RENEWABLE

POWER-TO-HYDROGEN
INNOVATION LANDSCAPE BRIEF
© IRENA 2019

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ISBN 978-92-9260-145-4

Citation: IRENA (2019), Innovation landscape brief: Renewable Power-to-Hydrogen, International Renewable
Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared by the Innovation team at IRENA with text authored by Francisco Boshell and Arina Anisie,
with additional contributions and support from Santosh Kamath, Harsh Kanani and Rajesh Singla (KPMG India).

Valuable external review was provided by Bart Biebuyck (Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – FCH JU),
Tim Karlsson (International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy – IPHE), Jesper Kansbod
(Hybrit), Serge Fossati (Viking Cruises), Marcus Newborough (ITM Power), Yasuhiro Hattori (Energy Agency
Fukushima), Wouter Vanhoudt and Thomas Winkel (Hinicio), along with Raul Miranda, Elena Ocenic,
Nina Litman-Roventa and Paul Komor (IRENA).

Report available online: www.irena.org/publications

For questions or to provide feedback: [email protected]

DISCLAIMER
This publication and the material herein are provided “as is”. All reasonable precautions have been taken by IRENA to verify
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party content providers provides a warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied, and they accept no responsibility or
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The information contained herein does not necessarily represent the views of all Members of IRENA. The mention of
specific companies or certain projects or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by IRENA in
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Photographs are from Shutterstock unless otherwise indicated.

This document does not represent the official position of IRENA on any particular topic. Rather, it is intended as a contribution
to technical discussions on the promotion of renewable energy.
www.irena.org

1 BENEFITS
 

Converting variable renewable energy (VRE) sources to hydrogen via electrolysis can contribute to power
sector transformation in several ways:
Reducing VRE curtailment

Long-term energy storage

Providing grid-balancing services

via the electrolyser

Using clean H2 as fuel in other sectors

Power generation Electrolyser Hydrogen
Transporting renewable power
over long distances as H2

2 KEY ENABLING FACTORS 3 SNAPSHOT

Reducing production costs ➜ 4% of global hydrogen supply is produced
via electrolysis (with the rest being fossil fuel-based)
Improving revenue-stream opportunities ➜ P2H2 projects are located in Australia, Austria,
Canada, Chile, Denmark, France, Germany, Japan
and the United Kingdom
Developing hydrogen infrastructure
➜ In 2017, Enel built a micro grid in Chile
with a 450 kWh P2H2 storage system
Implementing supportive hydrogen policies
➜ T he European Marine Energy Centre installed
P2H2 storage for excess tidal and wave energy in
Developing safety-related regulations
Scotland (UK)

WHAT IS POWER-TO-HYDROGEN ?
Hydrogen can be produced by electrolysis, a process that uses electricity to
split water into hydrogen and oxygen. When renewable power is used for this process,
hydrogen becomes a complementary carrier of renewable energy.

RENEWABLE POWER-TO-HYDROGEN
Hydrogen produced with excess solar PV and wind power can be stored for later use – as a
fuel for transport, industry and other sectors. Hydrogen production can be used as a ‘smart’
3
load to increase power system flexibility and help to decarbonise the overall economy.
 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

ABOUT THIS BRIEF

T his brief is part of the IRENA project “Innovation

landscape for a renewable-powered future”,
which maps the relevant innovations, identifies the
to create actual solutions. Solutions to drive the
uptake of solar and wind power span four broad
dimensions of innovation: enabling technologies,
synergies and formulates solutions for integrating business models, market design and system
high shares of variable renewable energy (VRE) operation.
into power systems.
Along with the synthesis report, the project
The synthesis report, Innovation landscape for a includes a series of briefs, each covering one of
renewable-powered future: Solutions to integrate 30 key innovations identified across those four
variable renewables (IRENA, 2019), illustrates the dimensions. The 30 innovations are listed in the
need for synergies among different innovations figure below.

INNOVATION DIMENSIONS

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES BUSINESS MODELS MARKET DESIGN SYSTEM OPERATION

1 Utility scale batteries 12 Aggregators 17 Increasing time 25 Future role of distribution

2 Behind-the-meter 13 Peer-to-peer electricity granularity in electricity system operators
batteries trading markets 26 Co-operation between
14 Energy-as-a-service 18 Increasing space transmission and
3 Electric-vehicle
granularity in electricity distribution system
smart charging 15 Community-ownership
markets operators
4 Renewable models 19 Innovative ancillary
power-to-heat 16 Pay-as-you-go models 27 Advanced forecasting
services
5 Renewable 20 Re-designing capacity of variable renewable
power-to-hydrogen power generation
markets
21 Regional markets 28 Innovative operation
6 Internet of Things of pumped hydropower
7 Artificial intelligence 22 storage
and big data
23 Market integration
8 Blockchain of distributed energy 29 Virtual power lines
30 Dynamic line rating
9 Renewable mini-grids resources
10 Supergrids 24 Net billing schemes

11 Flexibility in conventional
power plants

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 R E N E WA B L E P OW E R-TO - H Y D R O G E N

This brief provides an overview of the concept 

of power-to-hydrogen (P2H₂) and its role in The brief is structured as follows:
increasing the share of renewable energy in the
power sector. P2H₂ can provide grid balancing I Description
services and long-term storage to manage the
variation in power supply from wind and solar II Contribution to power sector transformation
photovoltaic (PV) technologies. P2H₂ can also
enable the use of clean hydrogen, produced III Key factors to enable deployment
from renewable energy sources, as feedstock
in industrial processes and thereby help IV Current status and examples of ongoing
decarbonise other sectors. This brief focuses on initiatives
the production of hydrogen as a provider of grid
balancing services, as well as its use as a carrier V Implementation requirements: Checklist
and storage medium. 

