, but qualitative researchers do not always
subscribe to all three of these features (Bryman, 2012). Qualitative research is a procedure that
operates within a naturalistic, interpretive domain, guided by the standards and principles of a
relativist orientation, a constructivist ontology and an interpretivist epistemology. Nonetheless,
the structure of qualitative research is not interpreted and practised by the researchers the same
way, to the extent that some writers argue that there is not one but many qualitative
methodologies; and that there is no common denominator in the various qualitative directions
in social research (Sarantakos, 2012). Qualitative research can now be found in many different
areas within the ‘discipline’ of business, management and organisational research, including
those traditionally seen as founded upon objectivity, ‘facts’, numbers and quantification
(Cassell, Cunliffe, & Grandy, 2018).
Qualitative methodology was developed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
across a range of disciplines, on varied and sometimes conflicting philosophical and theoretical
bases, including cultural anthropology, interpretive sociologies (such as symbolic
interactionism), phenomenology and, more recently, hermeneutics, critical theory, feminism,
post-colonial theory, cultural studies, post-structuralism and postmodernism. These diverse
approaches inevitably give rise to substantial differences and disagreements about the nature of
qualitative research, the role of the researcher, the use of various methods and the analysis of
data. Although qualitative and quantitative research have traditionally been seen as opposed,
and there are differences in terms of the underlying philosophical approaches, these differences
are not always clear-cut. For example, qualitative research is increasingly used for theory testing
as well as theory generation. Many studies have used a combination of qualitative and
quantitative methods. The value of qualitative research in a variety of settings, including market
research and applied social research, has increasingly been recognized (Jupp, 2006).

3. Philosophical Approaches in Qualitative Studies

Efforts to establish the legitimacy of qualitative research have often taken the form of
vociferous arguments for the merits of qualitative approaches, typically cast in terms of the
contrasts between these and the more widely accepted quantitative approaches to knowledge

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production (Leavy, 2014). The growing interest in researchers in qualitative research represents
a reaction against the prevailing view of subjectivity and the nature of reality that is established
as a premise in the positivist tradition. It is a reaction against a focus on an external reality, an
existence of things and others independent of a subject who experiences them (Munhall P. L.,
2001).
Qualitative approaches in science are distinct modes of inquiry oriented toward
understanding the unique nature of human thoughts, behaviors, negotiations and institutions
under different sets of historical and environmental circumstances. It uses such methods as
nonnumerical organization and interpretation of data in order to discover patterns, themes,
forms and qualities found in field notes, interview transcripts, open-ended questionnaires,
journals and diaries. In particular, it is used when there is little known about a domain, when
the investigator suspects that the present knowledge or theories may be biased or when the
research question pertains to understanding or describing a particular phenomenon or event
about which little is known (Munhall P. , 1989).
The philosophical underpinnings of qualitative research are discussed in varying detail
by a number of general practice academics. The goals of qualitative research are the usual point
of departure from traditional quantitative methods. While quantitative research explores the
relationships between discreet measurable variables and outcomes, qualitative research is used
to explore meanings and patterns, inconsistencies and conflicts in people’s thoughts and
behaviours (Britten, 1995). Qualitative research is explicitly interpretive. Researchers
acknowledge that the analytical process involves interpreting the meanings, values,
experiences, opinions and behaviours of other people. This process has been described as
descriptive-inductive to distinguish it from the hypothetico-deductive means of drawing results
in quantitative research (Whittaker, 1996). This interpretive and interactive quality of
qualitative research is a reflection of ontological and epistemological assumptions that often
differ from those of traditional quantitative research. It is apparent that much qualitative or
social general practice research is certainly conducted within the philosophical and theoretical
foundations and assumptions that underpin traditional biomedical quantitative research with its
positivist orientation. The adoption of qualitative methods is no guarantee of researcher
reflexivity or engagement with the methodological issues of qualitative research (Jaye, 2002).

