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” TED

CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction to CAD / CAM

1.1. Computer Basics for CAD/CAM

Computer Hardware and Software

A computer is made up of two components namely hardware and software.

Hardware is defined as the physical parts of a computer. Software is defined as
the instructions given to the hardware in the form of programs. A combination of
hardware and software, known as configuration, suitable for the benefit of the
user must be chosen. Today most computers come in a standard configuration
that can be modified per individual requirements. CADCAM systems require
advanced configurations in view of their demanding applications. A brief outline
of the requirements is given below.

I. Hardware
Hardware in a computer is composed of central processing unit, input
devices and output devices.

Central Processing Unit CPU

The standard components included are:
a. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) that performs the basic addition and
subtraction in the computer. This is usually an IC chip like the Pentium IV.
This is the heart of any computer and all other components are built
around this. A co-processor or math processor is added to enhance
performance. The higher the speed of the processor the better the
computer performs. Advanced CAD systems run at 1.5GHz (Gigahertz).
b. Memory is the data storage available in the system. This may be classified
as fixed (hard drive) and removable (floppy, CD-ROM, memory stick and zip
drive). Today computers have a lot more storage capacity as compared to
even ten years ago. The important point to be considered in memory is the
speed and reliability of data storage and retrieval. Another classification of

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memory is RAM (random access memory) and ROM (read only memory).
CAD systems require 40 Gigabytes or more of memory to store the
multitude of designs produced. They also need 256MB or higher RAM to
ensure smooth working. Many design libraries are available on CD-ROM.
c. Video and graphics card is used for controlling video output devices. This
defines the quality of output. This forms one of the key aspects of a CAD
system as the variety of colors and the depth of detail are increased by an
advanced video and graphics card.
d. Multi-media card used to control media devices such as speakers, etc.
These are useful in viewing on-line presentations. Virtual catwalks are a
result of the progress made in multi-media.
e. Network cards and modems to connect with a network or a telephone
line. These are used for data transfer between systems, Internet, users, etc.
f. Connection ports enable input and output devices to be connected.
Currently USB (Universal Serial Board) ports are standard equipment that
allows a variety of devices to be attached to a computer.

Input devices
Input devices are used to add or create data for the computer. They consist
of
A. Keyboard – a standard input device for text commands. It looks similar to
a typewriter keyboard and may also contain special keys (Example F1 is
the help key). In CAD systems special keys may do unique tasks.
B. Mouse - a standard cursor control device for selecting, moving, copying
and other functions. Usually it has two or three buttons and clicking these
buttons displays menus through which a variety of actions can be
performed.
C. Joystick – an optional cursor control device whose function is similar to
the mouse. It is primarily used for game controls.
D. Scanner – is used to input artwork and drawings. These may be of
monochrome or color. High resolution, true-color scanners are widely used
in textile industry.

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E. Digitizer – is similar to scanner but has a capacity to input from figures

also.
F. Digital cameras – are the latest input devices. They act like a camera and
capture the image in a digital format that may be directly input to a
computer.

Output devices
These are used to output data or results in a suitable format on a suitable
media. These consist of
1. Monitor – or video display unit is the standard output device provided for
each computer. At times separate monitors may be used for text and
graphics. Its details are controlled by the video / graphics card. Nowadays
a 15” color monitor is standard equipment. However for designers a 17” or
19” or even a 21” monitor will be more useful. Monitors display figures and
text as input from the various devices used.
2. Printers – One of the most widely used devices for hardcopy output. These
are of three basic type’s viz. dot matrix, jet and laser. Dot-matrix printers
were the first printers introduced and works similar to the typewriter. Jet
printers are widely used for color printing. Laser printers give high quality
prints but are costly. Nowadays printing directly on fabric is also possible.
3. Plotters – are used output onto media whose width cannot be
accommodated on printers. Generally markers for cutting and engineering
drawings are plotted. They also have a range of colors.
Note- Printers and plotters may be shared between several computers and
are also called shared peripherals. Printers and plotters can print on
media such as paper, acetate, etc. to suit the purpose of application.
4. Others – Output may also be given directly to numerically controlled
machines by means of communication links or through data carriers such
as tapes and discs.
Note: Plug and play is one of the modern features of many components. This
allows a component to be attached and immediately the system recognizes
and configures the device for use.