For a more in-depth study of hydrogen technology

status and development, and its applications
in end-use sectors, please refer to the IRENA
Technology Outlook: “Hydrogen from renewable
power” (IRENA, 2018a).

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

I. DESCRIPTION

T he hydrogen industry is well-established and

has decades of experience in industrial sectors
that use hydrogen as a feedstock. Hydrogen can
electrolysis, i.e. renewable power-to-hydrogen,
an approach regaining attention especially in
power systems with high shares of VRE. IRENA
be produced via several processes, such as steam analysis indicates that hydrogen production
methane reforming (SMR), coal gasification, with renewable electricity should reach 19 EJ
renewable liquid reforming (using ethanol) and in 2050, in order to achieve the global energy
electrolysis. This brief focuses on hydrogen transformation and decarbonisation targets
produced from renewable electricity through (IRENA, 2019b).

Figure 1: Growth in hydrogen production with renewable electricity in Paris Agreement-aligned scenario

2030 2040 2050

H H H

3 EJ 8 EJ 19 EJ

Source: IRENA, 2019b

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 R E N E WA B L E P OW E R-TO - H Y D R O G E N

Table 1 Brief description of electrolysers

Type of electrolyser

Alkaline PEM SOE

Development Commercial Commercial, small- and Undergoing research
status medium-scale applications
(< 300 kW)
Brief description • Transport of hydroxide ion • Water reacts at the anode to • Water at the cathode
through electrolyte form oxygen and hydrogen combines with electrons
ions (protons) from the external circuit
• Hydrogen generated at
to form hydrogen gas and
cathode • Electrons flow through an
negatively charged oxygen
external circuit and hydrogen
• A liquid alkaline solution ions
ions selectively move across
of sodium or potassium
the PEM to the cathode • The oxygen ions pass
hydroxide used as electrolyte
through the solid ceramic
• Electrolyte is a solid
membrane and react at the
speciality plastic material
anode to form oxygen gas
and generate electrons for
the external circuit
• A solid ceramic material used
as the electrolyte
Operating 100–150 °C 70–90 °C 700–800 °C
temperature
Note: kW = kilowatt.
Sources: Bertuccioli et al., 2014; Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, 2018.

An electrolyser is a device that splits water into as a source of feedstock for industry (Figure 2).
hydrogen and oxygen using electricity. When An important distinction between hydrogen and
electricity produced from renewable energy other forms of energy storage is that hydrogen
sources is used in this process, the hydrogen can be stored and transported through the
becomes a carrier of renewable energy, existing natural gas network. Little investment
complementary to electricity. As described is needed to adapt natural gas infrastructure to
in Table 1, there are three main types of transport hydrogen. Blending hydrogen with other
electrolyser: an alkaline electrolyser; a proton gases means that pure hydrogen is no longer
exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyser; and a available for direct use in different applications,
solid oxide electrolyser (SOE). e.g. fuel cell vehicles. Extracting pure hydrogen
from blended gas is possible, but it is expensive
Hydrogen produced during the process of and complicated, so there is an economic trade-
electrolysis can be used as a medium for energy off to be made between the various hydrogen
storage and for applications such as producing applications.
heat for buildings, refuelling fuel cell vehicles and

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

Figure 2: Concept of P2H₂ and the end-use applications of hydrogen

ELECTRICITY

Aviation

By-product Biomass- Imported Re-

based hydrogen electrification
hydrogen (Power-to-Power)

Heavy-duty
POWER BUILDINGS

CO 2 (CC) TRANSPORT Fuel-cell

electric
Electrolyser vehicles
Renewable
electricity INDUSTRY

Storage Methanation Blending Fuel-cell

(salt caverns, trains
storage tanks)
High-grade Industry
heat feedstock
(>650oC)
Grid Gas grid Shipping

Source: IRENA, 2018a

As Figure 2 illustrates, hydrogen contributes to Well-defined safety standards, appropriate

“sector coupling” – on the one hand between ventilation and leak detection are required to
the power system and on the other between the ensure safe operations with hydrogen. It is a
industrial, buildings and transport sectors. Sector highly flammable gas 1 and can burn at a wide
coupling creates extra loads that represent range of concentrations. These standards already
new markets for hydrogen produced from VRE exist for various industrial applications, but they
sources, furthering the integration of high shares may need to be streamlined considering emerging
of VRE in the power system. new applications of hydrogen, for example as a
fuel for cars.

1 The US National Fire Protection Association gives hydrogen a 4, the highest flammability rating, denoting materials “that completely vaporise at normal
pressure and temperature and burn readily”.

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 R E N E WA B L E P OW E R-TO - H Y D R O G E N

II. CONTRIBUTION TO POWER

SECTOR TRANSFORMATION

P roducing hydrogen from renewable power,

especially when there is excess renewable
electricity generation in the system, helps avoid
Reducing curtailment of excess
VRE generation

