A Comparative Overview of Energy - Jan Van Staveren

June 2016
See also: www.energiefeiten.nl
A comparative overview of
Contents
Some definitions and fundamental laws
- Power
- Energy
- Law of Conservation of Energy
- Law of Conservation of Mass - Efficiency - Production factor - Actual energy yield
- Some efficiencies
- Units and conversion factors for power
- Units and conversion factors for energy
- Primary energy - Energy content of some fuels - Mechanical equivalent of heat - Efficiencies at the conversion of energy
- Carnot's formula - Newton's laws of motion
Energy consumption of a household Solar energy
Wind energy
Storage of solar and wind energy
Hydropower
Geothermal energy
Tidal energy Biomass
Energy storage in the batteries of electric cars
Smart grid Combined Heat and Power
Heat pump Batteries
Atomic battery
Walking and cycling
Electric bicycle
Electric trains
Vessels
Aircraft
The petrol car
The electric car
The hybrid car
The fuel cell car The Hydrogen Economy Nuclear fusion
Nuclear energy
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ENERGY
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Some facts, calculations, and things worth knowing

Energy consumption in the Netherlands
The efficiency of the production of electricity The efficiency of the production of petrol
The mass-energy equivalent
The Sun
The Leopoldhove Wind energy
Comparison of solar and wind energy Some fuels and CO2
CO2 emissions "well-to-plug" of electricity The greenhouse effect Light sources
Aircraft
Electric train Cycling
Electric bicycles The Hydrogen bicycle
Power plants
The combined gas and steam power plant Nuclear power plants
Electricity consumption in the Netherlands Comparison power plants
Electric cars The plug-in hybrid car
CO2 emissions of different types of cars
Stella, an electric car with solar panels
Electric race-car The action radius of cars Comparison means of transport
Some projects of Wubbo Ockels
The World Solar Challenge
Shell eco marathon
Bio fuel
A few more things worth knowing
Some units Tables and graphs Alternative energy sources
Free energy Storage of energy Energy saving
The collapse of the Oil Economy
How will the future look? The Energy Agreement Urgenda
Energy content of a battery
Water example
Energy and labour Energy consumption of some household appliances
A book on Energy
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Some preliminary remarks

~ In this overview abbreviations will be avoided as much as possible
~ When combining different units a hyphen is used.
For example: kilogram-metre, ampere-hour, newton-metre etc.
~ Units will not be written with a capital letter but always in full words
For example: celsius, volt, ampere, watt etc.
~ Periods and commas are used according to the continental conventions
~ Numbers are usually rounded. In this overview relations will be
emphasized and not the exact values in the first place. They do not
exist actually. Efficiencies of cars, lighting, energy generation etc.
are getting better all the time. Of course there are exact laws, such
as the Law of Conservation of Energy
~ Many numbers are a snapshot. Internet sites come and go
Therefore it is not always possible to verify all numbers via the internet.
~ The amount of energy needed to produce for example cars, windmills
solar panels, bio fuels etc. has not been taken in consideration.
~ There are as little units used as possible. Almost everything is
converted into kilowatt-hours and megawatt-hours.
~ Many people have no idea how the ratios are between the different
forms of energy generation and energy consumption.
This overview tries to tell facts which are the basis of clarification
~ Power and Energy are confused with each other frequently. For this
energy story a good understanding of the definitions is necessary.
~ Discussions about energy usually only concern electricity generation
So coal-fired power plants, nuclear power, hydro power, wind mills,
solar energy etc. One must however bear in mind, that the total
energy problem (in the Netherlands) is more than 3 times larger.
It therefore should also cover heating, industry, food production,
transport and above all cars.
~ By consulting internet sites and via simple calculations one can
determine for themselves whether the information in this story is
accurate
~ This overview will be regularly updated on the basis of new facts,
new insights and comments from readers.
Introduction
The most effective environmental measure
The energy consumption and the coherent environmental pollution is
proportional to the number of people on Earth. So the most effective
environmental measure will be: restricting the world population
That will be achieved (in the long run) when the reproduction rate
is not greater than 1. So not more than 2 children per couple.
After us the flood
In the book "Na ons de zondvloed" ("After us the flood") the author
P. Gerbrands, writes: "Within reasonable margins, growth of the number
of people and economic expansion will be possible, as long as we know
to limit ourselves to the consumption of the interest the Earth us offers.
But if also the capital named Earth itself is eaten, we as human species
will be entering a dead-end street"
Quote from The Greens Party program 2002
The uncontrolled growing population is a violent threat to life on Earth. Yet
there is an explosive growth of the world's population. Just like China India
will soon be a country with more than one billion inhabitants. (in 2010, India
already had 1,2 billion inhabitants). There is a direct relationship between
pollution of the environment and the population rate. More people produce
more waste, have more need for food, consume more raw materials, have
more hassle, have less living space, get less attention and need more
money. The conclusion is clear: birth control is a necessity. If not, we all
end up like bacteria on a limited breeding ground. After unbridled growth
unprecedented mortality follows.
The population explosion
From 1990 to 2000 each year the world's population has increased with an
average of 1,5% Suppose that this increase had occurred always from the
beginning of our era until today. How large would the world's population be
now, based on 2 people in the year zero?
~ after 2000 years the increase would be: 1,015 2000 = 8,55 1012
~ the Earths surface is 4 r2 = 4 40 106 square kilometres
(r = the radius of Earth = 6400 kilometres)
~ the total of earthlings would be: (2 8,55 10 12 ) / (4 40 106)
= 34000 per square kilometre, oceans and the poles included
In reality there live on Earth only 51 people per square kilometre. (in 2010,
on land). In the Netherlands the population density is 504 inhabitants per
square kilometre. That means a living place of 45 45 metres per person
Overview of the population growth (rounded)

1960
2000
2050
the Netherlands
11 million
16 million
17 million
World population
3 billion
6 billion
9 billion
Daily increase of the world population (medium variant)

year
world population
increase in 10 years
increase per day
2010
6 909 million
---
---
2020
7 675 million
766 million
210 000
2030
8 309 million
634 million
174 000
2040
8 801 million
492 million
135 000
2050
9 150 million
349 million
96 000
The average increase of the world population in the period 2010 2050
amounts to 153 000 people per day. So 1 million per week
in 2011 the 7 billionth earthling was born
in 2023 the 8 billionth is expected
A comparative overview of
ENERGY
Some definitions and fundamental laws

Power
Power is a measure of the speed at which energy can be
generated or used
power = energy / time
Units
1 watt = 1 joule per second
Some examples:
~ an electric power plant has a power of 600 megawatts,
even if the power plant is temporary out of operation
~ a car engine has a power of 70 kilowatts, even if the
car is stationary.
~ an incandescent lamp has a power of 75 watts, even
if the lamp is not in use or is still in the box.
Power is a property
Energy
Energy is generated or used during a certain time
energy = power x time
Units
1 joule = 1 watt-second
Some examples:
~ an electric power plant of 600 megawatts will generate in 5 hours:
600 megawatts 5 hours = 3000 megawatt-hours electrical
energy (at full power)
~ a car engine of 70 kilowatts will generate in 2 hours:
70 kilowatts 2 hours = 140 kilowatt-hours mechanical energy
(at full power)
~ an incandescent lamp of 75 watts uses in 10 hours:
75 watts 10 hours = 750 watt-hours electrical energy
Energy always generates something: electricity, movement,
light, heat, sound, radio waves, a chemical reaction etc.
In the shop one pays for the power
(for example what is stated on a vacuum cleaner)
At home one pays for the energy
(the energy used by the vacuum cleaner)
In daily life is valid:

~ the basic unit for power is watt
~ the basic unit for energy is watt-hour
Law of Conservation of Energy
~ Energy cannot be lost
~ Energy cannot arise from nothing
~ Energy can be converted from one
form to another, but the sum of
the energies cannot change
Law of Conservation of Mass
~ Mass cannot be lost
~ Mass cannot arise from nothing
~ Mass can be converted from one
form to another, but the sum of
the masses cannot change
Energy and mass are never consumed
In normal language mass and energy are consumed anyway.
For example, if you drive the tank of a car empty, then the petrol
is consumed. But in doing so the Law of Conservation of Energy
and the Law of Conservation of Mass will be applied
During the combustion of petrol in an engine, chemical energy converts into
mechanical energy (= labour) and thermal energy (= heat). This is linked to
the chemical energy = the mechanical energy + the thermal energy
Petrol is a chemical compound of the elements carbon and hydrogen
The combustion of petrol with oxygen, results in carbon dioxide and water
the mass of petrol + oxygen = the mass of carbon dioxide + water
Efficiency (the effectiveness)
efficiency = useful energy / energy supplied
For example:
~ a car engine with a power of 50 kilowatts runs for 1 hour at full
power. Then the useful mechanical energy will be:
50 kilowatts 1 hour = 50 kilowatt-hours
~ suppose the amount of energy supplied is 200 kilowatt-hours
(that is approximately 22 litres of petrol)
~ then the efficiency will be (50 / 200) 100% = 25%
~ so 150 kilowatt-hours of useless energy disappears in the form
of heat
Efficiencies are always less than 100%
So Perpetual Mobile does not exist
Production factor (the availability)

production factor = actual annual yield / theoretical annual yield
For example:
~ suppose the actual annual yield of a windmill is
10950 megawatt-hours
~ the power of the windmill is 5 megawatts
~ 1 year = 8760 hours
~ then the theoretical annual yield will be
5 megawatts x 8760 hours = 43800 megawatt-hours
~ then the production factor will be
(10950 / 43800) x 100% = 25%
Actual annual yield (the energy yield)
actual annual yield = theoretical annual yield x production factor
For example:
~ the theoretical irradiated energy per square metre per year
on a solar panel = 8760 kilowatt-hours
~ the efficiency of a solar panel = 15%
~ then the theoretical annual yield = 8760 kilowatt-hours x 15%
~ the production factor of solar energy in the Netherlands = 11,4%
~ then the actual annual yield per square metre per year will be
8760 kilowatt-hours x 15% x 11,4% = 150 kilowatt-hours
Efficiency and production factor are 2 completely different concepts
Some examples:
~ The efficiency of a solar panel is 15% The production factor of
solar energy in the Netherlands is 11,4% In the Sahara 33%
~ The efficiency of a wind mill is 50%
The production factor of wind energy on land is 25% At sea 40%
The efficiency is a property of a solar panel or a wind mill.
The production factor is determined by the location of the
solar panel or the wind mill
Comparing energy sources
When comparing energy sources one should not only look at the power,
but also consider the energy yield. This is especially true for solar and
wind energy, because here the production factor and the efficiency often
will be very low
Some efficiencies (approximately)

- photosynthesis
- incandescent lamp
- electric solar panel
- concentrated solar power (CSP)
- from food to mechanical energy
- petrol engine
- energy saving lamp
- nuclear power plant
- Led lamp (light emitting diode)
- Atkinson petrol engine (Prius)
- Diesel engine
- conventional electric power plant
- fluorescent tube
- steam turbine
- fuel cell
- wind mill
- combined gas and steam plant
- thermal solar panel (water heater)
- charging cycle of a lead-acid battery
- electrolysis of water
- hydroelectric power plant
- electric motor
- combined heat and power (CHP)
- generator in a power plant
- charging cycle of a super capacitor
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1%
5%
15%
15%
25%
25%
29%
33%
34%
34%
35%
40%
41%
45%
50%
50%
58%
65%
75%
80%
80%
90%
90%
95%
97%
Units and conversion factors for power

1 watt
1 kilowatt
= 1 joule per second

= 1 kilojoule per second
= 1 newton-metre per second

= 1000 newton-metres per second
Units and conversion factors for energy

1 watt-second
1 kilowatt-hour
= 1 joule
= 3600 kilojoules
= 1 newton-metre
= 3600 000 newton-metres
Converting kilowatt-hours to kilogram-metres

1 kilowatt-hour
= 3600 000 newton-metres
1 kilogram-metre = 9,81 newton-metres
so 1 kilowatt-hour = 3600 000 / 9,81 = 367 000 kilogram-metres
Primary energy
Primary energy is the energy content of fuels in their natural
form, before any technical conversion has taken place
Energy content of some fuels

1 kilogram of dry wood
=
1 kilogram of coal
=
1 cubic metre of natural gas
=
1 litre of petrol
=
1 litre of diesel oil
=
1 kilogram of hydrogen
=
5,3 kilowatt-hours
8,1 kilowatt-hours
8,8 kilowatt-hours
9,1 kilowatt-hours
10,0 kilowatt-hours
33,6 kilowatt-hours
In the following the energy consumption or energy yield is converted into litres
petrol-equivalent (if possible). That appeals a bit more to imagination and it
makes a good comparison possible
Thermal energy in 1 litre of petrol
1 litre of petrol = 7800 kilocalories
At an efficiency of 100% it is possible to increase the temperature of 7800 litres
of water with 1 degree celsius (or to heat 78 litres with 100 degrees)
Mechanical energy in 1 litre of petrol
1 litre of petrol = 9,1 kilowatt-hours
This would keep a motor of 91 kilowatts running during 0,1 hours (= 6 minutes)
on full power. The efficiency of a petrol engine is approximately 25% Therefore
such a motor runs only 1,5 minute on 1 litre of petrol.
75% of the supplied energy is converted into useless heat
1 litre of petrol = 3 340 000 kilogram-metres
With 1 litre of petrol one can theoretically lift up a Jumbo of 334 000 kilogram
10 metres. Bringing up such aircraft 10 kilometres, costs (apart from the
forward speed, air resistance, efficiency etc.) 1000 litres of fuel
Mechanical equivalent of heat
This indicates the relationship between mechanical energy
(= labour) and thermal energy (= heat)
1 kilocalorie equals 427 kilogram-metres
An example:
~ to raise the temperature of 1 litre of water with 1 degree celsius,
1 kilocalorie is needed (by definition)
~ if one put one's hand in 1 litre of cold water during 1 minute then
the temperature of the water has risen approximately with
1 degree celsius.
~ this corresponds with a quantity of mechanical energy
of 427 kilogram-metres.
~ that will be sufficient energy to lift a cow (or 2 pianos) for 1 metre
Heat is the most compact form of energy
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Efficiencies at the conversion of energy

Conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy
The efficiency will be limited according to Carnot's formula
The maximum achievable efficiency is about 50%
For example:
A steam turbine in a power plant has an efficiency of 45%
Conversion of mechanical energy into electricity
This can theoretically occur with an efficiency of 100%
For example:
A generator in a power plant has an efficiency of 95%
Conversion of electricity into mechanical energy
This can theoretically occur with an efficiency of 100%
For example:
The electric motor of the Solar car has an efficiency of 97%
Carnot's formula
With Carnot's formula, one can calculate the maximum achievable efficiency
at the conversion of thermal energy (= heat) into mechanical energy (= labour)
The thermal energy is proportional to the absolute temperature T (kelvin)
efficiency = (Thigh - Tlow) / Thigh
Thigh - Tlow = the heat which is converted into useful mechanical energy
Thigh = the highest temperature in the process (the energy supplied)
Tlow = the lowest temperature in the process (the residual energy)
Example:
The inlet temperature of a steam turbine is 527 degrees celsius and the exhaust
temperature is 207 degrees celsius (0 degrees celsius = 273 kelvin)
Thigh = 527 + 273 = 800 kelvin
Tlow = 207 + 273 = 480 kelvin
Then the maximum achievable efficiency will be (800-480) / 800 = 0,40 = 40%
Newton's laws of motion
1. Every object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a
straight line, unless compelled to change that state by external forces
acted upon it
2. The acceleration a of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the
net force F acting on the body, is in the direction of the net force,
and is inversely proportional to the mass m of the body. F = ma
3. When two bodies interact by exerting force on each other, these action
and reaction forces are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction
(these laws are clearly visible when playing billiards)
1 newton
1 newton is the net force required to accelerate a mass of
1 kilogram at a rate of 1 metre per second squared
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Energy consumption of a household

An average household in the Netherlands (statistically) consists of 2,28
people. In the year 2008 the energy consumption per household was:
~ for lighting 528 kilowatt-hours of electricity
~ for the refrigerator, washing, ironing,
TV etc. 3032 kilowatt-hours of electricity
~ for heating, hot water and cooking
1625 cubic metres of natural gas
~ for the car 1444 litres of petrol
The electricity is generated with an efficiency of 40% The table below
shows how much energy per day is consumed by a household.
energy consumption
(kilowatt-hours)
primary energy
(kilowatt-hours)
lighting
1,4
3,6
refrigerator, TV, washing, ironing etc.
8,3
20,8
heating, hot water, cooking
39,2
39,2
the car
36,0
36,0
total
84,9
99,6
Primary energy consumption of a household
Per day a car consumes one and a half times as much primary energy,
as an average Dutch household for lighting, refrigerator, TV, washing,
ironing, vacuuming etc.
It makes little sense to save on lighting as it is only 4% of the total energy
consumption. But it does help lowering the heating. All energy fed to lighting
and devices is fully converted into heat. A living room is not noticeably
warmer when the TV or the lights are switched on. Apparently the energy
consumption of the lighting and the TV is negligible compared to the energy
needed for heating. Many people think: all tiny bits will help". The "tiny bits"
will contribute very little and give the misleading sense, that one does quite a
lot for the environment and that therefore one can further go one's own way.
(with the heating and the car)
If everyone does a little, well achieve only a little
If comfort is at stake, one is no longer "at home".
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Solar energy
Almost all the energy on Earth comes from the Sun
~ The power of solar radiation outside the atmosphere is
1,36 kilowatts per square metre. (that is the solar constant)
~ At the height of the Earth's surface and at a completely
unclouded sky, the solar radiation has a power of 1 kilowatt
per square metre. (at perpendicular irradiation)
~ So the theoretical irradiation per square metre per year
will be 1 kilowatt x 8760 hours = 8760 kilowatt-hours
(1 year = 8760 hours)
~ The actual irradiation per square metre per year in the
Netherlands = 1000 kilowatt-hours on a horizontal plane
(seasons, cloudy sky, day and night included)
~ So the production factor adds up to
(1000 / 8760) 100% = 11,4%
~ To maximise the yield of sunlight in the Netherlands, a fixed
solar panel should be mounted under an angle of 36 degrees
and focussed on the South.
~ At perpendicular radiation of sunlight on a solar water heater,
a solar panel, a parabolic mirror or a solar trough, the amount
of irradiated energy per square metre and during the same time
is (of course) always the same
~ At a heliostat the radiation is never perpendicular. There, the
angle of radiation is determined by the distance from the
heliostat to the solar tower and the position of the Sun
~ In the Netherlands the amount of irradiated solar energy on a
horizontal plane, in summer (June, July, August) is 6 times
as much as in winter (December, January, February)
Of course that will not be the same every year, see Leopoldhove
~ In the Netherlands the energy captured by a solar panel consists
of 40% direct sunlight and 60% indirect sunlight.
~ In the Sahara the amount of irradiated solar energy on a
horizontal plane is only 3 times as much as in the Netherlands
(during a year and on the same surface)
~ The annual amount of solar energy irradiated on the whole Earth
is 7000 times as much as the annual world consumption of
primary energy
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Solar energy in the Netherlands

~ in 2009 the yield of solar energy was 0,05 billion kilowatt-hours.
~ then the electricity consumption was 113,5 billion kilowatt-hours
~ so the share of solar energy was 0,04%
Solar energy in Germany
~ then the electricity consumption was 592,5 billion kilowatt-hours.
ECN (Energieonderzoek Centrum Nederland) expects that by 2020 in
the Netherlands 4 billion kilowatt-hours of solar energy will be excited
Some possibilities to use solar energy are:
~ photosynthesis (bio fuel)
~ direct generation of electrical energy
(electric solar panel)
~ production of electricity with concentrated solar
irradiation (concentrated solar power)
~ water heating (solar water heater)
Efficiencies and revenues of solar energy at an irradiation of
1000 kilowatt-hours per square metre per year (in the Netherlands)
efficiency
kilowatt-hours
energy type
bio fuel
< 1%
chemical
electric solar panel
15%
150
electric
solar water heater
65%
650
heat
The average electricity consumption of a household in the Netherlands is

3600 kilowatt-hours per year. So it takes 24 square metres of solar panels
to fulfil this need. That are 15 standard panels of 1 to 1,6 metres.
Are there any higher returns possible on solar energy?
~ concentrated solar power with solar cells provides a return
of more than 35%
~ with nano antennas an efficiency of 80% would be achievable
~ very high returns seem possible with light trapping
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Concentrated solar power (CSP)

