Graph of the Trigonometric Functions

Dr. Philippe B. Laval

Kennesaw State University
April 17, 2005

Abstract
This handout discusses the graph of the six trigonometric functions,
their properties and transformations (translations and stretching) of these
graphs.

1 Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions and

their Properties
We begin with some general definitions before studying each trigonometric func-
tion. As we have noted before, given an angle θ, the angles θ + 2kπ are coter-
minal and therefore determine the same point on the unit circle. It follows that
sin (θ) = sin (θ + 2kπ). The same is true for the cosine function. This means
that these functions will repeat themselves. When a function has this property,
it is called periodic. More precisely, we have the following definition:

Definition 1 (periodic function) A function y = f (x) is called periodic if

there exists a positive constant p such that f (x + p) = f (x) for any x in the
domain of f . The smallest such number p is called the period of the function.

Remark 2 This number p mentioned in the definition is not unique. If p works,

so will any multiple of p For example if f (x + p) = f (x) then f (x + 2p) = f (x)
because f (x + 2p) = f (x + p + p) = f (x + p) = f (x). The period of a function
is the smallest of all the numbers p such that f (x + p) = f (x).

Remark 3 One can think of the period as the length of the shortest interval
over which the function repeats itself. Once we know the values of a periodic
function over an interval having the length of its period, then we know the values
of the function over its entire domain. This means that when we study a periodic
function, we only need to study it on an interval having the length of its period.

Definition 4 (amplitude) The amplitude of a periodic function y = f (x) is

defined to be one half the distance between its maximum value and its minimum
value.

1
Remark 5 (notation) When dealing with trigonometric functions, we break
some of the notation rules we usually follow with functions. Here are some
examples:

1. With functions in general, the input values are always in parentheses. The
function f evaluated at x is denoted f (x). For trigonometric functions,
when the input is a single symbol such as a number or a variable, we omit
the parentheses. However, if the input is an expression containing more
than one symbol, we must use the parentheses. Thus, we write:

• sin x
• sin π
• cos 120
• sin (x + π)
• cos (α + β)

2. If we want to raise a trigonometric function to a power n, we should write

n n
(sin x) or (cos (x + π)) . The same being true for the other trigonometric
functions. However, instead, we write sinn x, cosn (x + π).

We are now ready to study each trigonometric function. For each function,
we will study the following:

1. domain
2. range
3. period
4. amplitude
5. graph
6. additional properties

1.1 The Sine Function: y = sin x

• Domain: The domain of the sine function is the set of real numbers. To
each θ (think of θ as an angle) corresponds a point on the unit circle. Its
y − coordinate is sin θ.
• Range: To each angle θ corresponds a point on the unit circle. The
coordinates of this point are (cos θ, sin θ). Also, the coordinates of a point
on the unit circle are numbers between −1 and 1. This means that −1 ≤
sin θ ≤ 1. Thus, the range of sin x is [−1, 1].
• Period: The period of sin x is 2π. This means that this function repeats
itself every interval of length 2π.

2
 • Amplitude: By definition, we have
max − min
amplitude =
2
1 − (−1)
=
2
= 1

• Graph: To help visualize the graph, students can use an applet which can
be found at http://science.kennesaw.edu/~plaval/applets/SinCosDef.html.
Using this applet, students can move a point along the unit circle. As the
point moves, the graph of either the sine or the cosine function is traced.
Students are strongly encouraged to use this applet to understand why
the graph of y = sin x looks the way it does. The shape of the graph of
sine is given by the figure below.

One can see in particular that the sine function repeats itself.
• Additional Properties:

— y = sin x is an odd function, that is

sin (−x) = − sin x

1.2 The Cosine Function: y = cos x

• Domain: The domain of the cosine function is the set of real numbers.
To each θ (think of θ as an angle) corresponds a point on the unit circle.
Its x − coordinate is cos θ.