curtailment and thereby improves the return on At times that renewable energy cannot be fed
investment for VRE asset owners. into the power grid due to network constraints or
low demand, it could be supplied to electrolysers
Electrolysis can also enhance the reliability of for production of hydrogen via electrolysis.
power supply by providing flexibility services Procuring excess renewable energy (that is likely
when needed. With increasing penetration to be curtailed or sold at near zero marginal
of VRE resources such as solar PV and wind, prices) can significantly help improve the
large-scale storage solutions and grid stability economics of hydrogen production. Offtake of
management are becoming critical issues in excess renewable energy also enables VRE asset
system operation. owners to gain incremental revenues and reduces
their exposure to volatility in power prices.
Electrolysers can help integrate VRE into power
systems, as their electricity consumption can This option, however, requires great availability
be adjusted to follow wind and solar PV power of renewable power (especially at relatively
generation, where hydrogen becomes a medium low cost) to ensure a good load factor at the
of storage for renewable electricity. electrolysis facility. Low load factors yield a
high levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH), as the
Thus, electrolysers offer a flexible load and can CAPEX of the electrolyser, a key component of
also provide grid balancing services (upwards and the hydrogen cost, needs to be allocated to low
downwards frequency regulation). The hydrogen production volumes (IRENA, 2018a). Figure 3
produced can be further used in the industrial showcases different LCOH at current technology
and transport sectors and as a fuel, or it can be cost levels and in 2025 for an Alkaline electrolyser
stored and then converted back into electricity. connected to the Danish grid.
Moreover, stored hydrogen may enable the
efficient distribution of energy across regions, In Spain, for example, demonstration projects
facilitating VRE consumption in areas where VRE are using hydrogen for the municipal bus fleet on
generation is difficult or direct electrification of islands, which is cost-efficient thanks to cheap
an end-use energy application. electricity from solar PV combined with grants
for the buses, translating into breakeven costs
with the conventional buses (today already). In
Sweden, hydrogen is used to decarbonise the
steel industry with the goal of decarbonising
the industry by 2035. By 2030, it is estimated
that the share of VRE curtailment will be around
10–30% in Sweden, which provides more
incentives for renewable hydrogen 2.

2 Based on discussions during the IRENA Online workshop: Identifying challenges for achieving 100% renewable power systems by mid-century, June 2019.

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

Figure 3: Levelised cost of hydrogen (LCOH) produced via alkaline electrolyser in Denmark

ALK LCOH – GRID CONNECTED DENMARK

14.0

12.0
LCOH (USD/kg)

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

LOAD FACTOR

2017: Electricity mix DK 2025: Electricity mix DK Target Costs

Source: IRENA, 2018a

Providing long-term energy storage Council, 2017a). P2H₂ can therefore potentially
assist in shifting the supply of renewable energy
While intraday imbalances caused by VRE from seasons with low demand to seasons with
generation might be better managed with batteries high demand.
in economic terms, seasonal variations need long-
term storage solutions such as P2H₂ (Eichman and Currently, storing power in the form of hydrogen
Flores-Espino, 2016). Hydrogen can serve as a is not financially viable 3. Given that a main
long-term storage medium, with the capability of advantage of VRE-based hydrogen is that it
storing energy for several months. Table 2 below reduces carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, policy
provides a comparison of various energy storage measures that account for the cost of CO₂
technologies and their storage capability. emissions would improve the economic case for
hydrogen storage and its subsequent use for
Long-term storage options can help countries power generation. The economics are expected
with significant seasonal differences between to improve due to technological development.
power demand and renewable power generation For example, the Hydrogen Council expects the
to integrate more renewable power into the cost of power storage in the form of hydrogen
grid. For example, Germany’s energy demand is to fall to EUR 140 per megawatt hour (MWh) by
30% higher in winter than in summer. However, 2030 4, which is lower than the projected cost for
renewable energy sources generate around 50% pumped hydro storage (about EUR 400 per MWh)
less power in winter than in summer (Hydrogen (Hydrogen Council, 2017a).

3 Currently, the cost of emissions is generally not included while analysing the financial viability of any project. One of the methods to improve
the technology’s financial viability is to price in the emissions, while encouraging hydrogen storage for power generation and discouraging conventional
power generation.
4 The cost quoted is for power-to-hydrogen-to-power.

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 R E N E WA B L E P OW E R-TO - H Y D R O G E N

Table 2 Comparison of various energy storage technologies and their storage capability

Storage Typical storage Typical discharge Maturity of

Efficiency (%)
technology capacity time technology
Hydrogen energy
30–45% < 1 GW < 1 h–1 000+h Under RD&D
storage
Under R&D in
some regions and
commercialised in
Batteries 70–85% < 100 MW < 5 h
United States,
United Kingdom
and Australia
Compressed air
energy storage 45–70% < 10 MW 5–100 h RD&D
(CAES)
Flywheels 85–100% < 1 MW < 30 min R&D
Pumped hydro
70–85% 0.1–1 GW 10–500 h Commercialised
storage (PHS)

Note: GW = gigawatt; h = hour; min = minute; MW = megawatt; R&D = research and demonstration;
RD&D = research, development and demonstration.
Source: Adapted from California Hydrogen Council, 2015; NREL, 2014; IEA, 2014

Providing grid balancing services alkaline and PEM electrolyser technologies differs
when used to provide specific grid services. In
Frequent fluctuations in power generation general, alkaline electrolysers offer less flexibility
from variable sources call for rapid-response as compared to PEM electrolysers, as shown in
balancing options. The electrolyser systems used Table 3 below. Alkaline electrolysers are unlikely
to produce hydrogen can be cycled up and down to offer grid services with an activation time
rapidly as a flexible load, providing grid services of less than 30 seconds (Tractebel, ENGIE and
such as frequency regulation. The performance of Hinicio, 2017).

Table 3 Flexibility capability of electrolysers

Alkaline electrolyser PEM electrolyser

Load range 15–100% of nominal load 0–160% of nominal load

Start-up 1–10 minutes 1 second–5 minutes

Ramp-up 0.2–20% per second 100% per second

Ramp-down 0.2–20% per second 100% per second

Shutdown 1–10 minutes Seconds

Note: The ramp-up and ramp-down figures are percentage of nominal load.