3.1 Positivism
Positivism has a long history and a critical role in the development of science. According
to some, the tradition of positivism can be traced back to the time of the Renaissance. For
example, Italian scientist and scholar Galileo Galilei’s (1564–1642) Sidereus Nuncius, or The
Starry Messenger (1610), included using systematic astronomical observations to prove and
extend the Copernican model. Comte’s work has also proposed that society evolves through
three successive stages: the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive. The term positivism
was coined by Auguste Comte (1798–1857), along with the term ‘sociology’. His use of the
word positivism implied that this was a positive philosophy and little to do with later positivist
philosophy of science influenced by empiricism. He did, however, advocate the development
of sociology as a science, but in the context of a shift in societal belief systems from theological,
to metaphysical and finally scientific. This was his Law of the Three Stages. Comte’s positivism
has had little influence on social research and is only of historical importance in sociology.
Emile Durkheim’s (1858–1917) influence was altogether greater and he was one of the
pioneers of the numeric analysis of large data sets in his comparative international study of
suicide (Durkheim, 1952). In recent years the positivistic aspects of Durkheim’s work have
been less accentuated and indeed his emphasis on ‘social facts’ as knowable objects place him

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closer to realism than positivism. Nevertheless, he equally stressed the importance of scientific
detachment and value freedom in sociological research, an approach shared by the later logical
positivists. However, unlike the latter, Durkheim was a methodological holist arguing that
social facts (for example, rules, laws, practices) could not be reduced to explanations at an
individual level.
Positivism relates to the philosophical stance of the natural scientist and entails working
with an observable social reality to produce law-like generalisations. It promises unambiguous
and accurate knowledge and originates in the works of Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte and the
early twentieth-century group of philosophers and scientists known as the Vienna Circle. The
label positivism refers to the importance of what is ‘posited’ (i.e., ‘given’). This emphasises the
positivist focus on strictly scientific empiricist method designed to yield pure data and facts
uninfluenced by human interpretation or bias (Saunders, 2018). Positivism entails elements of
both a deductive approach and an inductive strategy. Also, a fairly sharp distinction is drawn
between theory and research. The role of research is to test theories and to provide material for
the development of laws (Bryman, 2012). Positivism is said to be the methodological
underpinning of survey research and experimental approaches, though in describing it thus there
is a conflation between scientific approaches to social research in general and the particular
position of positivism (Jupp, 2006).
There have been several versions of positivism, and though all favour a scientific
approach to investigation they are not synonymous with science and indeed in the natural
sciences positivism disappeared as an important methodological position many decades ago
Nevertheless, it was via the positivist movement that social science became science and was the
form in which scientific method entered the study of the social world. There are three main
forms of positivism that have been historically important to social science, though arguably
none is present to any great extent today. In today’s sociological studies, especially those
focusing on business and management, the use of the word ‘positivist’ frequently emphasizes
an objectivist epistemology which seeks to ‘explain and predict what happens in the social
world by searching for regularities and causal relationships between its constituent elements’
The positivist paradigm and qualitative research methods may seem to contradict each
other. Specifically, positivism was traditionally considered to be chiefly associated with
quantitative methods, whereas qualitative research tends to be associated with more subjectivist
positions of the researchers. However, the positivist paradigm and qualitative methods can
coexist in harmony. In fact, positivist qualitative research represents a uniquely useful and
extensively adopted genre of academic inquiry. Ontologically, positivist qualitative research
assumes the existence searching for, through non-statistical means, regularities and causal
relationships between different elements of the reality, and summarizing identified patterns into
generalized findings. Methodologically, positivist qualitative research tends to emphasize a
nomothetic rather than idiographic approach; this approach utilizes systematic research
protocols and techniques to develop and test theoretical models or propositions in accordance
with the canons of scientific rigor of an objective, external reality that can be apprehended and
summarized, although not readily quantified. Epistemologically, positivist qualitative research
focuses on searching for, through non-statistical means, regularities and causal relationships
between different elements of the reality, and summarizing identified patterns into generalized
findings. Methodologically, positivist qualitative research tends to emphasize a nomothetic
rather than idiographic approach; this approach utilizes systematic research protocols and
techniques to develop and test theoretical models or propositions in accordance with the canons
of scientific rigor (Cassell, Cunliffe, & Grandy, 2018).