At concentrated solar power the solar radiation is concentrated on a small
surface by means of mirrors. This can be done in different ways:
~ with parabolic mirrors
~ with solar troughs
~ with heliostats
Condition for "concentrated solar power" is a sun-tracking system. The accuracy
with which the position of the Sun must be followed, is at least 1 degree. That
means, that the system should be adjusted every 4 minutes. In addition, the Sun
must shine freely. At a cloudy sky "concentrated solar power" doesnt work.
Therefore it is not applied in the Netherlands. The gains of the higher yield, are
nullified by the fact that the Sun only shines a few hours a day at full strength in
the Netherlands (on average)
Parabolic mirrors
~ a parabolic mirror revolves around 2 perpendicular

axes and follows the position of the Sun.
~ the sunlight can be focused by a factor of 500
~ then there is a temperature of 1000 degrees celsius
in the focal point.
~ a hot-air engine (Stirling engine) might be posted
there, propelling a generator
~ the generator generates electricity.
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Solar troughs
~ a solar trough is a trough-shaped mirror, with a parabola

shaped cross-section.
~ the longitudinal-axis is in North-South direction and the solar
trough revolves around this axis in the same position as the
Sun, so every day from East to West.
~ the concentration of sunlight in the "fire line" is a factor 80
a temperature of 400 degrees celsius is reached there.
~ oil is heated in a tube in the fire line.
~ in a heat exchanger water is heated to hot steam.
then electricity is generated in the usual manner.
~ the efficiency of converting the solar radiation into hot steam
is 50% From hot steam to electricity is 30% So the total
efficiency is 15% (about the same as at electric solar panels).
~ the advantage of solar troughs is, that part of the absorbed
solar heat can be temporarily stored.
thus brief sunless periods can be bridged
Heliostats
~ a heliostat is a slightly curved or flat mirror, which turns around

2 mutually perpendicular axes with the position of the sun
~ the sunlight reflected by the heliostat is focussed on the top
of a "solar tower". The top of this solar tower, which is about
100 metres high, is lightened by a field of hundreds of heliostats
and is therefore the common focal point of a huge surface with
a few hundred mirrors.
~ all mirrors must be focussed continuously and individually.
very high temperatures are reached in the top of the tower,
up to 1000 degrees celsius.
~ the captured heat is used for the generation of electricity
~ the temperature generated at parabolic mirrors or heliostats
is much higher than at solar troughs. Therefore the efficiency
of electricity generation is also higher. (Carnot)
16
Concentrated solar power with solar cells

Concentrated solar power (in a milder form) can also be applied in combination
with appropriate solar cells. Spectrolab delivers solar cells, that can tolerate a
power of 50 watts per square centimetre, provided they are cooled with a
temperature below 100 degrees celsius. Under these conditions an efficiency of
over 35% will be achieved
Greenpeace solar panel
In the year 2000 Greenpeace introduced an electric solar panel in
the Netherlands:
~ the effective surface is 0,75 square metres
~ the yield is 80 kilowatt-hours per year
~ that is an average of 220 watt-hours per day.
~ that will be sufficient to watch TV for 2 hours per day
~ this solar panel saves 80 0,20 = 16,- on an annual basis
~ the panel costs 454,- (subsidies included)
~ the payback-period is 28 years
An advertisement for solar panels
A quote from a recent advertisement for solar panels:
"This solar panel which has been manufactured with Laser Technology (?)
has a high efficiency at cloudy skies and until late in the evening"
Yes, perhaps the efficiency is high, but the yield will be almost zero at
cloudy skies and in the evening, because the amount of irradiated energy
then will be very little.
Solar energy has the potential to ever be interesting:
~ in the Netherlands the amount of radiant solar energy
on a surface of 25 square kilometres, annually amounts:
25 000 000 square metres 1000 kilowatt-hours per
square metre = 25 billion kilowatt-hours.
~ this is the amount of energy which equals 1 kilogram-mass
~ at an efficiency of 100% it would be sufficient for almost
a quarter of the annual electricity consumption in the
Netherlands.
~ there is no practical possibility yet to capture this energy
in an efficient way
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The Waldpolenz Solar Park
The Waldpolenz Solar Park is a large photovoltaic power station

in Germany and is located near Leipzig.
~ the electricity is generated by 550 000 electric solar panels
~ the total land area is 1,2 square kilometre
~ the capacity (power) of this power plant is 52 megawatts
~ the annual production is 52 000 megawatt-hours
~ the production factor is 11,4%
~ a 600 megawatts power plant produces 80 times
as much energy in 1 year.
Compare the largest windmill in the world.
That generates 21 000 megawatt-hours per year
A solar power plant with heliostats
In early 2009 near Seville in Spain a large solar power plant,
the PS20 was put into service
~ the sunlight is captured by 1255 heliostats
~ each heliostat has an area of 120 square metres
~ so the total surface of the heliostats will be
150 600 square metres
~ the heliostats rotate with the position of the Sun
~ the power of this plant is 20 megawatts
~ a 600 megawatts power plant produces almost 90 times
as much energy in 1 year
The concentrated sunlight heats a barrel with water, which is located on top
of a tower of 160 metres. Electricity is generated in the usual way using the
hot steam that arises.
This sun-thermal power plant has the advantage of the possibility of constant
energy delivery (during daytime), thanks to a buffer of hot steam with a heat
capacity of 15 megawatt-hours. The production factor has therefore been
significantly increased.
18
A solar power plant with solar troughs

An even larger solar power plant has been built in Andalusia,
the Andasol Solar Power Station
~ the solar radiation is collected in solar troughs
~ the solar troughs are drawn up in North-South direction and
rotate along with the position of the Sun
~ the mirrors are drawn up in rows, which are 150 metres long
~ the reflecting surface of a single row is 800 square metres
~ the total surface of the troughs is 1,53 square kilometres
~ the total land area of the plant is 6 square kilometres
~ there is a steel tube in the fire line, where oil flows
~ the concentrated solar radiation heats the oil to 400 degrees
celsius
~ in a heat exchanger water is heated to steam
~ electricity is generated in the usual manner by means of the
steam.
~ the power of this plant is 150 megawatts.
~ a 600 megawatts power plant produces 8,5 times
During daytime a part of the collected heat is stored in a huge tank with
25000 tonnes of molten salt. The heat capacity is 1000 megawatt-hours.
That will be sufficient to generate electricity for 7,5 hours when the Sun
doesn't shine. This will increase the production factor significantly.
At Andasol the amount of irradiated solar energy is 2200 kilowatt-hours
per square metre per year, so 2 times the irradiation in the Netherlands
Comparison of the above mentioned solar power plants
power
(megawatts)
annual production
(megawatt-hours)
production
factor
Waldpolenz Solar Park
52
52 000
11,4%
Seville (heliostats)
20
48 000
27,4%
150
495 000
37,6%
Andasol (solar troughs)
19
Wind energy
In 2000 at Zoetermeer, the then largest windmill in the Netherlands was put
into service. The mill was demolished in 2014 because its end of lifespan
had been reached. (?)
The power was 1,5 megawatts (= 1500 kilowatts). That equals the power
of 20 cars. (the Opel Astra has an engine of 74 kilowatts)
~ the hub height of this mill was 85 metres and the diameter of
the blades was 70 metres
~ so the highest point reached by the blades was 120 metres
~ the power was 1,5 megawatts
~ so the theoretical annual yield was 1,5 8760 hours =
13140 megawatt-hours (1 year = 8760 hours)
~ the actual annual yield was 3000 megawatt-hours
~ so the production factor was (3000 / 131400) 100% = 23%
~ the yield in 14 years was 14 x 3000 = 42 000 megawatt-hours
~ at an electrical energy price of 20 eurocents per kilowatt-hour
the total revenue will be 42 000 000 x 0,2 = 8,4 million euro
The generated energy by a wind mill is proportional to the 3rd power
of the wind speed. If the wind blows "half" force, the energy yield is
only 1/8 compared with "full" force.
~ the production factor of a windmill on land is 25%
~ the production factor of a windmill at open sea is 40%
The production factor increases as the windmill is higher and larger
Wind energy in the Netherlands
~ n 2009 the yield of wind energy was 4,6 billion kilowatt-hours
~ then the electricity consumption was 113,5 billion kilowatt-hours
~ so the share of wind energy was 4,1%
Some Dutch wind farms
number of
windmills
power per
windmill
total
power
annual yield
(megawatt-hours)
Egmond aan Zee

10 km off the coast
36
3 megawatts
108 megawatts
378 000
IJmuiden
23 km off the coast
60
2 megawatts
120 megawatts
422 000
Westereems
Eemshaven, on land
52
3 megawatts
156 megawatts
470 000
In 1 year a 600 megawatts power plant produces about 10 times as much energy
as 1 wind farm
20
The largest wind mill in the world

The largest wind mill in the world is the Enercon E-126
~ the hub height is 135 metres
~ the diameter of the blades is 126 metres
~ so the highest point that is reached by
the blades is 198 metres
~ the maximum power is 7,5 megawatts
(100 cars)
~ at a production factor of 32% (on land) the
annual yield is 21000 megawatt-hours
~ a 600 megawatts power plant produces
200 times as much energy in 1 year
At Estinnes (Belgium) 11 of these mills are in operation and at
the Noordoostpolder 38 stuks will be placed.
21
Storage of solar and wind energy

Large-scale application of solar and wind energy is only possible, if a solution will
be found for storing very large amounts of electrical energy. The problem occurs
especially with solar energy, that the need for energy usually is greatest, when the
Sun has gone down behind the horizon already. Solar and wind energy is usually
returned to the grid. Then (temporarily) less "grey" energy needs to be generated.
Some possibilities for large-scale storage of electrical energy
~ pumping of water to an higher reservoir at a
hydroelectric power plant
~ pumping up water from an energy island
~ compressing air in underground salt domes
~ the production of hydrogen
~ energy storage in batteries of electric cars
~ energy storage in vanadium redox batteries
22
Hydro power
Hydro power is of limited significance even in Switzerland, because the
energy consumption increased in recent years.
~ nowadays in Switzerland 40,5% of electrical
energy is generated by nuclear power plants
~ only in Norway virtually all electrical energy
is generated by hydro power
~ worldwide 16,5% of all electrical energy is
generated by hydro power.
The largest hydroelectric power plants in the world
A very large hydroelectric power plant, the Itaipu Dam is located at the
border between Brazil and Paraguay. Its reservoir is 170 kilometres long.
~ the capacity of this power plant is 12 600 megawatts
~ the energy yield is 75 billion kilowatt-hours per year
In China an even greater hydroelectric power plant has been built, the
Three Gorges Dam
~ the energy yield is 84 billion kilowatt-hours per year
~ that is 3% of the electricity consumption in China
For comparison:
Annually the Three Gorges Dam will produce 20 times as much energy
as a 600 megawatts power plant.
Dutch Teletext 19 May 2011
China admits, that there are problems at the three Gorges Dam in the
Yangtze River. Agricultural land drying out, the River is less navigable
and many people have lost their work. For the construction of the dam
one and a half million people had to leave their homes
23
Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is extracted from the heat in the Earth.
~ from the Earths surface the temperature rises with increasing
depth with roughly 30 degrees celsius per 1000 metres
~ this can vary (strongly) depending on local circumstances
~ in volcanic areas temperatures are considerably higher
~ at a depth of 5000 metres the average temperature is about
150 degrees celsius.
Geothermal energy may play a (modest) role in future energy supply. It is now
possible to exploit geothermal energy on a commercial scale thanks to the
improved drilling techniques developed for the extraction of oil at great depth
Geothermal energy is:
~ clean, durable and inexhaustible
~ not depending on weather conditions
seasons and time of the day
~ the production factor is 100%
~ there is no CO2 emission
~ the energy is constantly available, so
there is no storage problem
Geothermal energy in a few countries
power
(megawatts)
annual yield
(megawatt-hours)
China
1440
12 600 000
3,00
Sweden
1140
10 000 000
2,38
USA
990
8 680 000
2,07
Iceland
760
6 610 000
1,57
New Zealand
220
1 970 000
0,47
Japan
160
1 430 000
0,34
A = comparison with a 600 megawatts power plant.

Annually that generates 4 200 000 megawatt-hours
Geothermal energy is already used on small scale in the Netherlands. In the West
of the country some greenhouses are heated with geothermal energy while there
are also advanced plans for the use in new residential areas in the Hague.
Press release on 23 September 2010
Recently completed test drilling has shown that there is enough water with a high
temperature available 2000 metres below ground level to heat the targeted 4000
homes and 20 000 square metres of business premises in the Hague Southwest,
as it turns out from the test results. "We had a final goal of 75 C. Our goal has
been achieved
24
Tidal energy
The energy generated by a tidal power plant is indirectly derived from the moon.
The largest tidal power plant in the world is in France in the mouth of the Rance
river. (since 1966)
~ the difference in height between ebb and flood tide is
very large, up to 13 metres.
~ the capacity of the tidal power plant is 240 megawatts
~ the production factor is approximately 26%
~ the annual energy generated is 540 000 megawatt-hours
~ a 600 megawatts power plant produces 8 times
At high tide the lock gates of the power plant are open and then sea water can
flow behind a dam. The water behind the dam has a maximum area of 22 square
kilometres. If the highest point of the flood is reached, the lock gates are then
closed and the water behind the dam is being held in the mouth of the river Rance.
At low tide, the water flows through 24 turbines back to sea. The turbines drive
generators, each with a capacity of 10 megawatts. If there is no difference in water
height behind and in front of the dam anymore, the production of electricity ceases.
The cycle is repeated when it becomes high tide again.
25
Biomass
Biomass is the collective name for organic materials, which can be used for the
generation of "sustainable energy". Examples of such organic materials are: fruit
vegetable and garden waste, wood and manure. Special "energy crops" can be
grown, such as oilseed rape, maize and sugar cane, which may be used as fuel
for vehicles, possibly after digestion, fermentation or gasification.
During the growth of trees for example, oxygen is produced and carbon dioxide
(CO2) is absorbed from the atmosphere. When combustion takes place the
opposite occurs. Net, this so-called "short cycle" does not pollute the environment
(CO2 neutral"). The advantage of using biomass: there is no storage problem.
The biomass can be incorporated in the fuel of coal-fired power plants. (those
coal-fired power plants which are so maligned by environmentalists). The extra
CO2 released is "green" and is deducted from the emissions according to "Kyoto".
Biomass in the Netherlands
~ in 2009 the energy generated by the burning of biomass in
the Netherlands was 7,8 billion kilowatt-hours.
~ so the share of biomass was 6,9%
This can not be much more in the near future, because the amount of biomass
is limited. One can therefore have legitimate doubts about energy suppliers who
are going to sell huge quantities of "green" energy to the consumer suddenly.
26
Energy storage in the batteries of electric cars

Maybe someday wind energy will play an important role in common electricity
generation. Naturally the supply of wind energy is subject to severe and often
rapid fluctuations. The production factor is at best (at sea) 40% because the
wind is not always blowing (hard). So in 60% of time no or very little wind
energy is excited. Therefore the existing infrastructure for electricity generation
should be maintained for 100%.
At large-scale production of wind energy, storage of electricity is necessary to
compensate for the fluctuations in the supply. Energy storage can be achieved
by production of hydrogen via electrolysis of water, a cumbersome method with
little (total) efficiency. The use of batteries seems to be a more realistic solution
to the storage problem of electrical energy, When electric cars will be widely
used, the potential storage capacity for electrical energy will be very large.
If we assume, that there are 1 million electric cars (in the Netherlands there are
over 7 million cars) and each battery has a capacity of 25 kilowatt-hours, then
25 million kilowatt-hours of total storage capacity will be available.
For comparison:
A 600 megawatts power plant delivers in 24 hours at full power:
600 24 = 14 400 megawatt-hours = 14,4 million kilowatt-hours
This form of energy storage requires an intelligent, automated energy
management system. (Smart grid)
27
Smart grid
Smart grid is an energy management system, which controls the
distribution between the energy generated by renewable energy
sources (wind and solar energy) and conventional power plants.
The aim is:
~ the maximum flattening of the peaks and off-peaks
in the generation of energy. ("peak shaving")
~ compensation for the varying energy yield of
renewable energy sources
A primitive form of energy management already exists in the system of "off-peak
hours", which is often applied by suppliers of electricity. Electric boilers are
remotely enabled when the demand for electricity is low. (usually at night and in
weekends)
An intelligent energy management system may offer the following options:
~ thermostats of devices (for example, boilers and air conditioning) can
be remotely and automatically disabled or enabled according to the
instantaneous load of the grid.
~ batteries of electric cars can be loaded for one moment and the loading
can be stopped or the energy from the batteries can be (partially) fed
back to the grid, when an energy deficit is likely to occur.
~ as the wind varies, the energy of wind farms will be proportionally
supplemented by energy from (rapid starting) gas-fired power plants.
28
Combined Heat and Power

The efficiency of electricity production in a power plant is approximately 40%.
Therefore 60% of primary energy is lost through the cooling water. Many plants
are using this "waste heat" nowadays for district heating and the heating of
greenhouses. Often the heat must be transported and distributed over great
distances, which obviously yields quite a few losses. The overall efficiency of
the power plant has nevertheless been increased significantly.
At Combined Heat and Power the generation of heat and electricity (power) is
linked directly. Then heat and electricity are exited at the consumer. The main
issue is the heat production while electricity is a by-product. The total efficiency
is very high, because there is virtually no heat lost and all electricity is being used.
(excess electricity is fed into the grid). Combined Heat and Power is widely
applied in hospitals, swimming pools, factories and horticulture. In horticulture
the CO2 released is very welcome, because it stimulates the growth of the plants.
(carbon dioxide assimilation).
The total efficiency of Combined Heat and Power is about 90%
29
Heat pump
A heat pump transfers heat from a low temperature level to a higher level. For
example, the lower level is the ground heat which is approximately 12 degrees
during the whole year at any depth. The heat pump works according to the same
principle as a refrigerator, but the goal is different. In a refrigerator the interior is
chilled and the temperature outside is of no importance. In a heat pump, the heat
is important. A room can be heated with it. The heat that arises is the total of the
pump-energy and the heat from the ground. The efficiency seems to be more
than 100%. With a heat pump one uses the concept of COP (= coefficient of
performance). For example, the COP = 4. Then 3 times as much (free) heat,
from the ground is tapped compared with the pump energy. The total amount of
heat produced is then 4 times the pump-energy. The COP of a heat pump is
greater when the temperature difference between inlet and exhaust is smaller.
Therefore, a heat pump is often used in combination with floor heating.
The operation of a heat pump
compressor
ground
heat
evaporator
useful
heat
expansion
valve
condenser
~ a heat pump consists of a closed circuit, in which

a coolant is circulated
~ for evaporation heat is required
~ in the evaporator the coolant evaporates at low
pressure and thereby heat is extracted from the
ground
~ the vapour containing the heat is pumped into
the condenser by means of the compressor
~ by compressing additional heat is generated
~ in the condenser the vapour condenses at high
pressure and the heat which is released is
transferred to the environment as useful heat
~ in the expansion valve the coolant expands
~ pressure and temperature drop
~ now the cycle starts again
30
Press release on 13 January 2009:

"In the Hague a seawater heat plant has been opened. Over 800 homes in
the Scheveningse district "Dune village" will be equipped with heat, which
will be extracted from the North Sea ".
Some data:
~ the system consists of 1 large central heat pump,
that will pump up the temperature of seawater
from 5 degrees to 11 degrees celsius.
~ through a distribution network, water of this
temperature will be supplied to the houses.
~ each house has a small heat pump, which will
increase the temperature to 45 degrees for
(floor) heating and 65 degrees for hot water
Ice stadium and swimming pool heating and cooling each other
The largest indoor sports centre of the Netherlands has been opened in
Dordrecht. Heat released when making ice for the ice rink, will be used
for heating water of the swimming pool, the buildings and the restaurant.
In total 50% less energy is used then in comparable complexes
Combined Heat and Power compared with a heat pump
~ Combined Heat and Power is at the expense of the efficiency at
electricity generation. For a useful amount of heat, the cooling
water should not be too cold, so the efficiency of electricity
generation goes down. (Carnot)
~ Combined Heat and Power is not "green", because it will only
work on electricity generated by means of fossil fuels.
~ Heat pumps can work on "green energy" (in the distant future).
~ A heat pump is roughly 4 times more efficient than "ordinary"
electric heating.
~ Some heat pumps can work in 2 directions. They therefore can be
used for heating or cooling. Also, they can simply be turned off,
this is in contrast to Combined Heat and Power
Possibilities for the generation of heat (idealized)
primary energy = 100%
burning
electricity
waste heat useful heat
100%
generating of electricity
40%
60%
Combined Heat and Power
40%
60%
(40%)
60%
160%
heat pump
Electricity (40%) is completely converted into heat in the heat pump.