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

Experimental analysis done by the US National A load simulator was used to generate harmonics
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) on the grid (green line on Figure 4), which
demonstrates the use of electrolyser technology reduces the frequency below the lower limit
for utility-scale grid stabilisation services. The of 59.8 Hz. A control signal is generated when
experiment shows that electrolysers can rapidly the frequency reaches a defined point, and
change their load point in response to grid needs that signal is transmitted to the electrolysers
and at the same time accelerate recovery in case to reduce power consumption. The red and
of frequency deviation (Gardiner, 2014). Figure 4 blue lines in the graph show the response of
shows the result of the experiment conducted to the electrolysers (by reducing their power
maintain the frequency of the system at 60 Hz. consumption) once the frequency deviates by
0.2 Hz. The time taken for such response was
less than a second.

Figure 4: Use of electrolyser for fast frequency response

60.4

60.2

60.0

59.8
FREQUENCY(Hz)

59.6
Faster Recovery
59.4

59.2
Trigger at 0.2 Hz deviation
59.0

58.8

58.6

58.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

TIME (seconds)

Load Sim 0 to 10 kW, Alkaline at 40 kW

Load Sim 0 to 10 kW, Alkaline 40 to 30 kW, trig. 0.2 Hz
Load Sim 0 to 10 kW, PEM 40 to 30 kW, trig. 0.2 Hz

Note: Hz = hertz.
Source: Gardiner, 2014

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Supporting sector coupling strategies Hydrogen can be transported using a gas pipeline
by increasing the use of renewable network or vessels. Transporting renewable power
power in other sectors in the form of hydrogen over long distances
could be an economically attractive option in
Hydrogen can be used to couple renewable the long term, especially in those cases where
electricity with other energy use sectors as the electricity grid has insufficient capacity or
depicted in Figure 2. Some of the applications of where building new infrastructure would be too
hydrogen are listed below. impractical or expensive. This might be the case
for offshore wind generation, where hydrogen
• As feedstock: Hydrogen can be used as could be produced offshore and then transported
feedstock in the chemical industry. It is a key to the shore via natural gas pipelines, either
input to the production of ammonia, synthetic converting existing offshore pipelines or using
fuels and various types of fertiliser. It can also newly installed pipelines where the costs are
be used in the methanation process to produce lower than laying submarine cables.
methane from CO₂. Hydrogen is also used to
produce synthetic liquid fuels from biomass, Also, regions with abundant and cheap renewable
which increases the efficiency of biomass energy sources but not enough demand could
utilisation significantly. Hydrogen can also be produce hydrogen to be transported to regions with
used to replace fossil fuels and act as a reducing limited renewable generation but high demand.
agent in heavy industries such as steel. In Transport of renewable energy via hydrogen could
Sweden, for instance, the HYBRIT project aims be developed at different scales, from local to
to replace coking coal with hydrogen in the ore- international. The latter option is being investigated
based steelmaking process.5 in several countries that either have abundant
renewable energy potential (e.g. Australia) or
• As fuel: Hydrogen can be directly used as limited indigenous renewable energy potential,
a fuel in the transport sector or to provide such as Japan (IRENA, 2018a). Several pilots are
power using fuel cells. For example, Europe being conducted to find out the most cost-effective
hosts 95 hydrogen stations where a fuel cell or economical way to transport hydrogen over long
can be refuelled in three minutes for a range distances. One example is the Hydrogen Energy
of 500–800 kilometres (H₂ live, 2019). Another Supply Chain (HESC) pilot project being undertaken
way to use hydrogen as a fuel is to blend it with in Japan (Hydrogen Strategy Group, 2018).
natural gas in the existing natural gas pipelines.
Standards suggest blending up to 10% hydrogen Also, harnessing the high potential of solar energy
(by volume),6 with a potential to increase it to in equatorial countries, storing it in the form of
20% (Hydrogen Strategy Group, 2018) (NREL, hydrogen, and transporting it to regions with
2015) (IRENA, 2018a). However, the appropriate high energy demand, such as Europe,7 might be
blend may vary significantly between pipeline economical (Hydrogen Council, 2017a).
network systems and natural gas compositions
and must therefore be assessed on a case-by- Micro-grids and fuel cell applications
case basis (NREL, 2013; ARENA, 2018). The
current limit on hydrogen in gas turbines and Due to their modularity, fuel cells typically are
engines is 1–2%, which can be increased to 10– employed in decentralised applications, offering
15% with minor retrofitting (Maroufmashat and electricity grid support and black start capability
Fowler, 2017). for micro-grids (Steinberger-Wilckens et al., 2017;
Gardiner, 2014). In Japan, residential fuel cell
Enabling distribution of renewable systems are deployed to provide consumer grid
power across regions and globally independence. The government of Japan aims to
install 1.4 million residential co-generation fuel
Transporting energy in the form of hydrogen cell systems by 2020, and 5.3 million by 2030.
can allow renewable energy to be supplied to Currently, more than 220 000 residential fuel cells
regions with scarce renewable energy resources systems are installed in Japan (Bloomberg New
(Hydrogen Council, 2017a). Energy Finance, 2017; FCHEA, 2019).

5 The HYBRIT project is a joint venture of SSAB, LKAB and Vattenfall established in 2016. The project aims to drastically change the steelmaking process
with a goal to provide fossil-free steel by 2035.
6 For most infrastructure components (IRENA, 2018a).
7 Analysis by the Hydrogen Council assumes that renewable energy is harnessed at the highest potential of solar energy in equatorial countries and
transported to regions with high energy demand in the form of hydrogen. The report also assumes that the cost of solar power in the Netherlands is double
the production cost of solar in the sunbelt regions.