3
• Range: To each angle θ corresponds a point on the unit circle. The
coordinates of this point are (cos θ, sin θ). Also, the coordinates of a point
on the unit circle are numbers between −1 and 1. This means that −1 ≤
cos θ ≤ 1. Thus, the range of cos x is [−1, 1].
• Period: The period of cos x is 2π. This means that this function repeats
itself every interval of length 2π.
• Amplitude: By definition, we have
max − min
amplitude =
2
1 − (−1)
=
2
= 1

• Graph: To help visualize the graph, students can use an applet which can
be found at http://science.kennesaw.edu/~plaval/applets/SinCosDef.html.
Using this applet, students can move a point along the unit circle. As the
point moves, the graph of either the sine or the cosine function is traced.
Students are strongly encouraged to use this applet to understand why
the graph of y = cos x looks the way it does. The shape of the graph of
sine is given by the figure below.

• Additional Properties:

— y = cos x is an even function, that is

cos (−x) = cos x

4
1.3 Summary for sin x and cos x
y = sin x y = cos x
Domain R R
Range [−1, 1] [−1, 1]
Period 2π 2π
Amplitude 1 1
Properties sin (−x) = − sin x cos (−x) = cos x

1.4 The Tangent Function: y = tan x

sin x
• Domain: By definition, tan x = . This means that tan x is not
cos x
π
defined whenever cos x = 0. This happens when x = + kπ, where k is
2
any integer.
• Range: The range of tan x is R.
• Period: The period of tan x is π.
• Amplitude: There is no amplitude since tan x has no maximum or min-
imum.
• Graph: The graph is shown below:

One can see that the tangent function repeats itself every interval of length
π. At the points where tan x is not defined, its values get arbitrary large,
meaning that they are approaching ±∞.
• Additional Properties:

5
 — y = tan x is an odd function, meaning that
tan (−x) = − tan x

1.5 The Cotangent Function y = cot x

cos x
• Domain: By definition, cot x = . This means that cot x is not
sin x
defined whenever sin x = 0. This happens when x = kπ, where k is any
integer.
• Range: The range of cot x is R.
• Period: The period of cot x is π.
• Amplitude: There is no amplitude since cot x has no maximum or min-
imum.
• Graph: The graph is shown below:

• Additional Properties:

— y = cot x is an odd function, meaning that

cot (−x) = − cot x

1.6 The Secant Function y = sec x

1
• Domain: By definition, sec x = . This means that sec x is not
cos x
π
defined whenever cos x = 0. This happens when x = + kπ, where k is
2
any integer.

6
 • Range: The range of sec x is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).
• Period: The period of sec x is 2π.
• Amplitude: There is no amplitude since sec x has no maximum or min-
imum.
• Graph: The graph is shown below:

Note that this shows the graph of two functions. y = sec x is in black,
y = cos x is in blue. The two functions are shown simply to illustrate how
they are related.
• Additional Properties:

— y = sec x is an even function, meaning that

sec (−x) = sec x

1.7 The Cosecant Functions y = csc x

1
• Domain: By definition, csc x = . This means that csc x is not
sin x
defined whenever sin x = 0. This happens when x = kπ, where k is any
integer.
• Range: The range of csc x is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).
• Period: The period of csc x is 2π.
• Amplitude: There is no amplitude since csc x has no maximum or min-
imum.

7
 • Graph: The graph is shown below:

Note that this shows the graph of two functions. y = csc x is in black,
y = sin x is in blue. The two functions are shown simply to illustrate how
they are related.
• Additional Properties:

— y = csc x is an odd function, meaning that

csc (−x) = − csc x

1.8 Summary for tan x, cot x, sec x and csc x

y = tan

π x  y = cot x y = sec

πx  y = csc x
Domain R− + kπ R − {kπ} R− + kπ R − {kπ}
2 2
Range R R (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
Period π π 2π 2π
Amplitude none none none none
Properties tan (−x) = − tan x cot (−x) = − cot x sec (−x) = sec x csc (−x) = − csc x

2 Transformations of the Graphs of sin x and

cos x
In this section, we look at the graphs of y = a + b sin (k (x − c)) and y = a +
b cos (k (x − c)) by treating them, as transformations of the graphs of y = sin x
and y = cos x. You will recall that there are 4 kinds of transformations which
are:

8
 • x → x − c produces a horizontal shift of |c| units to the right if c > 0 and
to the left if c < 0.
• y → y − a produces a vertical shift of |a| units up if a > 0 and down if
a < 0.
1
• x → kx produces a horizontal shrinking by a factor of if |k| < 1 and a
k
1
horizontal stretching by a factor of if 0 < |k| < 1. If k is also negative,
k
the graph is also reflected about the y − axis.
1
• y → by produces a vertical shrinking by a factor of if |b| < 1 and a
b
1
vertical stretching by a factor of if 0 < |b| < 1. If b is also negative, the
b
graph is also reflected about the x − axis.