At a coefficient of performance = 4 useful heat generated becomes
4 40% = 160%. So the heat pump is significantly more efficient than
Combined Heat and Power.
If the waste heat is also used, the generated heat will be even 220%
31
Batteries
Alkaline battery (AA-cell):
~ contains 1,5 ampere-hour at 1,5 volt, that is 2,25 watt-hours
~ such a battery costs approximately 0,80
~ so 1 kilowatt-hour from an alkaline battery costs 356,00
Rechargeable nickel-metal hydride battery (AA-cell)
~ contains 2,7 ampere-hour at 1,2 volt, that is 3,24 watt-hours
~ the use of rechargeable batteries is much cheaper and more
environmentally friendly than ordinary batteries.
The rechargeable nickel-metal hydride batteries of GP PowerBank meet up to
the electrical specifications for 100%, which may be called noteworthy. I haven't
tested other brands, but there is a lot of chaff among the wheat", especially in
quickly rechargeable batteries. Unfortunately, the dimensions of AA-cells have
not been normalized apparently, or the manufacturers are not always keeping up
to the standard. This may cause (mechanical) problems at some applications
when alkaline batteries are replaced by rechargeable nickel-metal hydride
batteries. Sometimes they are a bit longer and thicker than the alkaline batteries.
Also the lower clamp voltage (1,2 volt) may be a disadvantage.
Some of the features of rechargeable batteries
watt-hours
per kilogram
cell voltage
efficiency
self discharge
volt
charging cycle
per month
lead-acid battery
40
2,1
92%
3%
nickel-cadmium battery
60
1,2
90%
10%
nickel-metal hydride battery
80
1,2
66%
30%
lithium-ion battery
160
3,6
90%
5%
lithium-ion polymer battery
200
3,7
99%
5%
zinc-air battery
470
1,6
---
---
20
1,2
80%
---
vanadium redox battery
The zinc-air battery

The zinc-air battery ("electric fuel") is not rechargeable, in the usual meaning of the
word. When the battery is empty, the (zinc) anodes must be replaced. Application
in an electric car, might be an advantage, because then one doesn't have to wait
for hours until the battery is recharged. Instead, the battery has to be exchanged
with a regenerated one. The zinc-air battery for use in electric cars is still in the
experimental stage. The energy density is 12 times as much as a lead-acid battery,
but still 27 times less than petrol. (at the same weight).
32
The vanadium redox battery

The vanadium redox battery is a liquid battery with a very large energy-content.
The electrolyte is a solution of vanadium sulphate in sulphuric acid. The battery
contains a membrane, which distributes the electrolyte into 2 halves. This
membrane will only allow positive ions to go through.
During loading a redox reaction takes place in the battery. The ionisation degree
of the atoms changes. In one half the electrolyte is reduced and in the other half
oxidized. This will create opposite charges. At discharging, the reverse reactions
will take place. Both halves are connected with their own storage tank with
electrolyte. The amount of electrolyte (and thus the energy content of the battery)
can be made very large. The electrolyte from the storage tank is pumped along
the corresponding electrode. When the battery delivers energy, positive ions flow
trough the membrane, and electrons trough the external circuit. While discharging
the battery, the charges on both sides of the membrane are settled. When the
electrolytes are developed, they should be replaced by fresh electrolytes with a
new load. The battery can also be recharged by an electric current.
Some of the features:
~ the battery is especially suited for stationary applications and can be
used to level off the fluctuating yield of solar panels and windmills
~ the energy density is low, approximately 20 watt-hours per kilogram
~ the lifespan is very large, more than 10,000 load cycles
~ the power is determined by the dimensions of the membrane
~ the energy content is virtually unlimited and is determined by the size
of the storage tanks with the electrolytes
~ already a vanadium redox battery has been made with an energy
content of 12 megawatt-hours.
~ an electric train could run 2000 kilometres on this energy content
(a 4-wagons Double Decker consumes 6 kilowatt-hours per kilometre)
~ loading may be done (very quickly) by replacing the electrolytes,
but the battery can also be recharged by an electric current
~ perhaps the redox battery is interesting for application in an electric car,
because loading can be done very quickly by replacing the electrolytes
The principle of the vanadium redox battery resembles Blue Energy. There
also a membrane is applied that separates 2 electrolytes, salt and fresh water
which have different charges
33
The lifetime of a rechargeable battery or accumulator

~ the lifetime of a rechargeable battery or accumulator
will strongly be influenced by the depth of discharge
~ the end of lifetime is reached, when the capacity is
only 70% of the replacement value
~ the lifetime is expressed in the number of discharge
cycles consumed
For lithium-ion batteries is valid:
depth of
discharge
lifetime
(discharge cycles)
100%
500
50%
1500
25%
2500
10%
4700
The effective number of ampere-hours of a battery

The effective number of ampere-hours of a battery, will be
heavily dependent on the current supplied.
For example:
~ a battery of 100 ampere-hours can deliver a current
of 5 amperes during 20 hours
~ at a current of 25 amperes, the battery will be empty
in 2 hours, which corresponds to 50 ampere-hours
The working cycle of a battery of an electric car
The working cycle consists of 5 sub processes,
each having an efficiency of 95%
~ converting the mains voltage to the desired voltage
of the battery charger
~ charging the battery
~ discharging the battery
~ converting the battery direct current to alternating
current with the desired frequency for driving the
electric 3-phase induction motor of an electric car
~ the electric motor
The total efficiency will be 77%
Quote from "De Ingenieur" ("The Engineer") 13 November 2009:
"Researchers from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology have invented
a battery which is powered by oxidation of silicon. A battery of this type will
have an energy density which is nearly sixty times larger than a high-quality
lithium battery. Theoretically the energy density is 8,5 kilowatt-hours per
kilogram (which is almost as much as petrol) or 21,1 kilowatt-hours per litre.
An industrial introduction may take place within 3 years. Large silicon
rechargeable batteries for use in cars might be available in about 10 years
34
This story is too good to be true and therefore it is probably not true. Would
it be true, then the problem of electric cars would have been resolved.
With a battery-weight, equal to a full petrol tank, (and with half the volume),
the action radius of an electric car would then be about 2000 kilometres. If
the batteries are always charged, when the car doesn't drive, the average
energy-stock would be more than enough for everyday use. The question
remains: how to heat the car in winter. If the energy is derived from the
battery then it will be at the expense of the action radius
Toshiba announces a breakthrough in rechargeable lithium-ion batteries
Early 2008 Toshiba launched an improved lithium-ion battery, the SCiB
(Super Charge ion Battery)
The main features of the standard module, which contains 10 cells, are:
~ the voltage is 24 volt at 4,2 ampere-hours
(so the energy content is 100 watt-hours)
~ the battery is very safe (no explosion or fire hazard)
~ the charging time is 10 minutes
~ the energy density is bad in comparison with an ordinary
lithium-ion battery (100 watt-hours at a weight of 2 kilograms
and a volume of 1,35 cubic decimetre)
~ the lifespan is very large, 10 years or 6000 charging cycles
(after 3000 charging cycles the capacity loss will be only 10%)
~ the battery can be used within a wide temperature range
(-30 to + 45 degrees celsius)
~ the properties of the battery highly agree with those of a
super capacitor (high charge and discharge currents and very
short charge and discharge times)
Using this new type of lithium-ion battery, the electric car, the hybrid car and
also the electric bicycle could become a great success. The rapid charging
is especially interesting for recovery of electrical energy during braking and
speed reduction.
Sony also has developed a new lithium-ion battery
The new Sony battery stands out for the large discharge current, which is
possible. Some of the features:
~ a cell, type 18650 will deliver 1,1 ampere-hours at
3,2 volts, so the energy content will be 3,5 watt-hours
~ the energy density is 95 watt-hours per kilogram
~ the maximum discharge current is 20 amperes
~ the battery can be recharged in 30 minutes up
to 99% of the capacity
~ the lifetime is 2000 charge cycles
35
Nexeon announces a lithium-ion cell, with the "highest energy

content in the world"
This concerns the type of lithium-ion cell, that is often used in laptops
and also in the Tesla Roadster. This cell, the 18650, has a diameter
of 18 and a length of 65 millimetres.
Some of the features:
~ the cell provides 3,2 ampere-hours at 3,6 volts,
so that is 11,5 watt-hours (compare the cells in the
Tesla Roadster, supplying 8,2 watt-hours each)
~ the energy density is 275 watt-hours per kilogram
~ n the long term even 4 ampere-hours is expected,
that is 14,4 watt-hours per cell
~ the lifetime is 300 charge cycles
This may be an interesting breakthrough, for example for use in an
electric bicycle
KIT also announces a new type of battery
Another piece of news mentions a new type of battery, with an energy
content 10 times as high as an ordinary lithium-ion battery. Maybe it
will ever get some with electric cars etc.
The graphene super capacitor
The latest news in the field of batteries and super capacitors is the
graphene super capacitor.
Fast charging of a battery
At the fast charging of a battery from the mains, one gets to do with
massive charge currents.
~ to charge 9,1 kilowatt-hours (= 1 litre of petrol equivalent) in
1 hour from 230 volt, a current of 9100 / 230 = 40 amperes
will be needed. (efficiencies disregarded).
~ if this amount of energy will be charged in 3 minutes in a
battery then the current from the mains will be 20 times as
large, so 800 amperes.
So the refuelling of energy in the form of petrol is much easier and
faster than the "refuelling" of electrical energy.
Batteries and accumulators are (still) not very suitable for storing (very) large
quantities of electrical energy, such as is required in an electric car. Even if
by new developments batteries and accumulators will be smaller and lighter,
still the problems remain of charging with very large currents or long charging
times. At a certain amount of energy the product of charging current and
charging time will be constant. At a short charging time, the charging current
will be large. Conversely, a small charging current will expire irrevocably in
long charging times. In this regard the use of fuel cells is less problematic,
because then hydrogen will be refuelled.
The (total) efficiency however, will be significantly worse, and of course the
question remains: "where does the hydrogen come from".
36
Atomic battery
In an atomic battery energy is released by the decay of radioactive isotopes
and not by a chain reaction. There are 2 techniques to generate electricity:
Some examples:
thermal conversion
~ a thermocouple produces a small electrical current
if heat is applied.
~ a hot-air engine starts running if heat is applied
non-thermal conversion
~ a capacitor is loaded if radiation, coming from a
radioactive source, is beaming on one of the plates.
~ radioactive radiation can be converted into infrared light,
a photocell can convert this into electricity.
~ an electromechanical nuclear battery consists of a fixed
metal plate and a bendable plate.
~ both are isolated from each other.
~ radioactive radiation creates opposite charges and as
a result the bendable plate will move towards the fixed
plate until they touch.
~ then the plates are discharged and the bendable plate
moves back again.
~ this process repeats itself 35 times per second.
~ the movement of the bendable plate is converted into
electricity by a piezoelectric material
Some of the features of the nuclear battery
~ very expensive
~ small size
~ low efficiency, up to 8%
~ extremely long life, many decades
~ very high energy content
~ small power
~ can work by heat generation or beta radiation
as a result of radioactive decay
~ applications in the medical sector (pacemakers)
~ as an energy source for space vehicles and
communications equipment
~ in underwater systems and in computerized
scientific systems on hard to reach places
37
Walking and cycling

For a person of 75 kilograms the basal metabolism will be about 300 kilojoules
per hour. That is 2 kilowatt-hours per day. This amount of energy will be needed
continuously for heartbeat, breathing, maintaining the constant body temperature
(supplementing the heat losses), digestion etc. For example, the energy content
of 1 litre of whole milk is 2700 kilojoules and that will be sufficient for 9 hours
basal metabolism.
~ approximately 300 kilojoules extra will be needed to walk 1 kilometre
~ approximately 60 kilojoules extra will be needed to cycle 1 kilometre
So walking costs 5 times as much energy as cycling over the same distance
Now the calculation for walking and cycling during the same time:
~ 1 hour walk = 4 kilometres = 4 300 = 1200 kilojoules
~ 1 hour cycling = 20 kilometres = 20 60 = 1200 kilojoules
So walking will cost the same amount of energy as cycling during the same time
The amount of energy necessary for cycling depends heavily on the bike speed
and the wind. In this example no headwind is assumed and the cyclist is seated
upright. The above figures show how much energy is consumed in the form of
food. The energy content of 1 litre of petrol is 32,6 mega joules. Conversion to
the petrol-equivalent provides the following values:
Walking: 1 litre per 108 km
Cycling: 1 litre per 540 km
A recumbent
The air resistance of a recumbent is about 3 times as small as at a regular bicycle
with an upright seated cyclist. Therefore less energy per kilometre will be needed.
At a speed of 20 kilometres per hour and no wind the petrol equivalent of
a recumbent will be 1 litre per 1235 km
Walking:
~ the mass of a walker is lifted up and down a few centimetres at
every step, that takes a lot of energy
~ the energy used is proportional to the mass (weight) of the walker
Cycling:
~ a cyclist is fixated on the saddle and his centre of gravity
always remains at the same height. When one leg goes
down, the other goes up
~ energy is only used for overcoming the air resistance and
rolling friction when cycling on a flat road with constant speed
The rider's weight is not an issue. (Newtons 1st Law)
~ acceleration and driving up a slope costs extra energy
Then the required energy is proportional to the weights
of rider + bicycle.
38
The amount of mechanical energy required for cycling 100 kilometres

~ an upright seated cyclist has to produce a power of approximately
75 watts during 5 hours, whilst cycling 20 kilometres per hour and
no wind
~ so 100 kilometres of cycling requires a quantity of mechanical
energy of 75 5 = 375 watt-hours
~ this equals 1350 kilojoules.
~ the efficiency of the conversion of food into mechanical energy
in the muscles is 25%
~ so in the form of food 4 x 1350 = 5400 kilojoules will be required,
that equals the energy content of only 2 litres of whole milk.
~ one doesn't lose weight by cycling 100 kilometres
As a result of heat losses one does lose weight from swimming
(and especially by eating less).
~ at a headwind of 5 metres per second (= 18 kilometres per hour)
3 times as much energy will be needed as when there is no wind.
39
Electric bicycle
~ on an electric bicycle the cyclist is supported by an
electric motor
~ this motor gets its energy from a rechargeable battery
~ the degree of support is automatically controlled by
a pedal sensor
~ the pedal sensor measures the force that is being
exercised on the pedals
~ the motor gets energy proportional to that force
~ the result is, that on a slope or with headwind,
support will increase
Ideally, climbing a slope or cycling against wind will be as easy as cycling on
a flat road without wind. But of course that will cost a lot of energy. Therefore
it is possible at most electric bicycles, to adjust the extent of support more
or less progressively by using a switch on the bicycle handlebar. One can for
example, choose between the modes "normal" or "power". The action radius
of the support is determined by the energy content of the battery and the
energy consumption of the motor.
The legal maximum power of the motor is 250 watts.
Electric bicycles are so constructed that the electric motor can only be enabled,
when one is pedalling. A bicycle with an auxiliary engine in the literal sense of
the word.
The energy consumption of an electric bicycle
The energy consumption of an electric bicycle is strongly depending on the
circumstances under which the bicycle will be used. For example:
~ 50% support
~ an upright seated cyclist
~ a speed of 20 kilometres per hour
~ a headwind of 4 metres per second
~ hard inflated tyres
Under these circumstances, the energy delivered by the battery will be
5 watt-hours per kilometre
~ the total efficiency of the charging cycle of the
battery and the electricity generation is 30%
~ so the primary energy consumption is
5 / 0,30 = 16,7 watt-hours per kilometre
~ converted to petrol-equivalent this is
1 litre per 545 km
40
Electric trains
The Double Decker
The Double Decker is the most modern and efficient train of the Dutch Railways.
~ the basic implementation of the train is 4 wagons
with 372 seats
~ the total length of 4 wagons is 108 metres.
~ the weight, including the travellers is 254 tonnes.
~ the power is 1608 kilowatts.
The weight and number of passengers in this train is similar to that of a Jumbo.
In the following, global calculation we will assume an 85% efficiency of the train,
a trajectory of 14 kilometres and a speed of 140 kilometres per hour
(= 39 metres per second).
~ the maximum power of 1608 kilowatts will be used during
acceleration
~ the speed of 140 kilometres per hour will be reached
in 2,4 minutes
~ at that time 3000 metres have been travelled and
54 kilowatt-hours consumed
~ during the following 9360 metres 1/3 of the power is used
~ in the next 4 minutes, at a constant speed, 30 kilowatthours are consumed (overcoming the rolling resistance
frictional losses and air resistance)
~ the remaining 1640 metres will be used for speed reduction
and braking
~ so the net amount of energy consumed will be 54 + 30 =
84 kilowatt-hours (that is some more than the energy the
Greenpeace solar panel of 0,75 square metres will generate
in a year).
~ the total efficiency of the electricity generation and the train
together will be 33% 85% = 28%.
~ for a trajectory of 14 kilometres gross consumption will be
84 / 0,28 = 300 kilowatt-hours which is equivalent to
33 litres of petrol
~ this will allow 372 persons to be transported over a distance
of 14 kilometres
~ which is a consumption of 1 litre per 158 km per traveller
~ during the braking of the train, energy can be fed back into
the overhead line.
~ much extra energy is needed for heating in winter
~ that energy should also be supplied via the overhead line
The results of this calculation come out well in line with the data I got from a
train driver. In a car the heating is provided by waste-heat. At a train energy
for heating is generated with an efficiency of approximately 33%
41
The Thalys
The Thalys, which runs on the High Speed Line, consumes much more
energy than an ordinary train. The 1500 volt direct current, as applied in
the Netherlands, will no longer be sufficient.
The Thalys on the line Amsterdam-Paris is suitable for 3 different voltages:
~ 25000 volts alternating current (on all High Speed Lines,
for this the train has been designed)
~ 3000 volt direct current (in Belgium on existing rail)
~ 1500 volt direct current (in the Netherlands on existing rail)
The switching happens automatically. In the Netherlands, the Thalys partially
runs on tracks that already exist. There the speed will be limited to about
160 kilometres per hour especially near Rotterdam and Amsterdam. The train
is equipped with 6 different signalling systems, including the Dutch, Belgian,
German and French system
~ the Thalys has a fixed composition of 8 wagons
and 2 motor cars with 377 seats.
~ its length is 200 metres.
~ its weight, including the travellers is 414 tonnes
~ its power is 8850 kilowatts.
In the following global calculation will be assumed that the train will have an
efficiency of 85%. The trajectory will be 100 kilometres and the speed will
be 300 kilometres per hour. (= 83 metres per second)
~ during acceleration the maximum power of 8850 kilowatts
is used
~ the speed of 300 kilometres per hour will be reached after
3,5 minutes
~ at that time then 8 kilometres have been travelled and
396 kilowatt-hours consumed
~ during the following 92 kilometres 2/3 of the power is used
~ then in 18,4 minutes, at a constant speed, 1538 kilowatt-hours
will be consumed (for overcoming the rolling resistance,
frictional losses and air resistance)
~ so the net amount of energy consumed is 396 + 1538 =
1934 kilowatt-hours
~ the total efficiency of the electricity generation and train
together will be 33% 85% = 28%
~ for the entire route of 100 kilometres the gross consumption
will be 1934 / 0,28 = 6907 kilowatt-hours
~ this is the equivalent to 759 litres of petrol
~ this allows 377 persons to be transported over a distance
of 100 kilometres
~ per traveller this is a consumption of 1 litre per 50 km
42
Vessels
Electric boat (seen on an exhibition of boats)
~ a battery of 420 ampere-hours and 24 volts, so 10 kilowatt-hours.
~ this amount of energy is sufficient to sail a boat of 800 kilograms for
8 hours at a speed of 6 kilometres per hour.
~ the energy costs about 2,- and for that price 8 persons could be
transported over a distance of 50 kilometres.
~ converted to petrol-equivalent, that is 1 litre per 91 km per person.
The fast ferry between Harwich and Hook of Holland
~ this boat, a Catamaran, with a speed of 75 kilometres
per hour is the fastest ferry in the world.
~ the boat is powered by 4 gas turbines with a total
capacity (power) of 69 000 kilowatts.
~ the boat is 124 metres long and 40 metres wide.
~ the transport capacity is 1500 passengers and 350 cars
~ so the amount of energy consumed is
69 000 / 75 = 920 kilowatt-hours per kilometre.
~ the consumption is 337 litres of petrol-equivalent per
kilometre at an efficiency of 30% of the gas turbines.
~ a car weighs on average as much as 12 passengers.
~ altogether that is the weight of
350 12 + 1500 = 5700 passengers.
~ this is 1 litre per 17 km per "passenger".
This ferry has been taken out of service, because there was too little interest
43
Aircraft
The Boeing 747
Jumbo"
Some global data and calculations:

~ a Jumbo can carry a maximum of 100 000 litres of fuel per wing.
~ the action radius is then 13 500 kilometres. (= 1/3 of the Earth's
circumference).
~ the fuel consumption will therefore be:
2 100 000 / 13 500 = 15 litres per kilometre
~ a Jumbo can carry 450 passengers.
~ so the fuel consumption is 1 litre per 30 km per passenger
(far more economical than a car with 1 passenger).
~ about half of the take-off weight of a Jumbo consists of fuel
(on a long distance flight).
~ the empty weight is 181 tonnes, the maximum fuel weight is
173 tonnes.
~ refuelling will take about an hour. That's 200 000 litres in
60 minutes = 3 333 litres per minute.
~ 200 000 litres = 200 cubic metres. This is the equivalent of a
"swimming pool" of 2 metres deep with a surface of 10 by 10 metres.
~ the cruising speed at a height of 10 kilometres is 900 kilometres
per hour.
~ the flight time is 15 hours for the maximum distance of
13 500 kilometres.
~ so the average fuel consumption of the 4 engines together is
200 000 litres per 15 hours. That is a primary energy consumption
of 200 000 10 kilowatt-hours per 15 hours
(1 litre of kerosene = 10 kilowatt-hours)
~ this is 40 000 kilowatt-hours per hour useful energy at an
efficiency of 30%. A power of 40 000 kilowatts = 40 megawatts.
~ the "take off" speed is 290 kilometres per hour.
~ within 1 minute the Jumbo is independent of the runway
So the (average) acceleration is 1,5 metres per seconds2
~ the distance travelled on the runway is 2000 to 2500 metres
(depending on the take-off weight)
44
The petrol car