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

III. KEY FACTORS TO

ENABLE DEPLOYMENT

Reducing production costs and IRENA analysis shows that by 2050 hydrogen
improving revenue-stream has the potential to supply nearly 29 EJ of global
opportunities energy demand, two-thirds of which would come
from renewable sources (Figure 5).
Electrolysers have been long used in several
industries. They are regarded as a “mature” In the industrial sector, 14 EJ of renewable
technology for industrial applications. However, hydrogen would be consumed in 2050, largely
their potential in energy applications is still in the iron and steel subsectors, and also for
evolving (FCH JU, 2014). P2H₂ requires ammonia production.
performance improvement and cost reduction,
accompanied by unlocking and monetising the In the transport sector, hydrogen can be used
value streams from the use of the electrolysers in fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), mostly
and the hydrogen. for heavier freight transport but also for some
passenger transport. The transport sector would
A market for hydrogen needs to be established for be the second largest user of renewable hydrogen
P2H₂ to be deployed successfully. As discussed, (after the industry sector) at around 4 EJ per year
hydrogen can be used across many different by 2050.
sectors: transport, power sector, industrial
feedstock, and producing heat for residential as
well as industrial purposes.

Figure 5: Hydrogen supply in 2050 by source of production (EJ/yr)

19EJ/YR
TOTAL RENEWABLE HYDROGEN SUPPLY

10 Fossil-based

14 Industry, renewable 4 Transport, renewable

1 Buildings, renewable 0.1 Others, renewable

Source: IRENA, 2019b 0.1 Power, renewable

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In the buildings sector, hydrogen can be blended Hinicio, 2017). Electricity costs alone constitute a
with natural gas or combined to produce synthetic major part of the total cost of producing hydrogen
methane and injected in gas grids. The gas grid from electrolysis. Electricity’s contribution to the
in this scenario would function as an existing overall cost of hydrogen depends on the cost of
large-scale storage asset, accommodating electricity itself, the size of the installation, load
and distributing low cost renewable electricity hours and the location of the electrolyser. While
(IRENA, 2019b). the cost of electricity is on average 30% of the
total cost of producing hydrogen, in some cases
Upfront capital costs can be substantial in setting it may be as high as 60% (Ainscough, Peterson
up hydrogen infrastructure such as electrolysers, and Miller, 2014). The levelised cost of hydrogen
transport infrastructure and storage. These costs, (LCOH) (USD/ KgH₂) is directly proportional to
coupled with high tariffs for electricity (procured electrolyser load factors. The higher the load
from utilities, VRE generators or the wholesale factor, the lower would be the share if fixed cost
market), make hydrogen even more expensive and the higher is the share of electricity cost in the
to produce through electrolysis. Technology and LCOH. Therefore, lower electricity costs enhance
infrastructure costs must therefore be continually the cost effectiveness of electrolytic hydrogen,
reduced, while existing regulatory and market for example by using excess renewable power
frameworks must be adjusted or redesigned to that is expected to be curtailed or by placing
accommodate the potential of P2H₂. hydrogen electrolysis plants in locations with very
low renewable electricity costs.
The cost of producing hydrogen from electrolysis is
currently in the range of EUR 2.4–6.7 per kilogram IRENA analysis shows that hydrogen produced from
(kg) depending on geography and various electricity can be competitive if the price of electricity
operating parameters, compared to EUR 1.3–3.0 falls to below USD 30/MWh or if electrolyser costs
per kg via SMR process (Tractebel, ENGIE and decline significantly (IRENA, 2019b).

Figure 6: Levelised cost of hydrogen (USD/kgH₂)produced at different electricity prices (USD/GJ)

and electrolyser CAPEX (USD/kW

LCOH (USD/KG H2)

3.5
3.2
3.0 H2

2.5
2.3
Cost of production hydrogen
2.1
with fossil fuel technologies
2.0
without emitting CO2
(for instance using CCS),
1.5 considering a fuel cost
1.3
from 1.9 to 5.7 USD/GJ
1.0

0.5

0
20 40

LCOE ELECTRICITY (USD/MWH)

Capex 200 USD/kW Capex 1 000 USD/kW

Note: the analysis considers electrolyser running full load hours per year
Source: IRENA, 2019b

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

Since electricity is an important cost factor, Develop a hydrogen infrastructure

the trend of rapid reductions in the cost in
electricity from wind and solar PV technologies For P2H₂ to contribute to power sector
creates an important opportunity for hydrogen transformation, hydrogen-related infrastructure
production in locations with abundant solar and needs to be developed in such a way as to
wind resources. Policies related to managing promote the creation of a hydrogen ecosystem.
curtailment, remunerating seasonal balancing This would enable the sustained development of
capacity and taxation should be reassessed. all the necessary stages: production, transmission,
storage and consumption.
Policy makers should aim to provide a platform to
monetise the flexibility offered by electrolysers, One of the key challenges in the adoption of
while also allowing revenue stacking from all hydrogen fuel is the lack of cost-efficient storage
services provided by the electrolyser. This may lead options. Hydrogen storage is very expensive on a
to greater economic viability for electrolysers. For small scale and is currently unavailable for large-
instance, a study done for California shows that a scale use. Moreover, the transport of hydrogen
potential cost reduction of 21% could be achieved by means other than road or pipeline is still in the
for the production and delivery of electrolysed early phases of development. New ship designs
hydrogen if electrolysers were allowed to provide may be required to carry liquefied hydrogen
ancillary services to power systems, in addition to on sea routes – for example, new designs are
their participation in electricity markets (Figure 7) being built as part of the HESC pilot project in
(Eichman and Flores-Espino, 2016). Victoria (Hydrogen Strategy Group, 2018). Some
companies are in the process of developing
alternative means of hydrogen transport by
conveying it in a liquid carrier, such as Hydrosil by
HysiLabs, or developing a cartridge-based storage
solution for hydrogen, such as STOR-H by Aaqius.
Investment in research and development to create
mature storage solutions may enable the rapid
adoption of hydrogen for a variety of purposes.