2.1 Graph of y = a + b sin (k (x − c)) or y = a + b cos (k (x − c))

These can be obtained from y = sin x or y = cos x by applying the following
transformations in the given order. Keep in mind that each transformation is
applied to the function we obtained from the previous transformation. For each
transformation, we look at which of the attributes (period, interval over which
the function repeats itself, amplitude, range) are changed and which are not.
We explain the process below using sin x. The results are the same for cos x.

1. x → kx. The resulting function is y = sin kx. The graph is either shrunk
1
or stretched horizontally by a factor of . This means that the interval
|k|
2π
over which the function repeats itself will have a width of . Therefore,
|k|
2π
the period of the function will be . The amplitude or the range of the
|k|
function will not be affected since there are y − values. If in addition
k < 0, the graph will be reflected across the y − axis.
2. x → x − c. The resulting function is y = sin (k (x − c)). The graph is
shifted |c| units. The period, interval over which the function repeats
itself, amplitude and range are not changed. The shift of the graph is
called phase shift.
1 1
3. y → y. The resulting function is y = sin (k (x − c)) or y = b sin (k (x − c)).
b b
The graph is shrunk or stretched vertically by a factor of |b|. Therefore
the period and the interval over which the function repeats itself are not
changed (these are x − values). The range is changed to [− |b| , |b|], the
amplitude is |b|. If in addition b < 0, the graph will be reflected across
the x − axis.

9
 4. y → y − a. The resulting function is y − a = b sin (k (x − c)) or y =
a+b sin (k (x − c)). The graph is shifted vertically by |a| units. The period,
interval over which the function repeats itself, amplitude and range are
not changed (these are x − values). The amplitude is not changed either
an is still |b| since the shape of the graph is preserved, we only shift it.
The range will become [− |b| + a, |b| + a].

Visit the internet, on the page which contains all the applets I have developed
for my classes. Under the heading "Trigonometric functions, use the applet
entitled "Transformation of sine". This applet will allow the user to experiment
with the function y = a + b sin (k (x − c)) by changing the values of a, b, c and k
and watch the graph change.

2.2 Summary
To graph y = a + b sin (k (x − c)) or y = a + b cos (k (x − c)), start from the
graph of y = sin x or y = cos x, then follow the steps below:
1
1. Stretch or shrink the graph horizontally according to k by a factor of as
|k|
follows:

• If |k| < 1, stretch the graph horizontally.

• If |k| > 1, shrink the graph horizontally.
• If in addition k < 0, reflect the graph across the y − axis.

2. Translate the graph horizontally by |c| units as follows:

• To the right if c > 0.

• To the left if c < 0.
1
3. Stretch or shrink the graph vertically according to b by a factor of as
|b|
follows:

• If |b| < 1, shrink the graph vertically.

• If |b| > 1, stretch the graph vertically.
• If in addition b < 0, reflect the graph across the x − axis.

4. Translate the graph vertically by |a| units as follows:

(a) Up if a > 0.
(b) Down if a < 0.

The attributes (period, range, amplitude, phase shift) are affected by these
transformation as follows:

10
 1. Period: The period of y = a + b sin (k (x − c)) or y = a + b cos (k (x − c))
2π
is . So, it is only affected by k.
|k|
2. Range: The range of y = a + b sin (k (x − c)) or y = a + b cos (k (x − c)) is
[− |b| + a, |b| + a]. So, it is affected by a and b.
3. Amplitude: The amplitude of y = a+b sin (k (x − c)) or y = a+b cos (k (x − c))
is |b|. So, it is affected by b.
4. Phase shift: The phase shift of y = a + b sin (k (x − c)) or y = a +
b cos (k (x − c)) c. It is only affected by c.