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II. Software
Software is of two types’ viz. system software and application software.
System software is the set of basic instructions for the functioning of the
computer. Usually the system manufacturer deals with this and the normal user
need not worry about this. This is also known as the operating system. Some of
the basic types are MS-DOS, Windows and UNIX. Each of these systems has its
own way of interacting with the user. Now most personal computers use
Windows.
Application software is software designed for a particular purpose. These
are again of a general nature and a customized nature. General nature software
is available to everyone for example MS-Word, Excel, etc. Banks on the other
hand would use customized software to suit their business practices. In
designing, several packages are available such as CorelDraw, MS-paint,
Photoshop and AutoCAD. These are general software while software from
specialist companies such as Gerber would be customized.
Software may also be designed in-house to suit individual applications.
This is done using computer languages like BASIC, COBOL, C++, etc. Specialist
software engineers are employed for this purpose.

1.2 History of CADCAM

Computer Aided Design was pioneered in the fields of aerospace and
defense. The driving forces were the high cost of samples/models, destructive
nature of tests and imminent fatality of operators in case of failures. For
example: An airplane model costs about 100,000 Birr and to simply crash many
such models to determine safety levels is not economical. Further the prohibitive
cost of computers and the scarcity of user-friendly software also restricted CAD
to these two sectors. The success in the aerospace and defense sectors promoted
the use of CAD in the automobile industry. CAD is extensively employed not only
to bring forth new exterior model designs but more efficient and aerodynamic
designs as well. With the advent of the personal computer and user-friendly
software CAD has found new applications in the fields of architecture, civil

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engineering, mechanical engineering and textiles and clothing. The recent

advancements in computers have made CAD a common place tool.
Computer Aided Manufacturing was first introduced as numerically
controlled (NC) machines. These machines produced a single or one type of part
for which the specifications were set and could be fed in the form of numbers.
When computers were employed to feed the data, a new generation of machines
computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines was born. These machines
although having the ability to produce complex parts were not flexible. On a
parallel note, developments were also made in the field of robotics. The main aim
being the duplication of human acts, a very daunting task indeed. Although
success has been minimal, it is astounding. The combination of CNC and
robotics has produced flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) that can vary their
products on the run. FMS are used widely in the automobile industry where a
variety of models have to be produced using the same machinery line.
The use of CAD/CAM systems in clothing began only in the early 1970s:
the first applications were used to design 'lay plans' - templates showing how
pattern pieces will be cut out of cloth, minimizing the amount of waste material
that inevitably occurs. This application grew as direct links were made from the
lay planning computer terminals to automatic cutting machines. Two companies
- Gerber from the USA and Lectra from France- pioneered these first lay planning
systems. Inevitably (because they were designed before the days of the PC) they
were based on gigantic computer technology and were large and expensive. Since
the clothing industry was at that time geared to large production runs many
companies could justify the cost of lay planning systems on the basis of reduced
fabric costs and the ability to repeat and modify existing cutting plans (or
'markers').
As the use of computer systems increased a second range of functions was
added to the basic lay planning capability - the making of all the different sizes of
a garment, a process known as 'grading'. The companies that installed this
technology were almost exclusively the larger manufacturers.
Systems for the control of knitting and weaving machinery were developed
and these too were installed in the larger companies. The majority were created
by the machinery manufacturers and the software they offered mixed the

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practical elements of machine control and the aesthetic representation of design.

They were generally complex to use and were frequently operated by competent
technicians who interpreted designers' ideas. Justification for their use centered
on the simplicity of transfer of design into fabric combined with the ability to
make changes throughout the design process. This operating method is still
common place but there is now a trend towards 'designer technicians', people
who understand both technology and aesthetics.
Designers in the clothing and textiles industry were slow to appreciate the
power and sophistication of computer graphics systems. The first commercial
applications in fashion began in the late 1980 s with the use of the CDI system by
Courtaulds and by Coats Viyella. This is somewhat surprising as computer-aided
manufacturing systems had been widely used since the early 1970s but it is
indicative of the division between design and production in so many companies.
The CDI system cost over £100 000 and included options for pseudo-3D design
and for textile design (knit and weaves). It was specifically geared to the clothing
market and had many of the features required by this industry and not by
others. Its primary use was in scanning information (existing artwork,
photographs or textiles) and modifying images to create new versions. The system
was rarely used for original design creation and many considered the functions it
offered both inflexible and cumbersome.
More recently there has been a number of software packages aimed at the
graphic design market. Many of these appeal to the clothing and textiles designer
too.
Due to the relatively low cost of PCs, the number of businesses that can
afford CAD/CAM has expanded and its use can be seen in all sizes of company
from the one-person design studio to the multi-site corporation. In recent years
the traditional functions of machinery control, marker making and grading have
all been rewritten to function on smaller computers and novel design functions
for patterns and textiles have been added. The use of personal computer
technology has meant that other functions like the creation of documentation,
labels and packaging can all be performed on a single terminal, often by a single
user.