Figure 7: Summary of cost impact on electrolytic hydrogen production in California

14.0
PRODUCTION AND DELIVERY COST ($/KG)

12.0 11.5 0.71

1.05
10.0 0.54
0.17
8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0
10.8 9.7 9.2 9.0
0
Baseload Flexible On-site Example Spinning
operation operation renewables + DR program reserve
LCFS provision

Breakdown production and delivery cost Current achievable redutions

Note: DR = demand response; LCFS = Low Carbon Fuel Standard.

Source: Eichman and Flores-Espino, 2016

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 R E N E WA B L E P OW E R-TO - H Y D R O G E N

Pursue supportive policies for In 2016 Noordelijke Innovation Board released

renewable hydrogen usage a document entitled “The green hydrogen
economy in the Northern Netherlands”, with a
Deployment of hydrogen infrastructure needs high-level road map for a hydrogen economy
a co-ordinated approach between various detailing hydrogen production projects, markets
stakeholders. Furthermore, many of the and various issues related to infrastructure and
investments in hydrogen infrastructure rely on a society (NIB, 2016).
relatively long time commitment of 10–20 years
for financial viability. Hence, a strategic road map More pilot studies would be useful to better
is required to mitigate the risks and realise the understand different technical and operational
benefits of hydrogen deployment. Governments challenges of P2H₂. Pilots 9 or demonstration
could consider adopting national/regional action projects should ideally focus on improving the
plans for the sector, with clear goals to stimulate conversion efficiency of power to hydrogen and
the deployment of a renewable hydrogen vice versa. Currently the conversion efficiency
infrastructure. of P2H₂ systems is in the range of 50–70%
(Energy Storage Association, 2018; IRENA,
To achieve rapid scale-up, a stable and supportive 2018a). Improving system efficiency will help
policy framework is needed to encourage the reduce the cost of hydrogen produced through
appropriate private investments. This is the electrolysis.
case across the entire supply chain (equipment,
manufactures, infrastructure operator, vehicle Develop and enforce regulations
manufacturers etc). In the transport sector, a holistic related to safety
approach is needed to drive the sector towards
a hydrogen-fuelled zero-emissions scenario, Hydrogen is a highly flammable gas. The US
taking into account all stakeholders: customers, federal government has already specified
car manufacturers, hydrogen producers and safety regulations for the handling and storage
transporters (supply trucks and ships), equipment of hydrogen. Some of these regulations
suppliers (e.g. electrolysers, liquefiers, storage should be reassessed to reflect technological
tank manufacturers) and infrastructure developers. advancement in decentralised hydrogen
Figure 8 summarises the key challenges facing storage, and while there are adequate safety
the hydrogen industry at every step of the value regulations regarding traditional uses of
chain, and proposes a set of policy measures to hydrogen, the lack of safety regulation for
overcome them (IRENA, 2018a). upcoming uses of hydrogen (such as cartridge-
based storage solutions for road vehicles) acts
Several countries are already developing road as a barrier to commercialisation.
maps to convert renewable energy to hydrogen
and use it in various applications. Chile, Australia, Pilot studies are needed to understand various
Uruguay and Argentina 8 aim to convert their issues related to hydrogen handling, especially
surplus renewable energy into hydrogen, and when existing infrastructure is retrofitted or
Japan aims to develop supply chains to import repurposed for use in hydrogen applications, such
hydrogen from these countries and use it for as converting natural gas pipelines to transport
various applications such as transport, industrial pure hydrogen, as is being currently considered
processes and power generation (IRENA, 2018a; in the Netherlands, Spain and in the United
Hydrogen Strategy Group, 2018; METI, 2017). Kingdom.

8 Chile and Australia aim to convert excess solar power into hydrogen, while Uruguay and Argentina aim to convert excess wind power into hydrogen.
9 For some countries pilots may still be needed, but given the number of pilots and demonstrations that have been done, some jurisdictions are looking at
going from the pilot/demonstration stage to commercial-scale projects. The Northern Netherlands is looking to put in 100–1 000 MW of renewable energy
sources to generate hydrogen for industry and transport applications while replacing the use of natural gas. Japan is building a port facility to import
liquefied hydrogen from Australia derived from brown coal, and from Brunei, for transport and energy uses.

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

Figure 8: Key challenges and overview of possible enabling measures for power-to-hydrogen

ELECTRICITY GREEN H2 CONDITIONING DISTRIBUTION END USE

SYSTEM PRODUCTION AND LOGISTICS

TRANSPORT
• Initial high costs and low
volume
Electricity prices • Investment and technology
risk perception
• Nedd for dedicated refuelling
infrastructure (HRS)
KEY CHALLENGES

INDUSTRY
• High green hydrogen price
vs. fossil-based hydrogen
• Hydrogen for high
temperature heat

than current fuels

NATURAL GAS GRID

• Hydrogen cost vs. natural gas
Technology scale-up • Blending limits (technical)

TRANSPORT
• Market pull regulations
(zero-emission zones, emission
standards, etc.)
Promote market uptake • Market push instruments
Facilitate access to low-cost
de-risking/insurance instruments (CAPEX subsidy, tax rebates, etc.)
renewable electricity
(“take or pay”) Infrastructure: Long-term
ENABLING MEASURES

supporting policy for hydrogen

giving visibility for industrial
actors, investment subsidies
for HRS

INDUSTRY
Partial exemptions of grid • Carbon pricing
charges, taxes and levies for • Sectorial mandates
electrolysers* (emission, RE content etc.)