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3.2 Phenomenology
Phenomenology is a school of philosophy developed in the first quarter of the twentieth
century by Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). It has been influential in sociology, particularly in
the writings of Alfred Schutz (1962). An associated school of psychology has been vigorously
developed by a small group of enthusiasts, without attaining widespread influence, though, on
its more philosophical side, it has been advanced by Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1962).
Phenomenology can be identified as one of the main intellectual traditions that has been
responsible for the anti-positivist position has been phenomenology, a philosophy that is
concerned with the question of how individuals make sense of the world around them and how
in particular the philosopher should bracket out preconceptions in his or her grasp of that world.
The initial application of phenomenological ideas to the social sciences is attributed to the work
of Schutz’s, whose work did not come to the notice of most English-speaking social scientists
until the translation from German of his major writings in the 1960s, some twenty or more years
after they had been written. His work was profoundly influenced by Weber’s concept of
Verstehen, as well as by phenomenological philosophers, like Husserl.
Under the Weberian exposition of Verstehen and phenomenology, it has been necessary
to skate over some complex issues. In particular, Weber’s examination of Verstehen is far more
complex than the above commentary suggests, because the empathetic understanding that
seems to be implied above was not the way in which he applied it (Bauman 1978), while the
question of what is and is not a genuinely phenomenological approach to the social sciences
is a matter of some dispute (Heap and Roth 1973). However, the similarity in the
writings of the hermeneutic– phenomenological tradition and of the Verstehen approach, with
their emphasis upon social action as being meaningful to actors and therefore needing to be
interpreted from their point of view, coupled with the rejection of positivism, contributed to a
stream of thought often referred to as interpretivism.
One can synthesize the basic assumptions of phenomenological research as being
implicit in seven characteristics. The first is “fidelity to the phenomena as it is lived.” The
phenomenological interpretation of living is composed of both experience and behavior. The
lived experience must be the guide in understanding other people and what things mean to them.
The second characteristic is the “primacy of life-world”. This life-world is viewed as experience
within the world as we live it, prior to any explanation or theoretical interpretation. Conceptual
and theoretical notions are not automatically assumed to be relevant to the individual. ln
phenomenology one’s perceptions and actions are seen as meaningful expressions of being-in-
the-world. The third characteristic of phenomenological research is its descriptive approach.
Next is the expression of the situation from the viewpoint of the subject. Fifth, the lived situation
is the basic unit of research. This would include the assumption that the significant factors for
research are the meanings given to the lived situation by the subject and the researcher. Sixth is
a biographical emphasis because all human phenomena are temporal, historical and personal.
Included in this characteristic is the phenomenological approach which seeks to formulate its
key terms after contact with the data. The seventh characteristic is phenomenology’s aim to be
presuppositionless description. This is accomplished by explicitly setting forth the investigator's
presuppositions. A search for meaning is the final characteristic; the method is to directly
interrogate the phenomena itself in the search for meaning (Knaack, 1984).
A phenomenological study describes the common meaning for several individuals of
their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon. Phenomenologists focus on describing
what all participants have in common as they experience a phenomenon (e.g., grief is
universally experienced). The basic purpose of phenomenology is to reduce individual
experiences with a phenomenon to a description of the universal essence. To this end,

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qualitative researchers identify a phenomenon, an “object” of human experience. It can also be

described as as beginning “with wonder at what gives itself and how something gives itself. It
can only be pursued while surrounding to a state of wonder” (Creswel, 2018). This human
experience may be a phenomenon such as insomnia, being left out, anger, grief, or undergoing
coronary artery bypass surgery. The inquirer then collects data from persons who have
experienced the phenomenon and develops a composite description of the essence of the
experience for all of the individuals. This description consists of “what” they experienced and
“how” they experienced it (Moustakas, 1994).