The petrol consumption of an average car is 1 litre per 15 km. At a speed
of 120 kilometres per hour, that is 8 litres of petrol per hour. The efficiency
of a petrol engine is heavily dependent on:
~ the revolutions per minute
~ the delivered torque
~ the momentary power
The maximum achievable efficiency is 25% and this is determined by the
compression ratio and the temperature range in the cylinders. (Carnot)
The efficiency of a diesel engine is approximately 35%. A petrol engine
can approach this by:
~ optimal fuel injection
~ optimal oxygen-fuel ratio at all revolutions
~ optimal ignition-time at all revolutions
~ as many valves as possible
~ variable valve timing
~ a motor temperature as high as possible
Hence ever experiments took place with ceramic engines. That would allow a
higher temperature than with engines made of metal. Affecting the efficiency
is caused by:
~ the use of the catalyst
~ cold start
~ variable speed
~ variable load
~ cooling
~ idling
45
The electric car
An electric car from 1916
Already 5000 electric cars had been manufactured in America by Baker Electric
between 1899 and 1915. The top speed was 23 kilometres per hour, with an
action radius of 80 kilometres. Another well-known brand in the initial phase was
Detroit Electric. This company produced electric cars that reached a top speed
of 32 kilometres per hour, at a 130 kilometres action radius.
A car battery of 12 volt, 36 ampere-hours can provide 12 36 = 432 watt-hours
energy. The contents of a normal petrol tank is 48 litres. This corresponds to
437 kilowatt-hours. which is approximately equal to the energy content of
1000 car batteries.
Nowadays electric cars can cover reasonable distances. That is due to:
~ a better kind of battery (nickel-metal hydride or lithium-ion
instead of lead batteries)
~ the higher efficiency of the electric motor (90%) compared
with a petrol engine (25%)
~ a lower speed (the air resistance is proportional to the 2nd
power of the speed)
~ a low rolling resistance, low weight and a streamline
~ regenerating of energy during braking, speed reduction and
descending a slope
Some characteristics of the electric car are:
~ the electric car is virtually silent
~ the electric car produces no exhaust gases
(but the power plant does all the more)
~ there are only a few moving parts, so there is less maintenance
~ it is relatively easy to drive the individual wheels separately,
so there is no need for a differential
~ at the same amount of propulsion energy the primary energy
consumption is higher than for a hybrid or diesel car, equal
for a petrol car and less than for a hydrogen car
~ at the same amount of propulsion energy the (indirect)
CO2-emissions is the same for a hybrid or diesel car but
lower than for a petrol or hydrogen car
~ the electric motor can deliver maximum torque at all speeds,
this enables a quick acceleration
~ the efficiency of the electric motor is high at all revolutions
~ the electric motor is never running idle
~ there is no need for a gearbox
~ the action radius is (very) limited
~ the battery is heavy, very expensive and takes a lot of space
~ charging the battery lasts very long (minimum 4 hours)
~ heating an electric car comes at the expense of the range
46
For special applications such as courier services, municipal services

and commuting there may be a future for electric cars in the offing.
It decreases the air pollution in the large cities, however
at the expense of the air pollution at the power plant
The General Motors EV1
The General Motors EV1 (electric vehicle) has been produced between 1996
and 1999. It was an electric 2-seater car 1117 pieces have been produced.
They were not for sale, as they were meant to be for leasing purposes only.
In 2003 all cars were seized and destroyed by General Motors except for a
few units, that were donated to museums and schools. At first they were made
unusable. This may have happened under pressure of the oil industry. The first
draft was created on the occasion of the "World Solar Challenge" in Australia
in 1987. The first type, the "Impact" reached a top speed of 295 kilometres per
hour. Everyone was excited, except General Motors. They started developing
the EV-1, to show that time was not yet ripe for a successful electric car.
However, the developers were so excited, that it was difficult to curb them.
The battery of this car could be charged via an induction coil. This was safe
during rainy periods. Slow charging via a plug was also possible. For the user
the EV-1 was a great success. For General Motors the profit margin was too
low and there was fear that the sale of ordinary cars, which created much profit,
would decrease. This happened anyway, because Japan imported many
modern cars. The EV-1 was the best electric car ever made. It was far ahead
of its time.
Some data:
~ low weight because of an aluminium frame and plastic components
~ a very low air resistance
~ heating by means of a heat pump
~ keyless entry and ignition
~ the power of the 3-phase induction motor was 102 kilowatts
~ the car accelerated in 8 seconds from 0 to 100 kilometres per hour
~ its top speed was 130 kilometres per hour
~ the energy content of the nickel-metal hydride battery was
26 kilowatt-hours
~ the action radius was 200 kilometres
~ the average energy consumption was 130 watt-hours per kilometre
~ the load time of the battery was 8 hours
A film has been made about this car in 2006: "Who killed the electric car?"
47
The Tesla Roadster
In 2008 a 2-seater electric sports car was introduced in America,

the Tesla Roadster
Some data:
~ the power of the 3-phase induction motor is 215 kilowatts
~ the efficiency of the motor is 92%
(virtually independent of the speed)
~ the car accelerates in 4 seconds from 0 to 100 kilometres per hour
~ then the acceleration is 0,7 g (g = the acceleration of gravity)
~ the top speed is 200 kilometres per hour
~ the energy content of the lithium-ion battery is 56 kilowatt-hours
(that is equivalent to 6,1 litres of petrol)
~ the battery consists of 6831 "laptop" cells (type 18650), which
are cooled liquidly
~ the energy content of 1 cell is 8,2 watt-hours
~ the energy density of the battery is 121 watt-hours per kilogram
(including housing)
~ the action radius is 340 kilometres (at a constant speed of 100
kilometres per hour)
~ at this speed the energy consumption of the electric motor is
56 000 / 340 = 165 watt-hours per kilometre
~ the total efficiency (plug-to-wheel) of the car is 88%
~ so the energy consumption from the outlet is
165 / 0,88 = 188 watt-hours per kilometre
~ the total efficiency of the production of electricity is 33%
~ converted to petrol-equivalent one arrives at 1 litre per 16 km
~ the weight of the car is 1240 kilograms
~ the minimum loading time of the battery is 4 hours
The quick acceleration is due to the fact that the electric motor delivers a constant
torque on the entire range from 0 up to 6000 revolutions per minute.
The Mechanics teaches that the same amount of energy is needed for fast or slow
acceleration to the same end-speed. At a constant speed on a flat road, the weight
of the car hardly is important. During acceleration and climbing a slope the weight
is indeed important. But while braking, speed reduction and descending a slope, in
proportion to the weight more or less energy will be recovered.
48
The Tesla model S
In 2013 a 5-seater electric car was introduced in Europe,

the Tesla model S
Some data:
~ the power of the 3-phase induction motor is 270 kilowatts
~ the efficiency of the motor is 92%
(virtually independent of the speed)
~ the car accelerates in 5,6 seconds from 0 to 100 kilometres per hour
(= 9,3 litres of petrol-equivalent)
~ the action radius is 480 kilometres (at a constant speed of
88 kilometres per hour)
~ at this speed the energy consumption of the electric motor is
85 000 / 480 = 177 watt-hours per kilometre
~ the total efficiency ("plug-to-wheel") of the car is 88%
~ so the energy consumption from the outlet is
~ the total efficiency of the production of electricity is 33%
~ converted to petrol-equivalent one arrives at 1 litre per 15 km
~ at home the loading time of the battery is about 8 hours
~ with a supercharger the battery can be loaded to 80%
in 40 minutes. That requires 0,8 85 = 68 kilowatt-hours
~ the supercharger delivers direct current directly to the battery.
With special cables the loading equipment in the car is bypassed.
~ initially the direct current is 200 amperes at a voltage of 380 volts
(76 kilowatts). The current slowly decreases to 125 amperes,
until 80% loading is reached
~ the superchargers are built along major highways
In the Netherlands there are already 3 pieces.
The Tesla model X
In 2015 the Tesla model X was launched
A few details of the top model:
~ 2 engines with a combined power of 568 kilowatts
~ the energy content of the battery is 90 kilowatt-hours
~ the action radius is 400 kilometres
~ the car accelerates in 3,4 seconds from 0 to 100 kilometres per hour
49
The Opel Ampera
A new interesting development is the Opel Ampera. This is a 4-seater car

which meets with the problem of the long charging time of a battery and the
limited range of the electric car. The Ampera will be launched around 2012
and will be equipped with a "charging engine". The energy content of the
battery will be sufficient for an action radius of 60 kilometres. The charging
engine is only intended to load the battery when it gets empty during a long
ride. Thus the action radius will be increased up to 500 kilometres. This will
make the applicability of this electric car more attractive. Although the entire
concept does not save any energy, at a well planned use, on short distances
(commuting) one never needs to fuel the tank, while the risk of an empty
battery will be avoided. The charging engine works at a constant speed,
with maximum efficiency. The Ampera is solely propelled by the electric
motor. The charging engine has the sole task of charging the battery, when
it is drained during a long ride.
Some data:
~ the power of the electric motor is 110 kilowatts
~ the car accelerates in 9 seconds from 0 to 100 kilometres per hour
~ its top speed is 160 kilometres per hour
(= 1,8 litre petrol-equivalent)
~ the action radius without recharging is 60 kilometres
~ the action radius together with the charging engine is 500 kilometres
~ the power of the charging engine is 60 kilowatts
50
The hybrid car
The Prius
In 1997 Toyota has launched the "Prius". This is a hybrid car. In 2004 an
improved version appeared. Worldwide there are now (2013) more than
3 million cars of this type. It is a car which is propelled by an electric motor
(60 kilowatts), a petrol engine (73 kilowatts) or a combination of both,
depending on the situation. Its goal is to achieve an as high as possible
(vehicle) efficiency.
~ the efficiency of the (Atkinson) petrol engine is high, but strongly
depending on the load and the speed
~ the electric motor always has a high efficiency
~ the electric motor is working when the efficiency of the petrol
engine is low
~ the energy for the electric motor is supplied by a rechargeable
nickel-metal hydride battery of 1,3 kilowatt-hours
(= 0,14 litres of petrol-equivalent)
~ at (regenerative) braking and speed reduction the electric motor
works as a dynamo and delivers energy back to the battery
~ in addition, the battery is recharged by a generator, which is
linked to the petrol engine
~ the charging happens, when the petrol engine works with a high
efficiency
~ the generator can also provide energy directly to the electric
motor
~ the petrol engine, generator and electric motor are linked
together by means of a mechanical energy distributor, which is
controlled by a microprocessor
~ this energy distributor also functions as a continuously variable
automatic transmission
~ the efficiency of this automatic gearbox is much higher than an
ordinary manual gearbox.
51
The hybrid system can of course never be more energy efficient than
the petrol engine which is part of it
All energy is derived from this engine and all energy conversions are
accompanied with (small) losses. The profit of the hybrid system is extracted
from the following properties
~ the electric motor works during starting from
standstill and at low speeds
~ the petrol engine is designed for the average
power and therefore it will be extra economical.
~ the electric motor assists the petrol engine during
acceleration and short-term at high speeds.
~ energy is returned to the battery when speed is
reduced and while braking.
~ the petrol engine stops once the car is stationary
and so never idles.
~ the petrol engine works as much as possible
under circumstances when the efficiency is high.
~ at low efficiency of the petrol engine the electric
motor assists.
In braking-stopping-acceleration situations the highest effect of the hybrid system
is achieved. For instance in traffic jams and in cities with many traffic lights. Over
long distances and at high speed the hybrid system is not working. Then only the
economical (Atkinson) petrol engine works. The efficiency of this engine is 34%.
A normal petrol engine has an efficiency of 25%. The Prius (a luxury 5-seater car),
with an "energy monitor" on the dashboard, invites you to practise an economical
driving style. The consumption then will approach the 1 litre per 25 km
provided by Toyota.
The Prius 4
In 2016 the Prius 4 was launched.
Some data:
~ the efficiency of the Atkinson engine is 40%
~ the petrol consumption is 1 litre per 30 km
52
The fuel cell car

Some characteristics of the fuel cell car are:
~ the energy source for a fuel cell car is hydrogen gas
~ in a fuel cell the hydrogen gas is burned, as a result
electricity is generated
~ at the combustion of hydrogen no harmful gases arise,
just water
~ the generated electricity is fed through a battery to an
electric motor which propels the car
~ while braking and speed reduction energy is returned
to the battery
The question remains: "where does the hydrogen come from"
Hydrogen can be obtained by electrolysis (decomposition) of water.
The electric energy needed for the decomposition of the water must be
generated through combustion of fossil fuels (which causes harmful
gases), nuclear energy, wind energy or other forms of "green" energy
Hydrogen can also be extracted from crude oil or natural gas. It is said
Shell will try to produce this in the near future. But that will cost fossil fuel.
Efficiencies
~ the efficiency of the generation of electricity is 40%
~ the efficiency of electrolysis of water is 80%
~ the efficiency of a fuel cell is 50%
~ the efficiency of an electric motor is 90%
So the efficiency of the fuel cell and the electric motor together is
50% x 90% = 45%
So the car that runs on hydrogen, will be no solution to the
energy problem. The total efficiency is only 14%
(40% 80% 50% 90% = 14%)
The energy consumption of the fuel cell car, converted to petrol
equivalent, is about 1 litre per 9 km
Will the fuel cell car ever appear on the road?
It is not very likely that the fuel cell car ever will appear (large-scale) on
the road. It is more obvious, that in future cars will drive on synthetic petrol,
synthetic diesel oil or electricity.
Also GTL (gas to liquid) has enormous potential, in particular now that
worldwide gigantic amounts of shale gas are found.
Instructive toy
A working system of a fuel cell car in the form of an instructive toy is for
sale for 159,- It includes a solar cell, a reactor for the production of
hydrogen by means of electrolysis of water and a fuel cell car.
53
Toyota
It is striking, that especially Toyota is very active with the development of
"green" cars on all fronts. All are full cars without any compromise in the
area of safety and luxury. For years they have been tested and applied in
practice on a large scale
~ the electric car
~ the hybrid car (Prius)
~ the fuel cell car
The production of the electric car has been discontinued, because of low
interest. Toyota now produces an assortment of 4 hybrid cars and 1 plug-in
hybrid car.
In 2015 Toyota launches the first fuel cell car
The Mirai
Some preliminary data

~ this 4-seater fuel cell car has a action radius
of 700 kilometres.
~ that is 4 to 5 times as much as an electric car.
~ the hydrogen gas can be tanked in 3 minutes.
~ the pressure in the 2 hydrogen tanks is
70 atmospheres.
~ the car is usable from a temperature of minus
30 degrees celsius.
Large scale application is expected around 2020. Condition for the introduction
of the fuel cell car is an infrastructure that makes it possible that in many places
(the very explosive and thus dangerous) hydrogen gas can be tanked under
high pressure
Honda, as well as Toyota a pioneer in the field of hybrid cars, is now launching
the "Insight", after the hybrid version of the "Civic"
Volkswagen says the hybrid car is an "ecological disaster", because it contains a
large battery. Nevertheless, it is also concerned with the development of a hybrid
car, "because there is a demand for such a car". If the allegation of Volkswagen
would be correct, then the electric car should be a major disaster, because it
contains a very large battery.
BMW has let us know to refrain from the development of the fuel cell car for the
time being. They will however develop an internal combustion engine that will run
on hydrogen. The efficiency of this engine would be about 50%.
Opel describes the Prius as "technologically prehistoric". (the grapes are very
acidic). The market introduction (in 2011) of the Ampera has been postponed
because of problems with the lithium-ion battery. (spontaneous combustion)
54
The Hydrogen Economy

The energy scenario of the future, when the fossil fuels will be exhausted,
may be (partially) based on the so-called Hydrogen Economy. Hereby it is
assumed that an endless amount of "green" energy will be available
around 2050.
~ solar energy (from the Sahara) and wind energy
(submitted by wind farms in sea) are not available
continuously (the Sun does not shine at night and
the wind is not always blowing)
~ thus for the electricity generated by these "green"
energy sources, there is a storage problem.
~ it is possible to use electricity for the production of
hydrogen by electrolysis (decomposition) of water.
~ unlike electricity, hydrogen can be stored under
very high pressure, both in unlimited quantities
and during long periods of time.
~ transport could take place through a network of
pipelines to tank stations, although huge practical
problems will arise.
~ it seems more obvious to produce hydrogen onsite
at tank stations.
~ the hydrogen can deliver electricity via fuel cells
where the only "combustion" product is water.
~ in this scenario hydrogen is an energy carrier
Some people think hydrogen is an inexhaustible source of energy,
but it's not. On the contrary. Producing hydrogen by electrolysis of
water will cost 1,25 times more energy than it will deliver
In the media usually the "evidence" of the inexhaustibility is suggested by
showing the sea in the background which is nonsense of course, because
water contains no energy. First it must be decomposed into hydrogen and
oxygen. The hydrogen economy provides the following image:
green energy > electrolysis of water > hydrogen > fuel cell > electricity
Efficiencies of storing energy in a battery or in hydrogen
~ the efficiency of storing energy in a battery is 90%
~ the efficiency of electrolysis of water is 80% and
of the fuel cell is 50%
~ so the cycle efficiency of storing energy in hydrogen
is 80% x 50% = 40%
Hydrogen as a storage medium of energy only seems useful for vehicles,
when the oil is exhausted and if there has still been no breakthrough in
battery technology. Also it is conceivable that the atomic battery ever might
be a solution.
55
Comparison petrol hydrogen