We illustrate this by first looking at examples which involve only one of

the above transformations at a time. We then look at more general examples
involving several transformations.
 π
Example 6 Find the period, amplitude, range and phase shift of y = sin x − .
2
Describe how its graph can be obtained from the graph of y = sin x then sketch
its graph.
π
There is only one transformation involved here: x → x − . Using the notation
2
π
of the explanation above, c = , a = 0, b = k = 1. Thus, the phase shift is
2
π
, the period is unchanged and is 2π, the range is unchanged and is [−1, 1],
2
the amplitude is unchanged and is 1. This function is obtained byshifting the
π π
graph of y = sin x units to the right. The graphs of sin x and sin x − are
2  2
π
shown below. y = sin x is in black, y = sin x − is in blue.
2

11
Example 7 Find the period, amplitude, range and phase shift of y = sin 2x.
Describe how its graph can be obtained from the graph of y = sin x then sketch
its graph.
There is only one transformation which is x → 2x. This is a horizontal shrink-
ing. To use the notation of the explanations above, we have a = c = 0, b = 1
2π
and k = 2. Therefore, the period will be = π. The other quantities will
2
remain unchanged. The range is still [1, 1], the amplitude is still 1, the phase
shift is 0. The graphs of sin x and sin (2x) are shown below. y = sin x is in
black, y = sin (2x) is in blue.

Example 8 Find the period, amplitude, range and phase shift of y = 3 cos x.
Describe how its graph can be obtained from the graph of y = cos x then sketch
its graph.
Using the notation above, we have a = c = 0, k = 1 and b = 3. Therefore,
the period is unchanged and is 2π, the phase shift is 0, the range is [−3, 3] and
the amplitude is 3. The graph is obtained by stretching the graph of cos x by a
factor of 3. The graphs of cos x and 3 cos x are shown below. y = cos x is in
black, y = 3 cos x is in blue.

12
Example 9 Find the period, amplitude, range and phase shift of y = 4 + cos x.
Describe how its graph can be obtained from the graph of y = cos x then sketch
its graph.
Using the notation above, we have a = 4, c = 0, k = 1 and b = 1. There-
fore, the period is unchanged and is 2π, the phase shift is 0, the range is
[−1 + 4, 1 + 4] = [3, 5] and the amplitude is 1. The graph is obtained by shifting
the graph of cos x 4 units up. The graphs of cos x and 4 + cos x are shown below.
y = cos x is in black, y = 4 + cos x is in blue.

Example 10 Find the period, amplitude, range and phase shift of y = 3 sin (x − π).
Describe how its graph can be obtained from the graph of y = sin x then sketch

13
its graph.
Using the notation of the explanations above, we have a = 0, b = 3, k = 1
and c = π. Therefore, the phase shift is π, the period is unchanged and is 2π.
The range is [−3, 3] and the amplitude is 3. The graph of y = 3 sin (x − π) is
obtained by shifting the graph of y = sin x π units to the right, then stretching
it vertically by a factor of 3. The graphs of sin x and 3 sin (x − π) are shown
below. y = sin x is in black, y = 3 sin (x − π) is in blue.

Example 11 Find the period, amplitude, range and phase shift of y = 2 +

3 sin (2 (x − π)). Describe how its graph can be obtained from the graph of
y = sin x then sketch its graph.
Using the notation of the explanations above, we have a = 2, b = 3, k = 2,
2π
and c = π. Therefore, the period of this function is = π. The range is
2
[−3 + 2, 3 + 2] = [−1, 5]. The amplitude is 3. The phase shift is π. The graph
of y = 2 + 3 sin (2 (x − π)) is obtained by shifting the graph of y = sin x π units
to the right, shrinking it horizontally by a factor of 2, stretching it vertically by a
factor of 3 and shifting it up 3 units. The graphs of sin x and 2+3 sin (2 (x − π))
are shown below. y = sin x is in black, y = 2 + 3 sin (2 (x − π)) is in blue.

14
3 Problems
The above explanations can also be found in your book in sections 5.5 and 5.6.
The reader should be careful though as the notation used in the book is slightly
different. The notation used in the notes is consistent with the notation of the
various applets which can be used to illustrate the topics explained. The reader
should be able to do the following problems:

1. From section 5.5, # 43, 44, 45, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54 on pages 480, 481.
2. From section 5.6, # 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24 on page 497.

15