3.3 Critical Social Science

Critical social science is characterised by a concern with the social conditions that
contribute to relations of domination and oppression. Moreover, this cluster of theories
incorporates explanation, evaluation and programs of action for addressing injustice by
pursuing social change. This is the research program undertaken by a variety of social theorists
that are strongly influenced by critical theory. Critical theory of society, in turn, can be
characterized as being of a practical philosophy and explanatory social science, sharing and
radically reforming the intentions of both. Practical philosophy is concerned with the specifics
of ethical and political life (praxis) and the actions that must be undertaken to achieve the good
life; explanatory social science produces scientific knowledge of the general causes of social
action. Critical social science is characterized by several general themes. First, its aim, broadly
conceived, is to integrate theory and practice in such a way that individuals and groups become
aware of the contradictions and distortions in their belief systems and social practices and are
then inspired to change those beliefs and practices. Its method here is immanent critique, which
challenges belief systems and social relations not by comparing them to some set of external
standards but by showing that these practices do not measure up to their own standards and are
internally inconsistent, hypocritical, incoherent, and hence comprise a false consciousness.
Second, critical social science is thus practical and normative and not merely descriptive
and explanatory. Third, it is foregrounded in a critique of instrumental, technical reason. Critical
theorists (among other social theorists) argue that this kind of means-end reasoning is pervasive;
it informs the traditional empirical-analytic sciences and dominates not only societal processes
and cultural meaning but also the dynamics of personality formation. Critical social scientists
argue that instrumental reason aims to eliminate crises, conflict, and critique. Although founded
in the Enlightenment bid to liberate people from myth, ignorance, and oppression, the
rationalization of social and individual life by means of instrumental reason actually works to
suppress the very self-transformative, self-reflexive, critical, liberating impulses on which it
was founded. Critical inquiry supports a kind of reasoning that is practical, moral, and ethically
and politically informed. Fourth, to retain or recapture the Enlightenment belief in the power of
human reason to affect individual and social transformation, critical social science argues that
a form of inquiry is needed that fosters enlightened self-knowledge and effective social-political
action. The logic of critical social inquiry requires linking hermeneutic and explanatory social
scientific interests to normative concerns. This feature of critical social science marks it as
distinctly different from social science characterized by naturalism and antinaturalism. Finally,
critical social science is self-reflexive. To prevent a critical theory of society from becoming
yet another self-serving ideology, the theory must account for its own conditions of possibility
and its transformative effects. It rejects the idea of disinterested social science and emphasizes
attending to the cultural and historical conditions on which the theorist's own intellectual
activity depends.

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In research, critical theory can be defined by the particular configuration of

methodological postures it embraces. The critical researcher might design, for example, an
ethnographic study to include changes in how people think; encourage people to interact, form
networks, become activists, and form action-oriented groups; and help individuals examine the
conditions of their existence. The end goal of the study might be social theorizing, which can
be defined as “the desire to comprehend and, in some cases, transform (through praxis) the
underlying orders of social life—those social and systemic relations that constitute society”
(Jupp, 2006). The investigator accomplishes this, for example, through an intensive case study
or across a small number of historically comparable cases of specific actors (biographies),
mediations, or systems and through “ethnographic accounts (interpretive social psychology),
componential taxonomies (cognitive anthropology), and formal models (mathematical
sociology)”. The design of research within a critical theory approach, according to sociologist,
falls into two broad categories: methodological, in that it affects the ways in which people write
and read, and substantive, in the theories and topics of the investigator (e.g., theorizing about
the role of the state and culture in advanced capitalism). As a study of the manifestations of
resistance and state regulation, it highlights ways in which actors come to terms with and
struggle against cultural forms that dominate them. Resistance is also the theme addressed in
an ethnography of a subcultural group of youths (Moustakas, 1994).

4. Discussion
Qualitative method is particular has shown a great tendency to be one of the most
favourite methods that have been used by researchers in recent times. While it lacks some of
the scientific precision that is present under natural sciences, those who are involved with social
sciences have been fond of the qualitative methodology. When we compare the approaches
discussed above, it seems clear that positivism as an approach is somewhat contradictory with
the idea of qualitative research, at least from a historical perspective due to the subjective nature
of social sciences and the inherent vices of the qualitative method.
Quantitative research historically has dwelled at the dedicated positivism end, whereas
qualitative research arose as the alternative when post-positivist thinking began to hold sway.
In the older positivist view, language was conceived to be adequate to represent objective
reality- the "real" beyond the limitations of human subjectivity. Language, although sufficient
to mediate objective truth, is powerfully assisted in that task- the task of research – by numbers,
which are capable of even purer approximations of truth-as-such. Numbers get us so close to
the "real" - to the objective, the verifiable, the factual, the actual, to being in essence, otherwise
known as truth- as to be identical with, or at least paradigmatic of, truth in essence. In the
positivist mind-set, when using language, we must push it as far as we can to the objective
Condition of mathematics, a voiding the sloppiness of subjectivity that can creep in, if we are
not careful, such as calling ourselves "I" rather than" the researcher," or calling the people we
are researching" they" rather than" subjects," and so on.
However, this is not to say that positivist qualitative is not possible. In positivist
qualitative research, the input of the research process typically consists of a variety of data,
especially unstructured data. The sources of data include interviews, observations, videos, and
documents. Interviews usually consist of open-ended or semi-structured questions about
subjects’ experience, perceptions, and knowledge. In the final publication, interviews are
usually incorporated in the form of direct quotations. Observations and videos capture actions,
interactions, conversations, practices, processes, and other dynamics at multiple levels,
including individual, interpersonal, group, community, organizational, interorganizational, and
industry. The data are incorporated into the final publication as field notes. Documents include