Comparison of the CO2 emissions at the combustion of 1 litre of petrol
and at the production of 1 kilogram of hydrogen.
In this example the hydrogen is produced by electrolysis of water with
electricity provided by a gas-fired plant.
Petrol
~ the energy content of 1 litre of petrol is 9,1 kilowatt-hours
~ at the combustion of 1 litre of petrol the CO2 emissions will
be 3,1 kilograms "well-to-wheel"
~ that is 3,1 / 9,1 = 0,34 kilograms CO2 per kilowatt-hour
Hydrogen
~ the energy content of 1 kilogram of hydrogen is 33,6 kilowatt-hours
~ the production of 1 kilogram of hydrogen by electrolysis
of water takes 33,6 / 0,8 = 42 kilowatt-hours (the efficiency = 80%)
~ for producing 42 kilowatt-hours by a gas fired plant
42 / 0,4 = 105 kilowatt-hours of primary energy will be needed
(the efficiency is 40%)
~ that is 12 cubic metres of natural gas
(1 cubic metre of natural gas = 8,8 kilowatt-hours)
~ at the combustion of 1 cubic metre of natural gas
2,2 kilograms of CO2 is created well-to-wheel
~ at the combustion of 12 cubic metre of natural gas
12 x 2,2 = 26 kilograms of CO2 is created
~ that is (indirectly) 26 / 33,6 = 0,77 kilograms of CO2 per kilowatt-hour
Efficiencies
~ the efficiency of a gas fired plant is 40%
~ the efficiency of electrolysis of water is 80%
~ so the efficiency of the production of hydrogen
will be 40% x 80% = 32%
Natural gas and petroleum products, such as diesel oil and petrol, are chemical
compounds of carbon and hydrogen. These so-called hydro-carbons are, unlike
pure hydrogen, very well manageable. Energy will be released by incineration of
both the carbon and hydrogen. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are
formed respectively
The production of hydrogen using nuclear energy may take place via a thermo
chemical process or through electrolysis of water. However, the ideal solution is to
produce hydrogen using "green" energy. The potential of economically extractable
"green" energy is (very) little and the conversion to hydrogen is particularly
inefficient. Of course it is possible to produce hydrogen from fossil fuel, but that
was precisely not the intention because we are running out of fossil fuels.
56
There are quite a few misunderstandings about water, hydro power, hydrogen
and nuclear fusion of hydrogen-isotopes. Therefore the following overview:
Water
Water is the combustion product of hydrogen and oxygen. So it contains
no energy
Hydro power
When fast running water or water under high pressure drives a turbine, hydro
power is released. This happens in a hydroelectric power plant. Hydro power
is an energy source
Hydrogen gas
Water can be decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis. The energy
in hydrogen is released again at the "burning" in a fuel cell. The energy for the
decomposition of water initially has to be provided by fossil fuels, nuclear energy,
nuclear fusion, wind energy, hydropower, geothermal energy or solar energy. (so
by energy sources). Therefore hydrogen is not an energy source but an energy
carrier.
Nuclear fusion of hydrogen isotopes
Trough nuclear fusion hydrogen isotopes can fuse into helium. A huge amount of
energy is then released. This technique is still in its infancy and it will be at least
50 years before there may be practical applications. (if ever)
Nuclear fusion is an energy source.
Some quotes from letters in NRC-Handelsblad
The promise that in future hydrogen will be the solution for the energy supply for
mankind, is based on pure fantasy. Not technically. It works: the hydrogen engine,
the fuel cell and also the windmills or the solar cells that might deliver the energy
needed for the electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen.
Without any quantification, about the potential of the said technique, this kind
of stories fits into the popular magazines of the car lobby, not in the NRC.
The biggest objection against the use of hydrogen as a fuel in cars is that it is very
unsafe. Both at the distribution trough pipelines and when driving a car safety is
bad. At application of electrolysis using electricity produced in a natural gas-fired
power plant, the chain is:
natural gas > electricity > hydrogen > electricity > propulsion energy
One would really come up with the idea to drive cars on natural gas and to forget
hydrogen
57
Nuclear fusion
There are 2 types of nuclear reactions, suitable for the generation of energy.
~ fission of uranium nuclei. This is called nuclear energy
~ fusion of hydrogen nuclei. This is called nuclear fusion
Mass loss happens in both processes. In nuclear fission, this is about 0,10% and in
nuclear fusion 0,35%. The "disappeared" mass is converted into energy according
to the formula of Einstein
The energy that the Sun radiates comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms.
This nuclear fusion is formed at an extremely high pressure and a temperature of
15 million degrees celsius. In nuclear fusion on Earth the pressure is negligible in
comparison with the Sun and therefore the temperature here should be very much
higher, around 150 million degrees celsius.
If matter is very strongly heated, it forms a plasma. In a plasma the atomic nuclei
and electrons move separately. Atomic nuclei are positively charged and repel. The
repellent force is overcome at 150 million degrees by the speed of the movement
of the atomic nuclei. As a result nuclear fusion occurs
The fusion reaction which can best be established on Earth is the merging of the
hydrogen isotopes Deuterium and Tritium. This produces Helium atoms, neutrons
and very much energy. Fusion of a Deuterium-Tritium mixture with a mass of 250
kilogram generates as much energy as the incineration of 2,7 million tonnes of coal
That is sufficient to keep a power plant of 1000 megawatts running at full power
for one year.
The main problem with fusion is the extremely high temperature, which is needed
in the plasma. No material is resistant to this extreme temperature. In a so-called
"Tokamak" the hot plasma is trapped in a strong magnetic field and there is no
contact with the wall. A Tokamak is a ring-shaped reactor where the plasma is
heated up to the temperature at which fusion occurs.
To deliver more energy than necessary for the merging process a Tokamak must
have a minimum size. This will be realized for the first time in ITER (International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor), the first (experimental) fusion power plant.
The outer dimensions are: 24 metres high and 34 metres in diameter. ITER is a
project, which Reagan and Gorbachev have taken the initiative for at the end of the
cold war. ITER must demonstrate the possibility of long-term energy generation
with nuclear fusion.
It is expected that during 10 minutes 500 megawatts can be generated. This is ten
times more than the amount of energy that is used for maintaining the hot fusion
plasma. ITER is the biggest international scientific research project since the
construction of the International Space Station. (ISS)
58
After ITER a larger power plant DEMO will be built. That should demonstrate
the technical feasibility, reliability and economic attractiveness of fusion energy
Around 2050 the first prototype of a commercial fusion reactor PROTO should
be ready. Nuclear fusion is inherently safe. There is no chain reaction. If something
goes wrong, the reaction will stop. Because there is no chain reaction, nuclear
fusion is inherently safe. In nuclear fusion little radioactive waste arises. This waste
has a short half-life time.
Source: Kernfusie, een zon op aarde (Nuclear fusion, a Sun on Earth)
Author: Dr. Ir. M.T. Westra FOM-Institute for plasma physics Rijnhuizen".
Press release on 21 November 2006:
"The European Union, the USA, Russia, China, India, Japan and South Korea
have reached an agreement on the construction of the first fusion power plant.
The construction (of ITER) begins in 2008 in the South-French Cadarache and
it will take 10 years."
59
Nuclear energy
The relationship between mass and energy can be calculated with
the formula of Einstein.
E = mc2
E = energy m = mass c = the speed of light
1 kilogram-mass is equivalent to 25 billion kilowatt-hours
The fuel for the nuclear power plant in Borssele consists of 4,5% fissile
Uranium 235. Approximately 1 per thousand of the mass will be converted
into energy during the fission process. The energy per kilogram of nuclear
fuel as heat released will be "only" 1,125 million kilowatt-hours.
In 2013 the electricity consumption in the Netherlands was 115 billion
kilowatt-hours
This would require: (rounded)
either
300 tonnes enriched Uranium (efficiency 33%)
or
36 000 000 tonnes coal
(efficiency 40%)
The difference in efficiencies is the result of the fact that a nuclear power plant
works with lower temperatures (by application of heat exchangers), than a gas,
oil or coal-fired power plant. (Carnot).
Imagine a train with 50 tonnes goods wagons and a length of 10 metres each,
then the following image will appear:
~ for the carriage of enriched Uranium 6 goods wagons =
60 metres
~ for the carriage of coal
720 000 goods wagons = 7 200 kilometres
From the combustion of all that coal 94 million tonnes of CO2 will be released.
So that is only in the Netherlands and only for the benefit of electricity generation.
In 2013 the total primary energy consumption in the Netherlands
was 911 billion kilowatt-hours
The equivalent of this is approximately 100 billion litres of petrol, a cube with
an edge of 460 metres. Obviously sustainable energy is not an option for the
time being.
~ the stock of fossil fuels is large, but finite. (in about 75 years all
economically extractable fossil fuels except coal will be exhausted)
~ renewable energy will never be sufficient, because there are more
and more people, with still more energy needs
From 1973 to 2013 the increase of world population has been 84%
From 1973 to 2013 the increase of world energy consumption has been 222%
Summary:
~ the worlds population and the energy consumption are increasing rapidly
~ natural gas and oil resources will be exhausted at the end of this century
~ sustainable energy will never meet the requirements of 9 billion earthlings
~ nuclear fusion will take 60 to 80 years or maybe it will never come
Conclusion:
~ coal-fired power plants and nuclear energy seem inevitable
60
Some people think:

~ They will solve it somehow
(they simply fill the Sahara with solar panels)
~ It will outlast my time
(this remains to be seen and what about the offspring?)
~ In the long term all energy will be generated sustainable
(all the energy needed for heating, food production, industry
aircraft, trains and 1 billion cars?)
Anything can be calculated, but that does not mean that it can
be achieved in practice, or that it is economically feasible
For example:
~ the amount of solar energy which is irradiated annually on the Earth
is 7000 times more than the annual world energy consumption.
~ in 2009 only 0,1% of the world production of electricity consisted
of solar energy
It takes a long time before the clean nuclear fusion will take place. More than
half a century scientists are already working on it. The most optimistic estimate
is, that in 2050 the first nuclear fusion reactor will be operational for commercial
use. At that time practical results will be necessary because the stock of fissile
Uranium for the existing type of nuclear power plants is limited and only will
be sufficient for the forthcoming 75 years (at the current rate of consumption).
Breeder reactors, where nuclear fuel is handled 60 to 100 times more efficient
may not be realized as a result of the environmentalists obstruction. (Kalkar)
On the internet I found the following message of ECN = Energy research
Centre in the Netherlands:
"New nuclear fuel reduces radioactive waste"
Thorium is an interesting fuel, because the Thorium inventory on Earth is
sufficient for some thousands years. The radiotoxity of Thorium is a factor
10 to 100 times lower at all stages of the cycle than Uranium"
Opponents of nuclear energy say "that it cannot be applied". The opposite
has been proven in our neighbouring countries. The nuclear energy's share
of electricity generation is
France
77%
Germany
23%
England
14%
Belgium
54%
Switzerland 41%
Sweden
43%
Hypocritically in the Netherlands the share of nuclear energy is limited to 4%
and then the missing is imported from France, Belgium and Germany. The
amount of imported nuclear energy is 2 times as much as is generated in
the Borssele nuclear power plant
Worldwide 13,4% of all electrical energy is generated by nuclear energy
By environmentalists the importance of nuclear energy is invariably downplayed,
while hydropower is stepped up as a very important energy source.
The reality is, that worldwide the share of nuclear energy is about the same
as the share of hydropower
61
Press release on 13 October 2009:

"Belgium keeps its nuclear power plants 10 years longer open than originally
planned. That the Energy Minister has announced. The plants would actually
close in 2015, they remain now open until 2025. because of the benefits for
the Belgian Treasury".
The only nuclear power plant in Lithuania is decommissioned. Lithuania
promised the conclusion in 2004 in exchange for accession to the European
Union. The power plant is a larger version of that at Chernobyl. For Lithuania
it means that a cheap source of energy is lost and now one becomes dependent
on natural gas from Russia. The nuclear power plant provided almost threequarters of the Lithuanian energy requirements.
Germany will terminate nuclear energy. The 17 German nuclear plants will shut
down in 2022. The 7 reactors that have been closed after the nuclear disaster
in Fukushima will remain closed permanently.
Dutch Teletext 27 June 2011
France invests a billion euro in the development of secure methods for exiting
nuclear energy. President Sarkozy says that it is not an option for France to
stop nuclear energy
Dutch Teletext 13 July 2011
The Japanese premier Kan no longer wants to use long-term nuclear energy.
The disaster in Fukushima in March this year has made him aware of the risks
of nuclear energy. According to the Prime Minister, Japan needs to use
sustainable energy sources.
Dutch Teletext 11 April 2014
Japan will continue to use nuclear energy. Prime Minister Abe writes in the
first note since the disaster at Fukushima that nuclear power brings stability
to energy supplies. Abes predecessor wanted to go winding down.
Until 2011 30 percent of the energy was generated in nuclear power plants.
Japan hardly has natural resources and imports much oil and natural gas.
62
Concerning nuclear energy: each solution has its advantages and disadvantages
("the law of conservation of misery") The question is: which is preferably?
~ irreversible climate change
~ sea level rising and flooding of the land
~ continued increase in air pollution (CO2)
~ exhaustion of all fossil fuels
~ environmental disasters involving oil tankers,
oil rigs and oil drilling at sea, such as: oil spill in
Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico and in the Niger delta
~ wars to secure the supply of oil or natural gas
~ earthquakes and subsidence by gas extraction
or
~ a limited (radioactive) waste problem, which can be
solved in principle
~ accidents with nuclear plants
(Harrisburg 1979, Chernobyl 1986, Fukushima, 2011)
This dilemma exists, because before the year 2050 it seems to be necessary, that
an extra 2 billion people still have to come. On average this means 1 million
extra per week, while already there are 7 billion earthlings. Often it is said, that
radioactive waste from nuclear power plants remains active for 240 000 years.
This argument is not very interesting. I dare to the theorem, that within this period
humanity will have died out. Perhaps by nuclear weapons. It is curious that one
is excited about nuclear energy and not about nuclear weapons
Message in NRC-Handelsblad of 17 September 2010
The American president Obama is an important step closer to ratification of a
Treaty with Russia on reducing strategic nuclear weapons. Whether the Senate
will ratify that Treaty is by no means certain. Under the Treaty, the USA and
Russia will shrink their strategic nuclear warheads to 1550 pieces each in
seven years. Around 30 percent less than now is permitted
Dutch Teletext 23 December 2010
In the U.S. Senate a majority has approved the new START Treaty. The Treaty
should lead to less strategic nuclear weapons in the USA and Russia. The Russian
Duma has yet to accept. The approval in the Senate is a victory for Obama. Last
year he received the Nobel Peace Prize for his pursuit of a world without nuclear
weapons
Dutch Teletext 16 February 2012
The American government considers a drastic reduction of the number of nuclear
weapons, perhaps with 80%. That is much more than was agreed in the new StartTreaty with Russia. Then only 300 nuclear weapons would remain.
63
Dutch Teletext 12 September 2013

The Netherlands have agreed to the deployment of a new American nuclear
weapon on Volkel, which replaces the current nuclear weapons. MPs point out
that that runs counter to Parliament's desire to remove the US nuclear weapons
Many people oppose against nuclear energy, because they "fear" that their
offspring (in thousands of years) will be stuck with the problem of radioactive
waste. Nevertheless, these same people are consuming all fossil fuels that are
still available in record pace, without putting themselves to any restrictions.
The next generation should help themselves. Of course these same people
will think more carefully balanced about nuclear energy, as it will become clear
that their own energy supplies will be in danger.
Problems with nuclear power are:
~ the safety of nuclear reactors
~ the safe storage of radioactive waste
~ the danger of proliferation of nuclear weapons
Thorium as nuclear fuel might be a possibility to switch to worldwide. This does
not show the above mentioned problems or at least to a much lesser extent.
A strong cuts in the energy consumption might be a slowing factor for the
introduction of nuclear energy. Unfortunately this will not work.
Everyone thinks it's just:
delicious
meat, greenhouse vegetables, frozen foods,
from the tropics argued fruit
fun
flight and car holidays, many children, the TV
(which is switched on the whole day)
easy
the car, refrigerator, washing machine, dryer etc.
nice and warm
central heating
nice and cool
air conditioning
64
Some facts, calculations, and things worth knowing

Energy consumption in the Netherlands
~ In 2008 the average electricity consumption per household
was 3560 kilowatt-hours
~ In the Netherlands there are 7 million households. So the total
electricity consumption was 25 billion kilowatt-hours
~ The total electricity consumption, industry, agriculture and
public transport included was 109 billion kilowatt-hours
~ At 40% efficiency 273 billion kilowatt-hours of primary
energy was required
~ The total primary energy consumption, necessary for heating,
industry, cars and generation of electricity was
927 billion kilowatt-hours
~ That is 3,4 times as much as the primary energy needed for
the generation of electricity
The overall efficiency of the production of electricity
up to the outlet
~ the electric power plant 40%
~ the electricity transport via high-voltage lines 95%
~ the transposition of the high voltage to low voltage 95%
~ the electricity transport via the low-voltage grid
to the outlet of the consumer 92%
So the overall efficiency is 40% 95% 95% 92% = 33%
The overall efficiency of the production of petrol
up to the petrol pump
~ pumping out the oil source 97%
~ transport to the refinery 99%
~ the refining process 85%
~ transport to the petrol pump 99%
So the overall efficiency is 97% 99% 85% 99% = 80%
65
The mass-energy equivalent

~ E = mc2 (Einstein)
~ m = 1 kilogram mass
~ c = the speed of light = 3 108 metres / second
~ c2 = 9 1016 metres2 / second2
~ E = 1 x 9 1016 joules = 90000 109 kilojoules
~ 1 kilowatt-hour = 3600 kilojoules
~ E = (90000 109) / 3600 = 25 billion kilowatt-hours
So:
1 kilogram mass is equivalent to 25 billion kilowatt-hours
Mass and weight

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter. Weight is the force with which
matter is attracted by the gravity of the Earth. On the Earth gravity is not
uniform and therefore also weight is not. The mass however is the same
everywhere. The weight of mass is defined at an acceleration of gravity of
9,81 metres per second squared. The unit of mass is the kilogram
66
The Sun
Almost all energy on Earth comes from the Sun
Almost all energy resources on Earth (oil, natural gas, coal, biomass, wind
and hydro power) find their origin in solar energy.
Exceptions are: geothermal energy, nuclear energy and energy from the
Moon. (tidal energy). The most direct source of energy is the light and heat
radiation from the Sun. This energy source is clean and inexhaustible and
in the distant future we will be largely dependent on it. The energy that is
radiated by the Sun is generated by nuclear fusion.
Every second 4,27 billion kilogram mass in the Sun turns into energy.
Nuclear fusion on Earth may also play a large role in energy generation.
Calculation of the amount of energy radiated by the Sun in 1 second
~ the distance between the Earth and the Sun is 150 million kilometres
~ outside the atmosphere and at perpendicular irradiation the power of
the Sun is 1,36 kilowatt per square metre. (that is the solar constant)
~ the total radiation power from the Sun is: the solar constant multiplied
with the surface of a sphere with a radius of 150 million kilometres
~ the radius of the sphere r = 150 109 metres
~ the surface of the sphere = 4 r2
= 4 1502 1018 square metres
~ the total amount of energy emitted from the Sun in 1 second
= 1,36 4 1502 1018 1 kilowatt-seconds
~ 1 kilogram mass = 25 109 3600 kilowatt-seconds
~ the energy radiated by the Sun in 1 second is equivalent:
to: (1,36 4 1502 1018 1) / (25 109 3600)
= 4,27 billion kilogram mass
kilowatt-hours. That is equivalent to 4,6 kilogram-mass. The amount
of energy the Sun radiates in 1 second is almost 1 billion times as
much as the total use of electricity in 1 year in the Netherlands
The total amount of solar energy irradiated on the Earth
~ the total amount of irradiated energy is equal to what falls
perpendicular on a circular plane with the radius of the Earth
(the radius r = 6400 kilometres).
~ the surface of that circular area is:
r2 = 3,14 40 1012 square metres.
~ at the height of the Earth's surface the solar radiation has
a power of 1 kilowatt per square metre.
~ per square metre per year the irradiated energy will be
1 kilowatt x 8760 hours = 8760 kilowatt-hours
~ so annually the total amount of irradiated solar energy
on the circular plane will be
3,14 40 1012 8760 = 11000 1014 kilowatt-hours
~ in 2013 the world consumption of primary energy was
1,57 1014 kilowatt-hours
67
So annually the total amount of irradiated solar energy will be 7000 times as
much as the world consumption of primary energy.
Some people conclude from this that an energy problem
doesn't exist. However, one must bear in mind the following:
~ a large part of the irradiated solar energy is
stopped by the clouds
~ for the generation of solar energy gigantic
surfaces are needed
~ there is no efficient large-scale system for
the storage of solar energy
~ 71% of the Earth's surface consists of water,
so the irradiation on the remaining 29% is
0,29 x 7000 = 2000 times the world
consumption of primary energy
~ the efficiency of the conversion of solar
energy to electricity is low
Distribution of the solid surface of the Earth
Global calculation of the land surface which is needed in the Sahara

to generate the world energy consumption with solar panels
~ the world consumption of primary energy in 1 year
is about 157 x 1012 kilowatt-hours
~ at an efficiency of 40% the amount of useful energy
will be 63 x 1012 kilowatt-hours
~ a solar panel in the Sahara delivers approximately
450 kilowatt-hours per square metre per year
~ for the world energy consumption net is needed:
63 x 1012 / 450 = 1,4 x 1011 square metres
~ that are 140 000 square kilometres
~ gross 420 000 square kilometres are needed
~ that is 10 times the surface of the Netherlands
68
To replace a 600 megawatts power plant by solar panels in the