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Since the late 1980s rapid progress has been made by users and many
businesses now rely heavily on computer-aided design tools. CAD/CAM suppliers
have responded to the enthusiasm generated in the market and have been
steadily refining their products bringing out more and more functions designed
specifically for the fashion market.

1.3 Features and Advantages of CAD

Computer-Aided Design (CAD): The design activities, including drafting and

illustrating, in which data processing systems are used to carry out functions
such as designing or improving a part or a product. Computer-aided design
programs may provide precise dimensioning and positioning of each graphic
element for engineering and manufacturing purposes.
CAD is a design process using sophisticated computer graphics techniques
backed up with computer software packages to aid in the analytical,
development, costing and ergonomic problems associated with design work.

Advantages of CAD
a. Faster rate of producing drawings (designs) – A designer can produce
designs about three times faster than with traditional methods. This
results in faster responses to customer / sales request.
b. Increased accuracy of designs – All design elements are accurately placed
and the facility of zoom allows small details to be seen clearly.
c. Neater designs – The absence of erasures results in neat designs. The
quality of line work is not dependant on the designer but on the printer /
plotter which is standardized.
d. No repetition of designs – Once a design or part design is completed, it
can be stored in the computer memory and recalled for later use. The
stored details may also be used as a part of a bigger design or for designing
other fixtures. Prior to CAD this would require a new drawing.
e. Special tools – Facilities such as zoom are part of CAD that are not
available in traditional methods.

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f. Quicker analysis and calculations – Modern software allow analysis and

calculations to be done in a fraction of the time taken earlier.
g. Superior design form – Features such as finite element analysis and 3D
modeling give the designer freedom to be more innovative in his work.
h. Less development cost – Computer simulation reduces time and cost of
prototype manufacture and testing, usually a major bottleneck in the
design process.
i. Integration with other systems – CAD can be integrated with other IT
systems to form a well-informed company that can respond readily to the
ever-changing market.

1.4 Features and Advantages of CAM

CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) is defined as any automatic

manufacturing process that is controlled by computers. The chief elements of
CAM are;
 CNC manufacturing and programming techniques.
 Computer controlled robotics manufacture and assembly.
 Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS).
 Computer aided inspection (CAI) techniques and
 Computer aided testing (CAT) techniques.

CNC manufacturing and programming techniques

The abbreviation CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control, and refers
specifically to a computer "controller" that reads G-code (computer programming
code) instructions and drives the machine tool.

CNC was developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by the MIT
Servomechanisms Laboratory. CNC was preceded by NC (Numerically Controlled)
machines, which did the same job of interpreting G-code recorded on Punched
tape into motions of the machine using electronic hardware. The first CNC

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systems used NC hardware, and the computer was used for the tool
compensation calculations and sometimes for editing.

Fig.1 CNC machine Fig.2. Punched tape

Punched tape continued to be used as a medium for transferring G-codes into

the controller for many decades after 1950, until it was eventually superseded by
RS232 cables, floppy disks, and finally standard computer network cables. The
files containing the G-codes to be interpreted by the controller are still called
"tape files".

The introduction of CNC machines radically changed the manufacturing

industry. Curves are as easy to cut as straight lines, complex 3-D structures are
relatively easy to produce, and the number of machining steps that required
human action has been dramatically reduced.

With the increased automation of manufacturing processes with CNC machining,

considerable improvements in consistency and quality have been achieved. CNC
automation reduced the frequency of errors and provided CNC operators with
time to perform additional tasks. CNC automation also allows for more flexibility
in the way parts are held in the manufacturing process and the time required
changing the machine to produce different components.