NATURAL GAS GRID

• Feed-in tariff
• Carbon pricing
access to electrolysers • Harmonized blending limits

RECOGNISING HYDROGEN’S ROLE IN ENERGY TRANSITION

*Provided that they run in system beneficial mode

Source: IRENA, 2018a.

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 R E N E WA B L E P OW E R-TO - H Y D R O G E N

IV. CURRENT STATUS

AND EXAMPLES OF
ONGOING INITIATIVES

Key facts about the developments in power to hydrogen are presented in Table 4, followed by some
pilot projects.

Table 4 Key facts about power-to-hydrogen

Description Key facts

Share of hydrogen produced by 4% of the global hydrogen supply is produced via electrolysis
electrolysis (the rest is fossil fuel-based)¹
Cost of hydrogen production from • Cost of hydrogen production from electrolysis, through PEM,
electrolysis in 2017: EUR 6.7/kg of H₂; potential to drop to EUR 4.1/kg in 2025²
(PEM technology is better-suited to provide flexibility)
• PEM CAPEX cost is expected to decrease from EUR 1 200/kW (2017)
to EUR 700/kW (2025)¹
• Alkaline CAPEX cost is expected to decrease from EUR 750/kW (2017)
to EUR 480/kW (2025)¹
Cost of hydrogen infrastructure USD 8–10/kg (current estimates)
(including production, logistics for
USD 2–4/kg (expected in near future)¹
distribution)
Key countries with P2H₂ applications P2H₂ projects are located in (inter alia) Australia, Austria, Canada, Chile,
Denmark, France, Germany, Japan, United Kingdom and United States
Countries with goals for introducing China, France, Germany, Netherlands, Japan, Korea, United Kingdom
hydrogen in transport sector and United States⁴
Hydrogen demand expected in future by World: Total demand for hydrogen to increase from almost 8 EJ today¹
sector to 29 EJ in 2050⁵.
Europe: 2.8 GW of electrolyser capacity expected by 2025²
Japan: 300 000 tonnes per year (target by 2030)⁶

Note: CAPEX = capital expenditure.

Source: ¹ IRENA, 2018a, ² Tractebel, ENGIE and Hinicio, 2017; (note that prices are for the European market only);
³ CORFO, 2018; ⁴ based on IPHE presentation at IRENA Innovation Day, Uruguay, June 2019; ⁵ IRENA, 2019;
⁶ METI, 2017.

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

Examples of projects using hydrogen Examples of projects using hydrogen to

to reduce VRE curtailment provide balancing services to the grid

GRHYD demonstration project, France “Plug and Play” micro-grid, Chile

A consortium led by ENGIE is demonstrating In 2017 Enel started operating a micro-grid

a hydrogen energy storage project in France, in Chile comprising a 125 kW-peak solar PV
named GRHYD. As France aims to meet 23% of facility combined with a total of 582 kilowatt
its gross end-user energy consumption from hours (kWh) of energy storage capacity, using a
renewable sources by 2020, the GRHYD project lithium-ion battery (132 kWh) and P2H₂ systems
plans to convert surplus energy generated from (450 kWh). This micro-grid system can provide 24
renewable energy sources into hydrogen. The hours of clean energy without any diesel-based
hydrogen is blended with natural gas to create power back-up system. The main advantage
a product called Hythane(1), and then used of this system is that it can work with both on-
within the existing infrastructure. The project grid and off-grid systems. It can also be moved
aims to demonstrate the technical, economic, geographically to provide power at any location
environmental and social advantages of mixing – small community, camps, etc. The project
hydrogen with natural gas as a sustainable demonstrates that hydrogen can help provide
energy solution. Hythane(1) is being injected into a power back-up option in micro-grids, which
the natural gas distribution network of Le Petit are traditionally supported by diesel generators
Village and is also fed to a natural gas vehicle (Enel, 2017; Brasington, 2018).
refuelling station in Dunkirk (ENGIE, 2018).
H2Future (FCH JU) project, Austria
HyBalance (FCH JU) project, Denmark
H2Future is an FCH JU project under which a
The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking 6 MW electrolyser was installed by Siemens at
(FCH JU) is supporting research, technological the Voestalpine Linz steel production site in
development and demonstration activities in Austria. The project aims to study the use of
fuel cell and hydrogen energy technologies electrolysers to provide grid balancing services,
in Europe, with the aim of accelerating their such as primary, secondary and tertiary reserve,
commercialisation. The HyBalance project is while also providing hydrogen to the steel plant.
one of several under the FCH JU. It aims to Hydrogen is produced using electricity during
demonstrate the use of hydrogen in the energy off-peak hours to take advantage of time-of-use
system in Denmark. Excess wind power is used power prices (European Commission, 2018).
to produce hydrogen by electrolysis, which helps
to balance the grid. The hydrogen is then used REFHYN (FCH JU) project, Germany
in the transport and industrial sector in Hobro,
Denmark. The project is expected to help identify REFHYNE is an FCH JU project that has seen a
potential revenue streams from hydrogen and 10 MW electrolyser installed at a large oil refinery
changes to the regulatory environment needed in the Rhineland, Germany. It aims to provide
to improve the financial feasibility of P2H₂. hydrogen necessary for refinery operations,
produced using electricity instead of natural gas.
Producing hydrogen with electricity generated
from renewable power sources could help
significantly reduce CO₂ emissions from the Shell
Rheinland refinery. The electrolyser, at the same
time, is expected to balance the internal electricity
grid of the refinery and provide primary control
reserve service to the German transmission
system operators (FCH JU, 2018).