Netherlands an area of 80 square kilometres will be needed
~ the energy yield of a 600 megawatts power plant
is 4,2 billion kilowatt-hours per year
~ the energy yield of a solar panel in the Netherlands
is 150 kilowatt-hours per square metre per year
~ so to replace the power plant by solar panels net
28 square kilometres are needed
~ the panels are lined up at an angle of 36 degrees
and may not stand in each others shadow
~ there have to be paths between the panels for
access, maintenance and auxiliary equipment
~ therefore the gross area of a solar power plant is
3 times as large as the net surface of the panels,
so more than 80 square kilometres
The WakaWaka Led lamp and smart phone charger
~ suppose the average irradiation of the Sun
is 500 watts per square metre
~ that is 0,05 watts per square centimetre
~ the effective area of the solar cell is
50 square centimetres
~ the efficiency of the solar cell is about 20%
~ then the power of the solar cell will be 0,5 watts
~ an iPhone battery has an energy content
of 5 watt-hours
~ then fully charging takes at least 10 hours
Some properties of light
~ Light travels (rectilinear) by means of electromagnetic
waves. (and not through "ether waves")
~ Light reaches an observer always with the speed of light.
(in vacuum). It does not matter if a light source (e.g. a Star)
moves relative to the observer, or that the observer moves
relative to the light source. The mutual speed between the
light source and the observer has no influence.
~ The speed of light (in vacuum) is always relative to an
observer in all directions 300 000 kilometres per second
and therefore it will be marked with the letter c (= constant)
Does ether exist?
The Earth rotates in an orbit around the Sun with a speed of 30 kilometres per
second. Formerly one thought that the whole universe was filled with "ether"
and that light was propagated by ether-waves. The consequence would be
that the speed of light measured on Earth depends on the movement of the
Earth in relation to the ether. (in analogy with the behaviour of sound waves
In air). To verify this assumption, Michelson and Morley made an interfero
meter in 1887. With this the difference in speed of light, in the direction of
the orbit around the Sun and perpendicular thereto, could be measured
very accurately. The outcome of the measurements was very surprising:
the speed of light is always the same in all directions
The conclusion must therefore be, that ether doesn't exists.
69
All electromagnetic waves, including radio waves, are transmitted

constantly with the speed of light.
Many applications are possible because the speed of light is constant,
such as:
~ Einstein's theories of relativity
~ the modern astronomy
~ GPS (= global positioning system)
The energy density of sunlight
~ at the height of the Earth's surface, when the sky is completely
cloudless and at perpendicular radiation the power of sunlight
is 1 kilowatt per square metre
~ in 1 hour an amount of energy of 1 kilowatt-hour per square
metre is irradiated
~ the speed of light is 300 000 kilometres per second
~ during 1 hour light travels over a distance of
3600 300 000 kilometres = 1012 metres
~ so the energy density of sunlight is 1 kilowatt-hour per
1012 cubic metres (1012 cubic metres is the equivalent
of a cube with an edge of 10 kilometres)
Solar energy in the Sahara
Near the Equator the day length is 12 hours throughout the year. The
Integrated amount of solar energy, irradiated on a horizontally placed
solar panel, at a completely cloudless sky, can be calculated easily.
Compared to 1 hour of the Sun perpendicularly above the panel, this
is 8 times more. (for example:2 hours after sunrise and 2 hours before
sunset, the Sun is 30 degrees above the horizon, then the amount of
beaming energy will be half of the maximum)
So the production factor during a year will be 33,3% In the Netherlands
this is 11,4%. So in the Sahara the production factor is only 3 times
as much as in the Netherlands. At the application of "concentrated
solar power" (CSP). the production factor will be more, as a result of
the use of a sun-tracking system This results in a production factor
of approximately 45%. A problem consists of the pollution of the solar
collectors, through the frequent occurrence of sand storms. Fantasies
of "solar fields" with huge amounts of solar energy in the Sahara,
therefore need to be seen in perspective
Solar radiation in the Netherlands in 1999
(Statistical Yearbook 2001, kilojoules per square centimetre per year)
Dec Jan Feb
Mar Apr May
June July Aug
Sept Oct Nov
26
119
159
58
~ total: 26 + 119 + 159 + 58 = 362 kilojoules per

square centimetre per year
~ that equals 3 620 000 kilojoules per square metre per year
~ 1 kilowatt-hour = 3600 kilojoules
~ the amount of radiant energy per square metre therefore
was 1006 kilowatt-hours per year
In this overview our starting point is
1000 kilowatt-hours per square metre per year.
On average that are 2,7 kilowatt-hours per square metre per day
70
The Leopoldhove
The Leopoldhove in Zoetermeer, is a healthcare facility with associated
properties. On the roofs of the complex is a large number of solar panels.
In the hall of the main building, one can read the energy yield of those
panels on a display
Some data of the Leopoldhove
~ 606 panels with a total area of 770 square metres
~ the annual yield is 64 000 kilowatt-hours
~ the annual yield per square metre is 83 kilowatt-hours
~ the average daily yield is 175 kilowatt-hours
Overview of the monthly energy yield of the Leopoldhove (2010)
kilowatt-hours
percentage
January
1040
1,6
February
1582
2,5
March
5244
8,2
April
8454
13,3
May
11216
17,6
June
10301
16,2
July
9544
14,9
August
6801
10,7
September
4933
7,7
October
3357
5,3
November
959
1,5
December
348
0,5
63779
100,0
total
In May the energy yield was 32 times as much as in December

In March to August the energy yield was 80% of the annual yield
and in September to February 20% (rounded)
Comparison of the daily yield of the Leopoldhove when heaven is
cloudless or cloudy (2010)
cloudless
3 June
520 kilowatt-hours
16 November 101 kilowatt-hours
cloudy
11 June
27 November
63 kilowatt-hours
3 kilowatt-hours
In Summer at a cloudless sky the daily production was more than 8 times
as much as at a cloudy sky. In Winter the ratio was a factor 34 and during
a year 173
71
Energy yield of the Leopoldhove (kilowatt-hours per day in 2010)
Daylight in the Netherlands (hours per day, from sunrise until sunset)
Daylight in the Netherlands in 2015 (spring, summer, autumn and winter)
20 March
H = 37,8 degrees
D = 12 hours 09 min.
21 June
H = 61,4 degrees
23 September
H = 37,9 degrees
H = the highest altitude of the Sun, in the middle of the day

D = the day length, measured from sunrise to sunset
Daylight in the Netherlands
2015
2016
day length
22 July
10 August
26 August
11 September
26 September
11 October
26 October
12 November
04 December
21 May
02 May
16 April
01 April
17 March
02 March
16 February
30 January
08 January
16 hours
15 hours
14 hours
13 hours
12 hours
11 hours
10 hours
09 hours
08 hours
72
22 December
H = 14,5 degrees
Wind energy
Everyone is in favour of wind energy, until a windmill will be placed in the
neighbourhood. NIMBY
One experiences or expects the following problems:
~ noise
~ at a particular position of the Sun the rotating blades can interrupt
the sunlight in an annoying way (a few hours per year)
~ the rotating blades may sometimes cause interference with radio
transmissions, in the reception of terrestrial television stations and
(ships)radar
~ horizon pollution
(endless residential areas on the horizon are no problem)
~ birds getting killed against the blades
~ offshore wind farms will cause degradation of flora and fauna on
the seabed
~ large offshore wind farms will cause less rain and wind, while also
the height of the waves will be reduced.
Global calculation of the number of windmills that would be

needed to generate the world energy consumption
~ the world production of primary energy in
1 year is about 157 x 1012 kilowatt-hours
~ at an efficiency of 40% the amount of
useful energy is 63 x 1012 kilowatt-hours
~ the largest windmill in the world produces
21000 megawatt-hours per year
~ for the world energy consumption should be
necessary:
(63 1012) / (21 x 106) = 3 million windmills
73
Comparison of Solar and Wind energy

solar energy Waldpolenz Solar Park
~ 550 000 solar panels
~ the total power is 52 megawatts
~ the total land area is 1,2 square kilometre
~ the annual energy yield will be 52 000 megawatt-hours
~ that amounts to 43 333 megawatt-hours per square
kilometre per year
In 2013 the electricity consumption in the Netherlands was 115 billion kilowatthours. So for that is necessary 115 000 000 / 43 333 = 2654 square kilometres
of solar panels, a surface of 51 x 51kilometres
wind energy IJmuiden wind farm
~ 60 wind turbines of 2 megawatts
~ the total power is 120 megawatts
~ the production factor (at sea) is 40%
~ the total sea area is 14 square kilometres
~ the annual energy yield will be 422 000 megawatt-hours
~ that amounts to 30 000 megawatt-hours per square
kilometre per year
In 2013 the electricity consumption in the Netherlands was 115 billion kilowatthours. So for that is necessary 115 000 000 / 30 000 = 3833 square kilometres
of wind turbines, a surface of 62 x 62 kilometres
some of the features of solar energy
~ in winter the yield of solar energy will be little and
during the night it will be zero while then the need
for energy is large
~ solar energy can not be realized at sea
~ the used land area is not available for other purposes
~ fixed solar panels require low maintenance
some of the features of wind energy
~ in winter the yield of wind energy will be relatively high
while then the need for energy is also high
~ wind energy can be realized at sea
~ at wind energy on land the area can be used for
agriculture or cows can graze there
~ wind mills require a lot of maintenance
74
Some fuels and CO2

Some fuels: oxygen consumption and combustion products
(kilograms)
fuel
oxygen
carbon dioxide
water
1 kilogram of carbon
2,67
3,67
---
1 kilogram of methane
4,00
2,75
2,25
1 kilogram of petrol
3,51
3,09
1,42
1 kilogram of diesel oil
3,47
3,12
1,35
1 kilogram of hydrogen
8,00
---
9,00
~ the mass of fuel + oxygen = the mass of carbon dioxide + water

(law of conservation of mass)
~ in burning carbon only carbon dioxide will come into being (CO2)
~ in burning hydrocarbons (methane, petrol and diesel oil)
carbon dioxide + water will come into being
~ in burning hydrogen only water will come into being
CO2 emissions from the incineration of single fuels

kilograms CO2
(carbon dioxide)
energy-content
(kilowatt-hours)
kilograms CO2
(per kilowatt-hour)
1 kilogram of coal
2,6
8,1
0,32
1,8
8,8
0,20
1 litre of petrol
2,4
9,1
0,26
2,7
10,0
0,27
kilograms CO2
(carbon dioxide)
energy-content
(kilowatt-hours)
kilograms CO2
(per kilowatt-hour)
1 kilogram of coal
3,1
8,1
0,38
2,2
8,8
0,25
1 litre of petrol
3,1
9,1
0,34
3,5
10,0
0,35
fuel
~ coal contains 80% of carbon

~ the mass of 1 cubic metre of natural gas is
0,83 kilograms and it contains 82% of methane
~ the mass of 1 litre of petrol is 0,70 kilograms
~ the mass of 1 litre of diesel oil is 0,84 kilograms
CO2-emissions from the incineration of single fuels

according to the "well-to-wheel" method
fuel
Through burning of petrol or diesel oil, CO2 emissions per kilowatt-hour

primary energy are almost as much as those of the burning of coal
Coal-fired power plants "are not permitted", but the car "is a must".
75
CO2 emissions caused by cars in the Netherlands

~ in 2008 the amount of cars in the Netherlands was 7 million pieces.
~ on average 1444 litres of petrol was consumed per car per year
~ so 7 million cars consumed 10 billion litres of petrol
~ 10 x 2,4 = 24 billion kilograms of CO2 was produced.
CO2 emissions caused by domestic electricity consumption
in the Netherlands
~ the annual electricity consumption of all households in the
Netherlands Is 62 billion kilowatt-hours primary energy
~ from only coal-fired power plants
62 x 0,32 = 20 billion kilograms of CO2 would arise
~ from only gas-fired power plants
62 x 0,20 = 12 billion kilograms of CO2 would arise
In the Netherlands electricity is generated from both coal-fired and gas-fired
power plants. So passenger car traffic causes more CO2 emissions than the
electricity production for all households. So even if one would only apply
coal-fired power plants.
It is amazing that environmentalists protest against coal-fired power
plants, while they are using cars like anyone else.
(environmental pastors)
CO2 emissions "well-to-plug" of electricity

~ during combustion of 1 cubic metre of natural gas
2,2 kilograms of CO2 arises according to the
well-to-wheel methodology
~ the energy content of 1 cubic metre of natural gas
is 8,8 kilowatt-hours
~ the efficiency of the production of electricity
by a gas-fired power plant to the outlet is 33%
~ then the amount of electricity from the outlet will be
0,33 8,8 = 2,9 kilowatt-hours per cubic metre of
natural gas
~ so 1 kilowatt-hour from the outlet causes
2,2 / 2,9 = 0,760 kilograms CO2 well-to-plug
76
The greenhouse effect

Many people think that the greenhouse effect is being caused by the energy which
is being released in the combustion of fossil fuels. That is not the case, because that
amount of energy is negligible compared to the amount of energy of the Sun
beaming on the Earth. The Sun radiates 7000 times more energy per time unit on
Earth, than is generated by human activities. The greenhouse effect is caused by the
carbon dioxide (CO2), that is released in the burning of fossil fuels and above all by
the vapour in the atmosphere. These greenhouse gases let by solar energy towards
the Earth virtually unhindered, while the radiation of heat from the Earth is largely
stopped. As more greenhouse gases are present in the atmosphere Earth cools
down less. However it is questionable whether the effect of carbon dioxide (CO2)
in this process will be as large as has been assumed up to now. That point has not
been settled yet. Maybe the "greenhouse effect" should be categorized the same as
"acid rain" and "the hole in the ozone layer". The future will tell. It is clear however
that the climate is changing in recent years. Think of the melting of the ice at the
North Pole and the disappearance of the "eternal" snow in the Alps. For the past
few years (in Europe) winters have been remarkably warm. In addition one has
to do more often with extreme weather, such as hurricanes and floods.
The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is at a historical high. For the first time
since the measurements began in the 1950s the limit of 400 ppm (CO2 parts per
1 million molecules) is exceeded. Scientists see the border of 400 ppm as a sign
that it fails to curb the greenhouse effect.
(would they drive around in a car themselves?)
The effective height of the atmosphere
~ the density of air is 1,29 kilograms per cubic metre
at a pressure of 1 atmosphere.
~ 1 atmosphere = 1 kilogram per square centimetre
= 10 000 kilograms per square metre.
~ so the effective height of the atmosphere is
10 000 / 1,29 = 8000 metres
~ the air pressure decreases with height
(decreases less quickly as the height increases).
~ at an altitude of 5500 metres the pressure is
0,5 atmosphere.
~ at 10,5 kilometres height, where most air traffic is
taking place, the pressure is still 0,25 atmosphere
At sea level a height difference of 1 metre is a pressure change
of 1 / 8000 atmosphere = 1/8 grams per square centimetre.
Such a difference in elevation is easily measurable with a digital
altimeter.
77
Light sources
Comparison of various light sources
watts
lumen
lumen per watt
light efficiency
incandescent lamp
75
930
12
5%
energy saving lamp
23
1550
67
29%
Led lamp
13
1000
76
34%
fluorescent tube
51
4800
94
41%
~ the luminous flux of a light source is measured in lumen

~ the amount of lumen per watt is a measure of the light output of a
light source and may be used for the calculating of the light efficiency
~ at 228 lumen per watt, the light efficiency will be 100%
(taking into account the luminosity curve of the human eye)
~ so the light efficiency of a light source equals:
(actual lumen per watt / 228 lumen per watt) 100%
Some considerations about Led lamps
~ A Led lamp usually beams bundled light. The efficiency seems more
than it is. So it can not be compared directly to a "sphere beamer
such as an energy-saving lamp.
~ In addition, the efficiency is adversely affected by the conversion of
the mains voltage to the low tension to fire the Led's.
(usually 2 to 5 volts) and by the bad labour factor.
~ It will take a while, before the Led lamp can beat the fluorescent
lamp, with regard to the light efficiency. It may even be doubted
whether that will ever be possible. (for white light).
~ The benefits of the Led lamp are its dimensions, its resilience and
longevity. In addition, light is at full strength immediately after
switching it on (as fast as an incandescent lamp).
~ For space lighting Led lamps still seem not very suitable. They are
suitable for street lighting, decor lighting, special lighting effects, backlighting LCD-screens and applications where coloured light is desired
~ In comparison to small light bulbs, such as in flashlights and in rear
light of a bicycle, the light efficiency of Led's is very high.
Led lamps
At Ikea a 13 watt Led lamp is for sale. The luminous flux is 1000 lumens,
which is 76 lumens per watt. The colour temperature is 2700 kelvin.
So the light efficiency is 34% and thus higher than at an energy saving lamp.
The light is radiated evenly in all directions
So finally it starts to be something with Led lighting (2014)
78
Leds as backlight for LCD screens

In the application of Led's as backlight for LCD screens, it is being used that
Led's can be switched without a moment of inertia. The backlight therefore can be
modulated with the image content. A very high contrast ratio of the image can thus
be achieved. In addition, the energy consumption will be low, because the Led's
are burning at full strength only partially. This is in contrast to backlight with
fluorescent tubes. In addition, monitors with Led-backlight can be much thinner.
In the latest Philips Led-TV backlight is provided by more than 1000 Led's
Energy saving lamps
The lifetime of energy saving lamps is rather disappointing, especially when they
are being switched on and off frequently. Often they last not even 1 year. This is in
contrast to ordinary incandescent lamps that last much longer. An energy saving
lamp cannot be switched more than 2500 times. At a burning time of 3 minutes (for
example, on the toilet) the lifetime is 125 hours. At a burning time of 4 hours per
period the lifetime is 10 000 hours. The best choice depends on the application.
Between 2009 and 2012 the incandescent lamp will gradually be withdrawn from
the market. This will reduce the CO2 problem a (very small) part. The energy
consumption of lighting is only 4% of total energy consumption. This measure will
contribute little, but might make people more conscious of the environment. Both
energy saving lamps and fluorescent lamps contain harmful substances (e.g.
mercury) and must therefore be considered as small chemical waste
OLed's
Philips, has begun to develop lighting through "OLed's" (organic Led's). These
are not lighting lamps, but light radiant panels, similar to an LCD screen. The
expectation is that some day a light output of 140 lumen per watt can be realized.
That corresponds to a light efficiency of approximately 60%
Dutch Teletext 23 September 2014
Philips will be split into two separate, independent companies. One for lighting
and one for health and consumer electronics. The light Division will focus on
innovative lighting solutions and projects.
The production of Leds will be done by another company (?)
79
Aircraft
number of
passengers
blank
weight
fuel
weight
max.
take-off
flight range
kilometres
km / litre /
passenger
Boeing 747
524
181 tonnes 173 tonnes
396 tonnes
13 445
32,5
Airbus 380
840
275 tonnes 261 tonnes
540 tonnes
14 450
37,2
the density of kerosene = 0,8 kilogram per cubic decimetre

An airplane with a jet engine
Some people think that a jet engine (or a rocket engine) "repels" itself against the air.
That is not the case and a rocket engine (which carries its own oxygen) even works
better in vacuum.
~ the action of a jet engine (and the rocket engine), is based
on the principle: action = reaction (Newtons 3rd Law)
~ in the jet engine kerosene is burned with oxygen from air.
~ the thrust is caused by the masses of the combustion
products + the air through the "bypass" which are emitted
at high speed by the jet engine.
~ in the jet engine of a Jumbo, a turbofan, the amount of air
flowing through the "bypass" along the combustion chamber
is 5 times as much as needed for the combustion of the fuel
~ the outflow velocity of the combustion products + the air
is 285 metres per second.
In the following calculation examples it will be assumed that the density of CO2,
vapour, nitrogen and air are equal. In addition, the effect of the suction of air
through the inlet of the jet engine, the speed compared to the ambient air
and the efficiency will not be considered.
Calculation example of a Jumbo taking off of the runway
~ a Jumbo with a mass of 300 000 kilograms accelerates on the runway
in 55 seconds to the "take off" speed of 290 kilometres per hour
~ so: m = 300 000 kilograms t = 55 seconds v = 80 metres per second
~ therefore the acceleration a will be 1,5 metres per second2 (v = at)
~ the distance travelled S will be 1,5 552 = 2270 metres (S = at2)
~ the kinetic energy E will be 300 000 802 = 960 000 000 joules
= 960 000 kilojoules = 267 kilowatt-hours (E = mv2)
80
Calculation example of a jet engine

~ 3,47 kilograms of oxygen will be required for the combustion
of 1 kilogram of kerosene and consequently 17,35 kilograms
of air. (air exists of 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen)
~ the mass of 1 kilogram of kerosene must be added, this
amounts to 18,35 kilograms
~ the amount of air flowing along the combustion chamber will
be 5 17,35 = 86,75 kilograms
~ the total emission adds up to 105 kilograms per second
during the combustion of 1 kilogram of kerosene per second
~ at an outflow velocity of 285 metres per second, the thrust
will be: 285 105 = 30 000 kilogram-metres per second2
= 30 000 newtons
Fuel consumption of a Jumbo during takeoff
~ for the acceleration of 1,5 metre per second 2 of a jumbo
of 300 000 kilograms, 450 000 newtons are required.
(force = mass x acceleration)
~ the combustion of 1 kilogram of kerosene per second
delivers a thrust of 30 000 newtons (see above)
~ so for a thrust of 450 000 newtons 15 kilograms
of kerosene per second is needed
~ the total thrust at a Jumbo is delivered by 4 engines
At a Jumbo the fuel consumption during takeoff will be 5 times
as much as at cruising speed
~ fuel consumption of a Jumbo at a cruising speed of
900 kilometres per hour will be 15 litres of kerosene
per kilometre (15 litres = 12 kilograms)
~ 900 kilometres per hour = 1 kilometre in 4 seconds
~ therefore the fuel consumption at cruising speed will be
12 kilograms in 4 seconds
~ during take off the fuel consumption is 15 kilograms in 1 second
~ per second that will be 5 times as much as at cruising speed.
81
Electric train
~ the basic implementation of the Double Decker consists of 4 wagons
~ the gross power is 1890 kilowatts, at an efficiency of 85%
~ nowadays the voltage on the overhead contact line is 1800 volts.
~ at full power this train will consume more than 1000 amperes and
will represent an electrical resistance of about 2 ohms.
~ the direct current, submitted by a power station is fed to the train
through the overhead line, while the rails are the return circuit.
~ the total resistance of 10 kilometres of overhead line + rails is
about 0,2 ohms.
~ the distance between 2 power stations is up to 20 kilometres.
Therefore the distance between the train and the power station is
never more than 10 kilometres.
On busy tracks the average distance between the train and a power station
will be less. The total copper cross-section of the overhead contact lines on
a double track is 10 square centimetres. This is being obtained by switching
in parallel all 8 wires above the rails
(per rail: 1 reinforcing cable, 1 carrying cable and 2 overhead contact wires)
The energy losses in the overhead line of a train
~ Electric trains are driving at 1800 volt direct current in
the Netherlands. (rated 1500 volts).
~ The energy consumption of a train = voltage current time
~ For example: a 5 times higher voltage will result in a current
that is 5 times smaller (at the same energy consumption),
~ The energy losses in the overhead line are proportional to
the square of the current.
~ So the energy losses will be 25 times smaller.
Nevertheless, it seems unlikely for the Dutch Railways to apply a higher
supply voltage at any time. Only on the tracks of the "Betuwe line" and
the "High Speed Line" 25 kilovolts alternating current has been applied.
82
Cycling
Power and energy when cycling on a flat road, sitting upright and
without wind
A = the power necessary for overcoming the mechanical resistance
B = the power necessary for overcoming the air resistance
C = the total required power
D = the energy per kilometre
speed
10 km/hour
8 watts
20 km/hour
7 watts
15 watts
1,5 watt-hours
18 watts
56 watts
74 watts
3,7 watt-hours
30 km/hour
32 watts
189 watts
221 watts
7,4 watt-hours
40 km/hour
52 watts
448 watts
500 watts
12,5 watt-hours
~ a well-trained cyclist can provide a continuous power of 130 watts