In a production environment, a series of CNC machines may be combined into

one station, commonly called a "cell", to progressively machine a part requiring
several operations. CNC machines today are controlled directly from files created
by CAM software packages, so that a part or assembly can go directly from
design to manufacturing without the need of producing a drafted paper drawing

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of the manufactured component. In a sense, the CNC machines represent a

special segment of industrial robot systems, as they are programmable to
perform many kinds of machining operations (within their designed physical
limits, like other robotic systems).

Flexible manufacturing system (FMS)

A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which

there is some amount of flexibility which allows the system to react in the case of
changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. This flexibility is generally considered
to fall into two categories, within which are numerous other subcategories.

The first category, machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be changed
to produce new product types, and ability to change the order of operations
executed on a part.

The second category of flexibility within an FMS is called routing flexibility,

which consists of the ability to use multiple machines to perform the same
operation on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb large-scale changes,
such as in volume, capacity, or capability.

We will see the details of Computer-Aided Testing (CAT) & computer –Aided
inspection (CAI) in chapter 3:

Advantages of CAM
1. Higher production with lesser workforce.
2. Reduced human errors and more reliable.
3. Increased versatility of manufactured form.
4. Cost savings due to increased efficiency and reduced wastage.
5. Repeatability of product from stored data.
6. Superior product.

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1.5 CAD/CAM as a process

CADCAM is the integration of CAD and CAM systems. This involves the
elimination of a physical data carrier (tapes, discs, etc.) and creates direct
links from design to manufacture. The advent of modern communication systems
(ISDN, E-mail, video conferencing, etc.) has made CADCAM possible. For
example: A designer in New York can interact with a manufacturer in Addis
Ababa to produce a product for a customer in Hong Kong. Today we are dealing
with a global market and CADCAM is the key to survive and succeed in it. A
complete integration of CADCAM in all aspects of business is known as CIM
(Computer Integrated Manufacturing).
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM): Manufacturing in which all
activities are integrated into a computer-based planning, management, and
control system. CIM includes the technologies of computer-aided design,
computer-aided planning, computer-aided manufacturing, computer-aided
quality assurance, and the sharing of information among them.
Factors In System Selection
When textile and clothing manufacturers are faced with choosing a system, the
most important factors are:
1. Advanced and tested technology.
2. System reliability.
3. A good maintenance and software update facility, plus a reasonable
guarantee that the supplier will be in business for at least as long as the
projected period for system renewal.
4. The chosen system must be easy to use and be simple to learn

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CHAPTER TWO

2. 2D and 3D Computer Graphic Concepts

Computer graphics deals with the subject of depicting figures and
diagrams on the computer. Figures may be classified as 2D (two dimensional) or
3D (three dimensional) based on the number of dimensions used to portray them.
Although we deal with 3D objects, showing the same on the computer is difficult
as the monitor is in 2D. However modern computers are able to do 3D modeling
in a realistic manner.
2.1 The Coordinate System
The coordinate system is a method of locating points in the drawing area. It
enables you to locate points by specifying distances from a fixed reference point.
You can locate a point by giving its distance in the horizontal direction, vertical
direction, measuring along an angle, etc.

The coordinate system is available when a function requires data input in the
form of point locations. You may use it while drawing, editing or any time you
need to locate a point. The most common coordinate systems are as follows:

 Cartesian coordinates
 Polar coordinates

Note: The method of entering coordinates varies from one program to another.
For example, in AutoCAD, the coordinates can be entered directly in the
command window with the keyboard. In MicroStation and Cadkey, special dialog
boxes let you enter the coordinates.

Cartesian Coordinates
Cartesian coordinates is a rectangular system of measurement that enables you
to locate points with the help of horizontal and vertical coordinates. The
horizontal values, called X-coordinates, are measured along the X-axis. The
vertical values, called Y-coordinates, are measured along the Y-axis. The
intersection of the X- and Y-axes is called the origin point, which represents the
(0, 0) location of the coordinate system.

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The positive X values are measured to the right and the positive Y values are
measured above the origin point. The negative X and Y values are measured to
the left and below. To enter a coordinate, you need to enter both the X and Y
values separated by a comma (X, Y).