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written records, official publications and reports, correspondence, press releases, memorabilia,
artistic works, photographs, films, and videotapes. Excerpts of documents can be included in
the final publication to support and explain the findings. A key benefit of utilizing the diverse
forms of data is the creation of a ‘thick description’ capturing both detailed content and rich
context of the studied phenomena.
When one considers about phenomenology, where the core of the study remains with
the study of a phenomenon and generalization of lived experiences of the individuals as a
collective theme, it is one of the most apt and compatible philosophies that is could be utilized
under qualitative studies. Phenomenology, as opposed to positivism looks at the individual
cases with an aim of generalization that could be used with some reliability, even though if the
cases were to be taken subjectively, it would perhaps be more accurate assumption under a
qualitative study to use those individual experiences at forming generalizations. On the other
hand, phenomenology requires at least some understanding of the broader philosophical
assumptions, and researchers should identify these assumptions in their studies. These
philosophical ideas are abstract concepts and not easily seen in a written phenomenological
study. In addition, the participants in the study need to be carefully chosen to be individuals
who have all experienced the phenomenon in question, so that the researcher, in the end, can
forge a common understanding. Finding individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon
may be difficult given a research topic.
Critical theory is a term that is often evoked and frequently misunderstood. It usually
refers to the theoretical tradition developed by the Frankfurt school; a group of writers
connected to the Institute of Social Research at the University of Frankfurt. However, none of
the Frankfurt school theorists ever claimed to have developed a unified approach to cultural
criticism. The critical social science approach seeks to show the contradictions the the perceived
truth and the actual realities of the society, where by the process is advanced to change those
belief systems that exists that do not match with the existing realities. Under qualitative method,
critical theory has found its place as one prominent domain which is utilised for critique the
existing facts through words and symbols so as to explain the gap between what is believed to
be and the reality of the social existence. This approach is distinguishable from the traditional
approaches to theorizing which is more focused on empiricism. This traditional approach takes
for granted the fact; humans perceive things based upon the existence of theories without
critiquing its actual existence. This approach employs the method of immanent critique,
working from within categories of existing thought in order to radicalize these categories, reveal
their internal contradictions and shortcomings, and demonstrate their unrecognized
possibilities.

5. Conclusion
From the above discussion it is clear that, qualitative method, being more focused on
the words, actions, symbols and lived experiences of individuals, unlike in the quantitative
method, where quantification and empiricism plays a pivotal part in its analysis, has become a
common method used and favoured by many researchers who are conduiting studies in the field
of social sciences. The attractiveness of the qualitative method for researchers in the realm of
social sciences lies in the fact that, in studying the human interactions and giving meaning to
them, the explanations, generalization through phenomenon and critiquing the differences
between the established theories and the existing realities the approaches of phenomenology
and critical social sciences have been more conducive and convenient for them. In this regard,
the positivistic approach advanced by those who are more in favour of the quantitative method,
where quantification and empiricism are the underlining thread coming under researchers and

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studies carried out under the realm of natural sciences is still looked with scepticism by
researchers who adhere with the qualitative approach. However, the development of new
technologies and the plethora of work that is made available suggests that, in the future instead
of being skeptical, those who are doing qualitative studies would also find some value and use
for the positivistic approach as well.

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