When there is no wind a speed of 25 kilometres per hour will be
reached on a touring bicycle.
~ at a recumbent and the same power one reaches 32 kilometres
per hour.
~ a professional racer can deliver 300 watts continuously. On a race
bike that will be sufficient for a speed of 40 kilometres per hour.
~ Lance Armstrong ever reached 450 watts Thus he was able to
mount the "Alpe d'Huez" in 38 minutes. The height difference
is 1061 metres and the distance is 13,8 kilometres.
So the average speed was 21,8 kilometres per hour.
Power needed for overcoming the air resistance is proportional to the
3rd power of the speed of a vehicle. (see column B of the table above)
~ the air resistance of a vehicle is proportional
to the 2nd power of its speed.
~ power = air resistance speed
Energy used for overcoming the air resistance during the same time
is proportional to the 3rd power of the speed of a vehicle.
~ energy = power time
For example:
When one is cycling a distance of 30 kilometres in 1 hour, then it costs
1,53 = 3,38 times as much energy (effort) to overcome the air resistance,
compared to cycling a distance of 20 kilometres in 1 hour.
(think in this context to win a cycling race, or improving the World hour
record on the bicycle)
83
Energy used for overcoming the air resistance on the same distance
is proportional to the 2nd power of the speed of a vehicle
~ the air resistance of a vehicle is proportional
to the 2nd power of the speed.
~ energy = air resistance distance travelled
For example:
A car driving at a speed of 120 kilometres per hour, uses 1,5 2 = 2,25 times
more energy than a car driving at a speed of 80 kilometres per hour over
the same distance
Wind during cycling is always detrimental if one returns to the place
of departure
calculation example:
~ suppose a distance of 30 kilometres there and back.
~ no wind, a cycling speed of 20 kilometres per hour
then the cyclist will be cycling for 3 hours.
~ backwind or headwind of 10 kilometres per hour
the cyclist experiences the same air resistance when the speed
relative to the wind is the same. With backwind the cycling speed
will be 30 kilometres per hour and with headwind 10 kilometres
per hour. Now the cyclist will be cycling 1+ 3 = 4 hours
So the amount of supplied energy will be 4/3 = 1,33 times as
much as when there is no wind.
Also when there is crosswind a cyclist has to deliver more energy
than when there is no wind
Source: the book "Hoor je beter in het donker?" ("Do you hear better
in the dark?") author: Jo Hermans, professor at Leiden University
calculation example:
~ suppose the crosswind is just as strong as the headwind
~ then the airspeed of the resultant of the crosswind and the headwind
is 2 times as large as the air speed in the cycling direction
~ the resultant makes an angle of 45 degrees with the cycling direction
~ the air resistance is proportional to the 2nd power of the air speed
~ therefore the air resistance of the resultant is 2 times larger than the
air resistance in the cycling direction when there is no wind
~ the resultant can be dissolved in the air resistance in the cycling
direction and perpendicular to the cycling direction
~ the result is that due to the crosswind, the air resistance in the
cycling direction is 2 = 1,41 times greater than at no wind.
~ so (in this example) it costs 1,41 times more energy to cycle
the same distance than at no crosswind
84
Comparison between a ramp and a headwind at the same bicycle power

(at a speed of 20 kilometres per hour)
a slope
or headwind
bicycle power
0%
0,0 km/hour
75 watts
1%
7,9 km/hour
129 watts
2%
13,7 km/hour
184 watts
3%
19,1 km/hour
238 watts
4%
23,4 km/hour
292 watts
5%
27,4 km/hour
346 watts
6%
31,3 km/hour
400 watts
85
Electric bicycles
~ an upright seated cyclist must deliver a power of 180 watts at
a speed of 20 kilometres per hour and a headwind of 4 metres
per second (wind force 3).
~ that corresponds with an amount of energy of 9 watt-hours
per kilometre
~ therefore 4,5 watt-hours of mechanical energy per kilometre
is needed for 50% support by an electric bicycle.
~ the efficiency of the electric motor with associated energy
control is about 90%
~ therefore at 50% support the battery of an electric bicycle has
to deliver approximately 4,5 / 0,9 = 5 watt-hours per kilometre
That is a minimum value, because one uses the support especially at (strong)
headwind. The (average) action radius of an electric bicycle at 50% support
is easy to calculate.
action radius (kilometres) =
energy-content of the battery (watt-hours) / 5 (watt-hours per kilometre)
An example shows, that this is correct. The Trek LM500 has a battery with
an energy content of 400 watt-hours. Therefore the action radius should be
400 / 5 = 80 kilometres. This corresponds to the data of Bosch.
As long as one cycles on a flat road with a constant speed, the weight of the
bicycle will have hardly any affect on the action radius. (Newtons 1st Law)
There are 3 implementing forms of electric bicycles:
~ drive by means of an electric motor in the front wheel
~ drive by means of an electric motor attached to the
bottom bracket
~ drive by means of an electric motor in the rear wheel
Some examples:
The Antec Vela
~ a lithium-ion battery (removable)
36 volt at 10,5 ampere-hours
~ so the energy content is 378 watt-hours
~ the support can be adjusted continuously between
10% and 90%
~ equipped with a 7-speed hub gear
~ the motor is in the front wheel
~ at 50% support the action radius will be 60 kilometres.
86
The Trek LM500

~ a lithium-ion battery (removable)
36 volt at 11 ampere-hours
~ so the energy content is 400 watt-hours
~ equipped with an 8-speed hub gear
~ supplied with the Bosch middle motor
~ the motor is attached to the bottom bracket
~ at 50% support the action radius will be 80 kilometres
The advantage of this construction is that one can easily remove the wheels,
when replacing a tire. In addition, any desired type of gear assembly and a
dense chain cabinet can be applied. It is strange that nevertheless this bike
still has an open chain.
The Sparta Ion M-Gear
~ a nickel metal-hydride battery (not removable)
24 volt at 10 ampere-hours.
~ so the energy content is 240 watt-hours.
~ the motor is in the rear wheel with an integrated
pedal sensor
~ equipped with a derailleur with 7 gears.
~ at 50% support the action radius will be 40 kilometres
Striking is the very clear and precise indication of the current energy stock
in the battery (in increments of 3%) This allows a good planning of the
support on a long bicycle tour.
Bosch middle motor
Some characteristics of bikes with the Bosch middle motor:
~ the motor is positioned at the bottom bracket and thus
the bike has a low centre of gravity and a good handling
~ the power of the cyclist + the motor is transferred via
the chain on the rear wheel
~ the chain therefore has a hard time compared to other
electric bicycles
~ the specifications of the Bosch middle motor seem
overly optimistic, but are amply achieved in practice
(tested on 18000 kilometres)
~ usually the "Intuvia" display is bad to read
(depending on lighting conditions)
~ on the handle bar there is a big + and button, with
which the degree of support can be selected
~ this is the first system that one can operate well
wearing (thick) gloves
~ for each selected support the display shows the
corresponding actual, dynamic range
~ on the display there is an indication of the instantaneous
energy consumption (the power)
~ inserting and taking out the battery is very easy, thanks
to the built-in handle
~ the self-discharge of the battery is only 1% per month
~ per kilometre the depreciation of the battery costs
40 times as much as the consumed electricity
87
The Bosch middle motor is a breakthrough in the drive technology

for electric bicycles. Outstanding features are:
~ the user-friendliness
~ the powerful support
~ the large action radius
Bosch middle motor with a 400 watt-hours battery
(moderate wind and 20 kilometres per hour)
support
watt-hours
per kilometre
action radius
turbo
8,0
50 km
sport
6,7
60 km
tour
5,0
80 km
eco
3,0
135 km
Pedal sensor or rotation sensor?

Recently more and more electric bicycles have been launched equipped
with a rotation sensor instead of a pedal sensor. Advantages are the
lower price and the simple construction, The smaller action radius and the
insecurity however are a disadvantage. The application of a rotation sensor,
enables immediately support once the pedals are rotating. Also when little
force is pursued, the motor will be enabled and then delivers virtually all
the energy needed for the propulsion. If one wants to cycle faster, one
must pedal disproportionately more, because then the cyclist himself has
to deliver the extra energy needed. In practice one usually cycles with the
speed of the maximum support. A great solution for people who do not
want to work, but this is at the expense of the action radius. If one stops
pedalling, the support usually still goes on for a while. Therefore, these
bikes are often equipped with a switch at the brake handle. If one brakes,
the circuit to the motor is switched off immediately. Electric bicycles with
a rotation sensor are potentially dangerous in traffic, especially for older
cyclists. But one get used to anything. At electric bikes with a pedal
sensor, said problems are entirely absent
Does it take more exercise to cycle an electric bicycle without
support than a regular bicycle?
It is a widespread misunderstanding, that if support is disabled it will be
(a lot) more work on an electric bicycle than on a regular bicycle. Only the
rolling resistance of an electric bicycle is a bit more compared to a regular
bicycle, due to more weight of the bicycle. The air resistance will be the
same of course. On a flat road with constant speed the mass (weight) of
the bicycle + rider is not an issue. (Newtons 1st Law).
The rolling resistance is negligible compared to the air resistance, especially
with moderate or strong headwind. Of course the larger weight will play an
important role during acceleration and at a slope. But during a long bicycle
ride slopes will not be present very often. (in the Netherlands)
88
For example: (at a speed of 20 kilometres per hour)

A = a bicycle of 15 kilograms, a cyclist of 75 kilograms, no wind
B = a bicycle of 25 kilograms, a cyclist of 75 kilograms, no wind
C = a bicycle of 25 kilograms, a cyclist of 75 kilograms, head wind
4 metres per second
A
rolling resistance
2,6 newtons
2,9 newtons
2,9 newtons
air resistance
9,6 newtons
9,6 newtons
28,5 newtons
mechanical resistance
0,6 newtons
0,6 newtons
1,6 newtons
total cycling resistance
12,8 newtons
13,1 newtons
33,0 newtons
3,55 watt-hours
3,64 watt-hours
9,17 watt-hours
total labour per kilometre
The action radius of an electric bicycle is largely determined by the

air resistance
Recently I got talking to a couple with an electric bicycle. The man with a
large stature said that he realized a much smaller range on his bicycle than
his frail wife. He thought that this was caused by the difference in weight.
That is not the case, because at a constant speed the weight plays no role.
(apart from a negligible difference in rolling friction). The difference in the
action radius is caused by the difference in air resistance.
The air resistance is proportional to the frontal area of the cyclist + bicycle.
If the frontal area becomes 50% larger the action radius will decrease
with 25%. One can calculate this easily by means of the data in column B
in the table above
The benefits of an electric bicycle are:
1. the energy consumption of an electric bicycle is
10 times less than that of a moped
2. the support over 80 kilometres costs less than
10 euro cents (= 0,5 kilowatt-hour)
3. one hour electric cycling consumes (gross) as much
electrical energy as it takes to watch TV for one hour.
So electric cycling can be called "energy-neutral",
because if one does not cycle one is sitting in front
of the TV or behind the computer.
4. an electric bicycle requires virtually no maintenance
(just as much as an ordinary bicycle)
5. a helmet is not obligatory on an electric bicycle
6. insurance is not compulsory for an electric bicycle
7. an electric bicycle is much sportier and healthier
than a moped, because one always has to pedal
8. an electric bicycle does not smell, makes no noise
and does not leak oil
9. one can also just cycle on an electric bicycle
10. if one owns an electric bicycle one cycles
more often, further and faster
89
The Hydrogen bicycle

The hydrogen bicycle is the latest news in the field of electric bicycles.
This is a bicycle where the battery has been replaced by a fuel cell.
Some global data:
~ the capacity of the fuel cell is 24 volts at 10 amperes,
so 240 watt-hours
~ 2 small tanks contain 600 litres of pure hydrogen stored
in the form of a chemical compound (metal hydride)
~ the consumption at maximum power is 3 litres of
hydrogen per minute, at a pressure of 0,4 bar.
~ at 0 degrees celsius it takes 30 minutes to fill the tanks
~ the temperature of the tanks must be over 25 degrees
celsius to release the hydrogen from the metal hydride
~ the efficiency of the fuel cell is 50%
~ the weight of the fuel cell is 0,76 kilogram
~ the weight of the 2 hydrogen tanks is 6,5 kilograms
~ according to the manufacturer, the system is safe,
because it works with low pressures
~ the tanks have a high storage density
~ the tanks and the fuel cell have a long lifespan
The fuelling of the hydrogen is cumbersome and the question is, of course,
"where does the hydrogen come from?", especially during a bicycle ride
Nevertheless, this is a first step to a bicycle that runs on hydrogen and as
such an interesting development. It is highly unlikely, that the hydrogen
bicycle ever will be used.
Charging the new generation of lithium-ion batteries in a regular electric
bicycle only takes a few minutes and it can be done virtually anywhere
Moreover, it is much cheaper. (10 euro cents). The combination of a fuel
cell and hydrogen tanks seems to be useful in places where no electricity
supply is available, such as camping sites and recreational ships.
90
Power plants
Fuel and power of some power plants in the Netherlands
location and name
fuel
power
Borssele
nuclear plant
uranium
449 megawatts
Amsterdam
Hemweg 8
Hemweg 9
coal
natural gas
830 megawatts
435 megawatts
coal +
biomass
620 megawatts
620 megawatts
natural gas
natural gas
640 megawatts
640 megawatts
Geertruidenberg
Amercentrale 8
Amercentrale 9
Maasbracht
Clauscentrale 1
Clauscentrale 2
The combined gas and steam power plant

~ in a combined gas and steam power plant
electricity is generated using 2 turbines.
~ the first turbine is a gas turbine.
~ the second turbine is a steam turbine. This one
is powered by steam, produced by the heat of
the exhaust gases of the gas turbine.
~ the gas and steam turbine often drive the same
axis, so together they drive the same generator.
~ the efficiency of a combined gas and steam
power plant is up to 58%
Most of the new power plants in Western Europe to be built will be
combined gas and steam power plants.
The ratio between the inlet temperature of the gas turbine and the outlet
temperature of the steam turbine in a combined gas and steam power plant
is much larger than that of a single process. The total efficiency is therefore
also larger. (Carnot). The gas turbine offers an efficiency of 40%. From the
exhaust gases, which still contain 60% of the energy, 30% is won via the
steam turbine. That delivers 18% extra. This amounts to a total efficiency
of 58%.
91
Nuclear power plants

The nuclear power plant in Borssele
The nuclear power plant in Borssele has a capacity of 449 megawatts.
In the year 2000 the energy yield was 3,7 billion kilowatt-hours.
The production factor of this power plant was 94%. A nuclear power
plant is poorly regulated and therefore it almost always works at
maximum power. The Dutch Government has decided, that the nuclear
power plant can remain in operation until 2033
The largest nuclear power plant in the world
This power plant is located in Japan, on the west coast, in Kashiwazaki,
Niigata. It consists of 7 units with a combined capacity of 8212 megawatts,
which is 18 times more than the nuclear power plant in Borssele and
14 times more than a 600 megawatts conventional power plant
Electricity consumption in the Netherlands

kilowatt-hours
This could be excited with (rounded):
or
480 000 000 solar panels of 1,6 square metre no CO2
or
8 200 windmills of 4 megawatts (at sea) no CO2
or
55 000 000 tonnes of wood (or biomass)
CO2 neutral
or
36 000 000 tonnes of coal
94 000 000 tonnes of CO2
or
33 000 000 cubic metres of natural gas
59 000 000 tonnes of CO2
or
300 tonnes of enriched uranium
no CO2
The Netherlands has 17 million inhabitants. So per capita 28 solar panels of
1,6 square metres would be needed to produce 115 billion kilowatt-hours
This amount of electrical energy is used by the industries, all households,
services, (such as public transport), and agriculture
For the same amount of electricity, produced in a coal-fired power plant 1,6 times
as much carbon dioxide (CO2) is released as in a gas-fired power plant
Usually one only cares about CO2 emissions at the production of electricity.
The total energy problem is more than three times as large. Therefore It should
also consider heating, industry, transport, food production and especially cars
92
Comparison power plants

A = power per power plant (megawatts)
B = energy generated per power plant in 1 year (billion kilowatt-hours)
C = required number of power plants in the Netherlands
D = production factor (%)
power plant
coal or gas-fired power plant
600
4,200
27
80,0
nuclear plant Borssele
449
3,700
31
94,1
tidal power plant Rance
240
0,540
213
26,0
solar trough power plant Andasol
150
0,495
232
37,6
wind farm at sea, near IJmuiden
120
0,420
273
40,1
52
0,052
2212
11,4
sun-voltaic power plant Waldpolenz
In 2013 the energy consumption in the Netherlands was 115 billion kilowatt-hours
A 600 megawatts power plant produces 4,2 billion kilowatt-hours per year
~ at a production factor of 80% the annual energy yield will be:
600 megawatts 8760 hours 0,80 = 4,2 billion kilowatt-hours
~ in 6 years such a power plant produces an amount of energy,
equivalent to 1 kilogram mass
The Waldpolenz Solar Park is a large Sun-voltaic power plant in Germany
This power plant includes 550 000 solar panels on a surface of 1,2 square
kilometre. 2212 of these power plants will be needed to fulfil the need for
electricity in the Netherlands. That amounts to 2212 550 000 =
1,2 billion panels on a surface of 2654 square kilometres. An area of more
than 50 at 50 kilometres. Solar-energy, a realistic perspective?
Note, this only concerns the generation of electrical energy.
The total consumption of primary energy in the Netherlands is 3,4 times
as much. That also should ever be excited "green" ?
We "conveniently" ignore the problem, that Sun-voltaic plants will not deliver
energy when the sky is cloudy and during the night. In addition, the energy
yield during the winter months is 6 times less than in summer.
93
The production factor of the above-mentioned power plants