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 R E N E WA B L E P OW E R-TO - H Y D R O G E N

Examples of projects using hydrogen Stone Edge Farm Micro-grid, California,

as a renewable energy carrier United States

Surf ‘N’ Turf Initiative – Orkney, United Kingdom The Stone Edge Farm micro-grid in California
was not able to export excess renewable power
The Surf ‘N’ Turf initiative uses power generated to the California Independent System Operator
from tidal and wind energy produced on the (CAISO) market in an economically viable way.
island of Eday, Orkney. Eday is home to 150 One of the challenges in exporting power was to
people who collectively own a 900 kW wind comply with the minimum threshold of 0.5 MW
turbine. The turbine was vulnerable to curtailment set by CAISO and meeting CAISO’s requirements
for various reasons. The Surf ‘N’ Turf initiative to install onsite weather forecasting. The
converts excess wind and tidal energy into micro-grid developer is now using hydrogen
hydrogen via a 500 kW electrolyser on the island; to export its power. It has set up a bank of
the hydrogen is then transported from Eday on onsite electrolysers, which converts the excess
ships to Mainland Orkney (Surf ‘N’ Turf Initiative, electricity into hydrogen. This hydrogen is then
n.d.). The hydrogen produced can either be used used in fuel cell electric vehicles. When required,
in industries and households during emergencies, the hydrogen is also used to produce power
or during lean seasons when renewable energy using fuel cells (Forni, 2017).
generation is low. Figure 9 shows the schematic
structure of the initiative.

Subsequently, a further 1 MW electrolyser was

added on the island of Shapinsay. The hydrogen
produced is transported to Kirkwall for multiple
purposes, which include producing auxiliary
power, heat for ferries in Kirkwall harbour, fuelling
a fleet of hydrogen range-extended light vehicles,
and heating for buildings in the Kirkwall area (BIG
HIT, n.d.).

Figure 9: Illustrative structure of the Surf ‘N’ Turf Initiative

O2 O 2 - Atmosphere
Tidal energy
(Bi-product)
O2
Excess
Renewable +
Energy
Electrolyser H2
Wind energy

H2 H2
Hydrogen to industry
Excess H 2
Hydrogen to buildings H 2 to Gas Grid

Hydrogen for fuel

Electric grid
H 2 Fuel Cells
Electric cars H 2 Storage
Adapted from: Surf‘n’ Turf Initiative, 2018

Source: Surf ‘N’ Turf Initiative, n.d.

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

V. IMPLEMENTATION
REQUIREMENTS: CHECKLIST

TECHNICAL Hardware:
REQUIREMENTS
• Electrolyser technology to produce hydrogen from renewable electricity
• Hydrogen fuel cells to convert hydrogen into electricity when required
• Conversion units to use renewable hydrogen and convert into other substitutes such
as methane
• Hydrogen transport vessels such as ships and trucks
• Transport infrastructure (e.g. existing natural gas infrastructure)
• Storage facilities for hydrogen (in form of high-pressure or liquid hydrogen storage)

POLICIES NEEDED • Recognise hydrogen’s role in energy transition

• Promote use of hydrogen produced via electrolysis from renewable energy sources for
the decarbonisation of the economy
• Adopt policies that encourage the use of renewable hydrogen in end-use sectors
(for example, implement market pull regulations in transport sector, such as zero emission
zones, emission standards etc)
• Allow hydrogen mixed with natural gas to be used in existing natural gas infrastructure by
defining a remuneration mechanism to encourage renewable hydrogen injection into gas
networks
• Develop appropriate mechanisms to price the emissions of greenhouse gases, which would
encourage decarbonisation of the economy

REGULATORY • Allow use of existing gas networks for transporting renewable hydrogen and set relevant
REQUIREMENTS standards, including safety standards (e.g. encourage blending of hydrogen with natural gas
in appropriate proportions, harmonise blending limits)
• Provide the necessary incentives for hydrogen to offer flexibility services (e.g. exemption
from taxes, levies and grid fees for electrolysers providing flexibility to the grid)
• Allow electrolysers to participate across the power sector (e.g. in some countries, only
generators can access frequency containment reserves and frequency restoration reserves)

STAKEHOLDER Public sector:

ROLES AND
• Adopt clear policies to decarbonise economies
RESPONSIBILITIES
• Encourage and fund pilot programmes to work as a test bed and for dissemination of results
• Promote innovations in reducing the cost of electrolysis

Private sector:
• Work together with the public sector on innovative projects
• Disseminate information about the contribution of renewable hydrogen to power sector
transformation and VRE integration
• Develop new business models for the power sector and VRE integration

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 R E N E WA B L E P OW E R-TO - H Y D R O G E N

ABBREVIATIONS

CAPEX capital expenditure

CAISO California Independent System Operator

CO₂ carbon dioxide

EJ exajoule

FCH JU Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking

GW gigawatt

h hour

HESC Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain

Hz hertz

kg kilogram

kW kilowatt

kWh kilowatt hour

MW megawatt

PEM proton exchange membrane

PV photovoltaic

P2H₂ power to hydrogen

R&D research and demonstration

RD&D research, development and demonstration

SMR steam methane reforming

SOE solid oxide electrolyser

VRE variable renewable energy

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 I N N OVAT I O N L A N DS C A P E B R I E F

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RENEWABLE POWER-TO-HYDROGEN
INNOVATION LANDSCAPE BRIEF

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