Example: To locate a point two units to the right and one unit above the origin
point, enter X = 2, Y = 1 or (2, 1). Similarly, to locate a point two units to the left
and one unit below, you need to enter X = -2, Y = -1 or (-2, -1). You can use
fractions as needed to enter the exact coordinate values.

The Format to Enter Coordinates

Cartesian or polar coordinate values can be entered in two formats:

 Absolute  Relative

Absolute format is a way of measuring distances from a fixed reference

location (origin point), which is the (0, 0) location of the coordinate system.
Consider this point to be stationary at all times. In some CAD programs this
point remains visible at the left bottom corner of the drawing area, while in
others it is invisible. You can use this point as a reference to measure any
distance in the drawing. Absolute coordinates are primarily used to adjust the
alignment of diagrams in a drawing, to align one drawing with another or to
make plotting adjustments.

Imagine your screen is like a piece of graph

paper and all your co-ordinates are taken
from one datum base point, the lower left
corner, X0,Y0. A co-ordinate position
specified from the keyboard will be taken
relative to this X0, Y0 position.

For instance, point A shown is 20 units in

the X axis and 20 units in the Y axis from

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datum (0, 0) whilst point B shown is 70 units along the X axis and 50 units along
the Y axis

Relative format is a way of measuring distances from the last point entered.
Relative co-ordinates are used in order to avoid frequent reference to the origin.
All measurements are taken the same way as the absolute co-ordinates, with the
only difference being that the relative coordinates are measured from the last
point entered instead of the origin point. When a point is entered, it becomes the
reference for entering the next point and so on. For example: the distance from
Bahir Dar to Mekele may be taken as a straight line or from Bahir Dar to Addis
and from Addis to Mekele. In the latter case Addis becomes the new origin while
calculating the distance to Mekele. This mode of measurement is frequently used
for drawing because it is always convenient to place the drawing components
relative to each other rather than a fixed reference point.

Application of 2D systems is varied right from calculating distances to

determining size of components. All this is possible by selecting a suitable for the
drawing.
Note: Each CAD program uses its own annotations to enter absolute or relative
coordinates.
Polar Coordinates

Polar coordinates allow you to define a point by specifying the distance and the
direction from a given point. This mode of measurement is quite helpful in
working with angles. To draw a line at an angle, you need to specify how long a
line you want to draw and specify the angle.

In order to inform AutoCAD that you wish to use a relative co-ordinate entry, you
must type the @ symbol prior to your next co-ordinate position.

The format is: @distance < angle

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For instance: @30<280 where: @ Relative to current position 30 - Specifies Polar

Distance 280 - Angle in Degrees. This would result in a line 30 units long at an
angle of 280 degrees.

2.2. 3D Representations
3D uses three axes namely the X, Y and Z-axes. In this case an object is
thought of as being encased in a transparent cube and the cube rotated to view
the object from different perspectives. The computer shows the different views
although in its internal memory the object is contained in the transparent cube
that forms a part of the computer’s cubic world. Identification of a point is
possible by giving the three co-ordinates with respect to an origin. For example, if
we consider one corner of a room to be the origin, to locate a light bulb we can
give the distance from the origin in terms of the length, width and height and the
light bulb us accurately defined. A computer would show the position in terms of
views, a plan view (the view from the top), a front view and a side view. With
practice and experience we can convert these views into 3D in our mind.
Modifications and calculations involve complex and multiple calculations that are
possible by modern computers. These computers have the capacity to rotate an
object in 3D so that we can view it from all sides as if it were real.
2.3. Textile Applications Of 2D And 3D Concepts
2D concepts find wide application in knitwear and textile design as well as
garment manufacture. A fabric can be thought of as being 2D because the
thickness is relatively minute compared to the other two dimensions. Hence
designs may be modeled using this concept. Further, modifications to patterns
used for garment manufacture can also be done based on this concept. 3D
concepts are coming into wider use for their utility in modeling garments, as they
would appear when worn. The possibility of viewing an object from several angles
is useful here. Earlier a 3D collection was made from 2D printouts and this was
not satisfactory.
A key point to be noted is that the concept gives us access to a model only.
A real life sample is needed to give a complete feel to the material under
consideration. This is because textiles are touched and felt and this adds

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character to the material. However some organizations have accepted these

concepts to the extent that they make buying decisions based on them.

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