~ Due to maintenance, failures and variable loads the production
factor of a conventional power plant will be 80%
~ A nuclear power plant has a production factor of 94% because
usually it runs continuously at full load. The unproductive part
of 6% will be required for maintenance and exchanging the
fuel rods.
~ The production factor of a windmill is determined by its location
(on land or at sea), the wind force and the number of hours the
wind is blowing (forcefully).
~ Solar trough plants are only situated in places where the Sun is
shining all day. That is the case in southern Europe and
Northern Africa. The radiant energy is 2 to 3 times higher than
in the Netherlands. Energy storage is often being used in
addition. At daytime part of the radiant energy is stored in the
form of heat. When the Sun doesn't shine, the energy delivery
to the grid continues because then the stored heat will be
used for the generation of electricity. Therefore the production
factor will be increased significantly
~ At a Sun-voltaic power plant the production factor is
determined by the number of hours of sunshine in a year. So
by the weather, the latitude and the seasons. Energy storage
is not possible. Large-scale application of solar energy,
excited by electric solar panels is hardly conceivable, because
the Sun isn't shining at night, while a lot of energy will be
needed then.
94
Electric cars
~ in 2005 there were 7 million cars in the Netherlands.
~ per car on average 17400 kilometres was driven per year.
~ that is a total distance of 120 billion kilometres per year
(800 times the distance Earth-Sun).
~ on average an electric car consumes 150 watt-hours per kilometre
If all cars in the Netherlands would drive electrically, then would be needed:
120 150 = 18000 billion watt-hours = 18 billion kilowatt-hours per year.
For the generation of this amount of energy 5 more 600 megawatts power
plants would be needed. The electricity consumption of all households in
the Netherlands is 25 billion kilowatt-hours per year. So the capacity of the
entire electricity infrastructure (power lines, cables, transformers etc.)
should therefore be increased substantially
Recently more and more articles appear in the press about very fast
rechargeable batteries and super capacitors. Will they be a solution for
the energy supply in electric cars? No, not really.
For example:
~ the action radius of an electric car is 200 kilometres
~ the energy consumption is 150 watt-hours per kilometre
~ then the battery should have an energy content of
30 kilowatt-hours
~ at a charging time of 6 minutes (= 0,1 hours) one arrives
at a power of 300 kilowatts
~ at a 230 / 400 volt 3 phase network this requires a
current of 435 amperes per phase
That doesn't appear to be a realistic solution.
Press release on 29 December 2008:
"The electric car is not yet ready for a rapid advance. The boss of Bosch,
the largest car-supplier in the world, calls the expectations about electric
cars overly euphoric. Cars with an internal combustion engine will certainly
dominate the streetscape another twenty years"
95
The following abbreviations are used in the tables below:

energy = the energy consumption of the electric motor, in watt-hours
per kilometre, at a speed of 100 kilometres per hour
range
= the range in kilometres, at a constant speed
of 100 kilometres per hour
batt
= the energy content of the battery in kilowatt-hours
power
= the power of the electric motor in kilowatts
acc
= the acceleration from 0 - 100 kilometres per hour, in seconds
top
= the top speed in kilometres per hour
prim
= the primary energy consumption in watt-hours per kilometre
km / l
= the kilometres per litre petrol equivalent, at
a speed of 100 kilometres per hour
Comparison of some electric cars and the Prius
energy
range
batt
power
acc
top
prim
km / l
General Motors EV1
130
200
26
100
130
450
20
Tesla Roadster
165
340
56
215
200
567
16
Tesla model S
177
480
85
270
200
610
15
Toyota Prius
124
1000
----
73 / 60
10
180
364
25
~ The General Motors EV1 was far ahead of its time. With regard to the energy
consumption per kilometre, it was the best electric car ever made
~ The Tesla model S is equipped with a battery, which can be recharged in
40 minutes. With this car it would also be possible, to replace an empty battery
by a full copy, within 5 minutes. (but in practice that will not work of course)
According to the manufacturer the loading speed will be 62 miles per hour
~ The most fuel-efficient car is the Prius. This luxury 5-seater car has an range
of 1000 kilometres. Worldwide there are already more than 3 million units
on the road. (2013)
~ The petrol consumption of the Prius is 4 litres per 100 kilometres. That is 364
watt-hours per kilometre. The efficiency of the Atkinson petrol engine is 34%
So the net energy consumption of this engine is 124 watt-hours per kilometre
96
A few electric cars that have appeared recently on the market

energy
range
batt
power
acc
top
prim
km / l
Nissan Leaf
150
250 - 200
30
80
12
144
500
18
Citron C-zero
125
150 - 128
16
49
16
130
417
22
Mitsubishi i-MiEV
125
160 - 128
16
49
16
130
417
22
Renault Kangoo ZE
155
170 - 142
22
44
20
130
517
18
Renault Fluence ZOE
147
195 - 150
22
65
14
135
490
19
Renault Fluence ZE
176
185 - 125
22
70
13
135
587
16
Volkswagen e-up
117
160 - 160
19
60
12
130
390
23
BMW i3
129
190 - 147
19
125
150
430
21
range (kilometres) = energy content of the battery (watt-hours)

/ energy consumption of the electric motor (watt-hours per kilometre)
The left number in the column range comes from the manufacturer
The right number is the calculated value. The data of the manufacturer
should be read with a grain of salt. The electric car drives, converted
into the petrol equivalent, about 1 litre per 20 km
The problems at the electric car are:
~ the small range
~ the long charging time of the battery
~ the high price of the battery
As long as these problems have not been resolved, there can be no
question of a large scale use of the electric car. It is significant that
Toyota has withdrawn from the market of electric cars
97
The plug-in hybrid car

In 2012 Toyota launched the plug-in Prius. This plug-in hybrid car has
a relatively large battery that can be charged from the mains. The energy
content of the battery will be sufficient to drive electrically for 20 kilometres.
That is sufficient for commuting (a single trip) or shopping.
Some data: (borrowed from the journal "My Toyota", spring 2011)
~ the action radius will be 20 kilometres when the battery is
fully charged
~ the energy content of the battery will be 5,2 kilowatt-hours
~ the charging time will be 90 minutes on a standard outlet
~ petrol consumption will be 2,6 litres per 100 kilometres on
average (that equals 38 kilometres per litre)
~ the CO2 emission will be 59 grams per kilometre
When driving electrically the consumption would be: 5200 / 20 = 260 watthours per kilometre. These data raise some questions. There is no reason
to assume, that the plug-in Prius consumes more energy per kilometre
than the regular Prius. (124 watt-hours per kilometre).
Obviously not the full energy content of the battery will be used in electric
drive mode. The battery is always discharged half way to prolong its
lifetime. So effectively the energy content is only 2,5 kilowatt-hours.
(20 kilometres 124 watt-hours per kilometre)
According to Toyota the car would have a petrol consumption of 2,6 litres
per 100 kilometres. Apparently one thinks electrical driving will be
emission free, but that of course is not true. If one assumes, that
always 20 kilometres are driven electrically and 40 kilometres on petrol,
then the average consumption will be 2,6 litres of petrol per 100 kilometres.
It is suggested that this car will have a very low CO2 emission. If the CO2
emission at the generation of electricity is also taken into account, then it
turns out that the plug-in hybrid car (indirectly) will produce the same
amount of CO2 as a regular hybrid car. This does not alter the fact, that it
might be fun, (and cheaper), to put part of the necessary energy into the
battery from the outlet at home. Depending on how the car will be used,
perhaps one doesn't need to tank petrol anymore or in any case less often
than in the past. But in winter this will not work. Then the gasoline engine
runs almost continuously, in order to heat the car
For the Opel Ampera a similar story applies
~ at fully electric driving the action radius will be 60 kilometres
~ the energy content of the battery will be 16 kilowatt-hours
When driving electrically the consumption would be: 16000 / 60 = 267 watthours per kilometre. Also in this car obviously only part of the full capacity
of the battery is used.
While driving with the "charging engine" the consumption of petrol is 6 litres
per 100 kilometres. At an efficiency of 25% of the "charging engine" the
energy consumption then will be (0,25 6 9100) / 100 = 136 watt-hours
per kilometre. If one always drives the first 60 kilometres electrically
followed by 40 kilometres on petrol, then the consumption (seemingly) will
be 2,4 litres per 100 kilometres.
With this kind of calculations one can "prove" everything but the fact
remains, that a "plug-in" hybrid car will be not more fuel-efficient than a
regular hybrid car and (indirectly) causes comparable CO2 emissions.
98
CO2 emissions of different types of cars

(at the same amount of propulsion energy)
electric
car
hybrid
car
petrol
car
diesel
car
fuel cell
car
150 watt-hours
150 watt-hours
150 watt-hours
150 watt-hours
150 watt-hours
77%
34%
25%
35%
45%
energy supplied
(per km)
195 watt-hours
from the mains
441 watt-hours
from petrol
600 watt-hours
from petrol
429 watt-hours
from diesel oil
333 watt-hours
from hydrogen
CO2-emissions
(per km)
148 grams by
the power plant
150 grams
by the car
204 grams
by the car
150 grams
by the car
258 grams by
the power plant
primary energy
(rounded)
195 / 0,33 =
591 watt-hours
441 watt-hours
600 watt-hours
429 watt-hours
333 / 0,32 =
1040 watt-hours
1 litre per
15,4 km
1 litre per
20,6 km
1 litre per
15,2 km
1 litre per
21,2 km
1 litre per
8,8 km
propulsion
energy (per km)
efficiency
of the car
energy in litres
petrol-equivalent
1,0
9,1
10,0
33,6
kilowatt-hours from the outlet causes

kilowatt-hours from 1 litre of petrol causes
kilowatt-hours from 1 litre of diesel oil causes
kilowatt-hours from 1 kilogram of hydrogen causes
electric car
~ the electric motor never needs to warm up
~ there is no gearbox and so there are no
transmission losses
~ during braking and speed reduction energy
is returned to the battery
~ on site the car causes no CO2 emission,
but on the other hand the power plant does
hybrid car
~ the cold petrol engine must be warmed up,
that takes a lot of energy
~ the continuously variable gear works with a
very high efficiency
~ during braking and speed reduction energy
is returned to the battery.
~ the petrol engine is always running under
circumstances when the efficiency is high,
~ the petrol engine is never running idle
petrol or diesel car
~ the cold engine must be warmed up, that
takes a lot of energy
~ there are relatively large energy losses in
the gearbox
~ regenerating of energy is not possible
~ in a petrol engine the efficiency strongly
depends on the speed and torque
~ the petrol engine is often running idle
99
760 grams of CO2

3100 grams of CO2
3500 grams of CO2
26000 grams of CO2
fuel cell car

~ this is an electric car in which the energy
is supplied by a fuel cell
~ the 4-fold energy conversions cause a bad
total return
~ the indirect CO2 emissions will be 2 times
as much as at an equivalent electric car
The number of energy conversions of different types of cars
~ petrol car 1x
primary energy in petrol > mechanical energy
~ electric car 2x
primary energy in natural gas > electricity > mechanical energy
~ hydrogen car 4x
primary energy in natural gas > electricity > hydrogen >
electricity > mechanical energy
Can an electric car drive only on "green" energy?
It is often claimed, that electric cars will drive on "green" energy in the long
term and then no CO2 emissions will be released. The battery of an electric
car is almost always charged by electricity from the mains. When the share
of "green" energy in the generation of electricity increases, then of course
that share will not be used selectively by electric cars. Proponents of electric
cars like it to make believe us this. Only the generation of electricity becomes
a bit "greener".
No more than 15% of the electricity in the Netherlands in 2020 will be
generated without CO2 emissions. The CO2 emissions caused indirectly by
electric cars would then decrease with the same percentage. For example,
from 130 to 110 grams CO2 per kilometre. Moreover one must remember
that the electricity consumption will increase drastically, if everyone drives
an electric car. The relative share of the "green" energy will then be reduced.
Can an electric car drive on the energy produced by (a few) solar panels?
Some people sometimes fantasize about ever driving their electric car on
the energy that comes from their own solar panels.
~ an electric car consumes about 150 watt-hours per kilometre
~ for 60 kilometres per day 9 kilowatt-hours per day are needed
~ in the Netherlands a solar panel of 1 square metre generates
on average 350 watt-hours per day
~ therefore 26 square metres of solar panels are needed
~ on the energy generated by 1 solar panel of 1 square metre on
average one can drive an electric car about 2 kilometres per day
100
Stella, an electric car with solar panels

This 4-seater car was developed by students of the Eindhoven University of
Technology. The car takes part in the World Solar Challenge in Australia
~ the empty weight is 380 kilograms
~ the battery has an energy content of 15 kilowatt-hours
~ the total surface of the solar panels is 6 square metres
~ the efficiency of the solar cells is 22,5%
~ the average energy consumption is 30 watt-hours per
kilometre at a speed of 70 kilometres per hour
~ the action radius driving on the battery is 430 kilometres
~ with refeeding by the solar panels that is 680 kilometres
The electric race car

Toyota currently (2011) is experimenting with an electric race car
~ the total power of the 2 electric motors will be 280 kilowatts
~ the car accelerates in 3,9 seconds from 0 to 100 kilometres
per hour
~ the lithium-ceramics battery has an energy content of
41,5 kilowatt-hours
~ the weight of the battery is 350 kilograms
~ the action radius while racing is 42 kilometres
(2 rounds on the Nrburgring)
In Beijing on 13 September 2014 the first formula E-race was held
Not with Toyota race cars but of Renault. During the race pit stops
were made to change car with a fully charged battery
The action radius of cars

The Opel Astra (or a similar car)
~ the power of the engine is 74 kilowatts
~ at full power the energy used is 296 kilowatt-hours per hour with an
efficiency of 25%
~ the tank content is 45 litres of petrol, that equals 410 kilowatt-hours
~ at full power the car can drive 1,4 hours on this amount of energy
~ then the action radius will be 231 kilometres and the petrol
consumption will be 1 litre per 5,1 kilometres
~ at a speed of 100 kilometres per hour the action radius will be
820 kilometres at a petrol consumption of 1 litre per 18,2 kilometres
So at a speed of 100 kilometres per hour the action radius will be
820 / 231 = 3,6 times as large as driving on top speed.
101
Comparison of the action radius of a car with a diesel engine and

a car with a petrol engine
~ the energy content of diesel oil is 10 kilowatt-hours per litre
~ the energy content of petrol is 9,1 kilowatt-hours per litre
~ the efficiency of a diesel engine is 35%
~ the efficiency of a petrol engine is 25%
Therefore per litre of fuel, the action radius of a car with a diesel engine is
1,5 times as large as that of a car with a petrol engine. When talking about
the action radius of a car, one should always mention what kind of engine
(and which fuel) it concerns
Comparison means of transport

A = kilometres per litre petrol-equivalent per passenger
means of transport
aircraft Jumbo (450 passengers)
30
fuel cell car (4 passenger)
36
electric train Thalys (377 passengers)
50
petrol car (4 passenger)
60
electric car (4 passenger)
80
hybrid car Prius (4 passenger)
100
walking
108
electric train Double Decker (372 passengers)
158
Shell eco-marathon "urban-concept" class
469
cycling
540
electric bicycle
545
recumbent
1235
Shell eco-marathon prototype class
3315
This table applies to the maximum transport capacity per means of

transport. In practice there is usually only one person in a car, while
aircrafts almost always are occupied to the last chair
Then an airplane, per passenger, will be 2 times as economical
as a petrol car
102
Some projects of Wubbo Ockels

The sustainable sailing boat
This is a large seaworthy sailing yacht (25 metres long), that provides its
own electrical energy needs. The motive power of the wind is 125 kilowatts
at the maximum speed of 18 kilometres per hour,
Part of this, about 10 kilowatts is "drained" for the generation of electricity.
This is done by means of 2 propellers on the bottom of the ship
~ the energy is stored in a lead-acid battery with a capacity
of 350 kilowatt-hours and a weight of 12 tonnes
~ per day 240 kilowatt-hours can be charged, which is
sufficient for 10 days of energy consumption.
~ on average the energy need of the ship is 24 kilowatt-hours
per day. The sails are being controlled electrically and there
are many electronics on board. In addition a lot of energy is
needed for hot water, cooking etc.
The Super bus

Some data:
~ the super bus is 15 metres long 2,6 metres wide and
1,6 metres high
~ the bus is driven electrically and gets the energy from
rechargeable lithium-polymer batteries
~ the power of the electric motor is 300 kilowatts
~ the action radius is 210 kilometres
~ the bus can accommodate 23 passengers
~ the maximum speed is 250 kilometres per hour
~ the energy consumption is just as much as a regular
bus that runs at a speed of 100 kilometres per hour.
The idea is, that on long stretches the super bus drives on a specially
landscaped roadway, with a speed of about 200 kilometres per hour.
The bus may also drive on an ordinary road and put the passengers
down in front of their doors. The construction of the special roadway
is much cheaper than the construction of a railway. There is no need
to build additional works, because the bus can use existing tunnels
and bridges
103
The Delft University of technology wins the first Hydrogen Race

in the world
On 23 August 2008 the first race with "hydrogen-karts" took place in
Rotterdam. Some data of the winning vehicle:
~ the tank of the vehicle contains 5 litres of hydrogen at
a pressure of 200 bar
~ the vehicle accelerates in 5 seconds from standstill to
100 kilometres per hour
~ the continuous power of the fuel cell is 8 kilowatts
~ the vehicle is driven by 2 electric motors
~ each wheel has its own motor, which makes quick
turns possible
~ the brake-energy is stored in "super caps
~ during acceleration extra energy is extracted from
the super caps
~ the energy content of the super caps is 56 watt-hours
(20 kilowatts during 10 seconds)
The World Solar Challenge

In 2015, the Nuon Solar Team has won (for the 6th time) the World
Solar Challenge. This is a 2 yearly contest for vehicles exclusively
driven by solar energy. The Nuon Solar Team has been formed by a
number of students of the Technical University of Delft, Under the
guidance of ex-astronaut Wubbo Ockels, they have designed or
improved the "solar car". The fields of study of these students are:
Aerospace Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Industrial Design
and Computer Science. The project has been sponsored by Nuon
and the Technical University of Delft. The distance across Australia
from North to South is 3021 kilometres. The average speed is about
100 kilometres per hour.
Some technical data of the vehicle:
~ length 5 metres, width 1,8 metres and height 80 centimetres
~ total surface of the solar panels 8,4 square metres
~ frontal surface 0,79 square metres
~ air resistance 0,07
~ weight 189 kilograms (excluding the driver)
~ gallium arsenate triple junction solar cells, with an efficiency
of up to 26%
~ efficiency of the (in-wheel) motor 97%
~ capacity of the lithium-ion polymer battery 5 kilowatt-hours,
at a weight of 30 kilograms
In 2009 Japan won The World Solar Challenge. The decisive was given
by the indium-gallium-arsenate solar cells, developed by Sharp. These
solar cells had an efficiency of 30%.
104
The Shell eco-marathon

The Shell eco-marathon is an annual efficiency contest, sponsored by Shell.
The goal is to trudge as many kilometres as possible with a vehicle on 1 litre
of regular petrol (Euro 95). So with 9100 watt-hours. There are 2 classes:
the "prototype" and the "urban-concept"
In the "prototype" class any form of the vehicle is allowed.
Usually it resembles a motorized recumbent
In the "urban-concept" class, the vehicle must resemble a car. The driver
has to sit upright and the vehicle must have four wheels.
Except petrol, also other energy sources may be used, such as:
~ hydrogen via a fuel cell
~ solar energy through solar cells
~ diesel oil
~ LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)
The results are converted into the petrol-equivalent. Hydrogen potentially
delivers a higher action radius than petrol. That is when the energy needed
for the production of hydrogen is neglected.
The efficiency of a fuel cell + electric motor is higher than of a petrol engine.
Important factors at the record attempts are:
~ a low air resistance, so a small frontal area and
a good flow line
~ a low weight
~ a low speed (the air resistance is proportional
to the 2nd power of the speed)
~ according to the rules of procedure, the average
speed may not be less than 30 kilometres per hour
~ an economical driving style
~ the transmission losses and the rolling resistance
should be as low as possible
~ the efficiency of the (small) engine must be as high
as possible (sometimes a Honda 4-stroke moped
engine is used)
In 2014 the following records have been achieved at the consumption
of 1 litre of petrol:
~ in the class "prototype
3315 kilometres (= 2,7 watt-hours per kilometre)
~ in the class "urban-concept 469 kilometres (= 19,4 watt-hours per kilometre)
A streamlined recumbent
~ the energy consumption (in the form of food) is
1 litre petrol equivalent per 1235 kilometres.
~ the net (mechanical) consumption is 4 times less
so 1 litre per 4940 kilometres.
~ that is theoretically feasible at an efficiency of 100%
~ at the Shell eco-marathon the record of the
"prototype" class is 1 litre per 3315 kilometres.
~ so with 12 litres petrol around the world
105
Bio fuel
~ the efficiency of the transposition of solar energy to chemical
energy through photosynthesis is much less than 1%
~ the annual irradiation of solar energy in the Netherlands is
1000 kilowatt-hours, measured on a horizontal plane of
1 square metre
~ the annual yield of rapeseed oil is approximately 1700 litres
per hectare.
~ 1 hectare = 10 000 square metres
~ therefore the annual yield will be 0,17 litres per square metre
~ the primary energy content is 1,7 kilowatt-hours
~ if the by-products are also charged (press cake and straw)
one arrives at 3 kilowatt-hours, which is only 0,3% of the
amount of irradiated solar energy
~ after transposition into electric energy only 1,2 kilowatt-hours
remain, at an efficiency of 40%
~ the annual yield of an electric solar panel of 1 square metre
is 150 kilowatt-hours
~ so at the same surface and during the same time, an electric
solar panel will produce 125 times more electrical energy
than rapeseed oil.
A better solution seems to be the production of bio-ethanol. That is
derived from sugar beet, sugar cane or maize, after fermentation.
The yield is 0,57 litres per square metre, with a primary energy content
of 3,5 kilowatt-hours. That is 2 times as much as of rapeseed oil.
Since September 2005 the oil companies are obliged to mix petrol and
diesel oil with 2% bio fuel in the Netherlands. One strives to 10% in 2020.
Press release on 9 October 2008:
"The Government will limit the use of bio fuels in petrol and diesel oil. It
was the intention that 4,5% of the oil next year should consist of rapeseed
and palms. That has been adjusted to 3,75%. The target for 2010 will also
be reduced, because it seems that the promotion of bio fuels will be
detrimental to the food production in poor countries.
It is immoral and criminal to use precious agricultural land for (large-scale)
production of bio fuel to be able to drive our cars here, while in large parts
of the world famine is increasing. In addition, the effective emissions of
CO2 will hardly be reduced by the use of bio fuels.
106
The energy yield of wood production

A site where one can invest in wood, mentions:
~ in 21 years the production of teak wood will be 400 cubic
metres per hectare. (somewhere in the tropics)
~ in 1 year that is 19 cubic metres of teak wood per hectare
~ 1 hectare = 10 000 square metres
~ 1 cubic metre of teak wood = 800 kilograms
~ the energy content of 1 kilogram of wood = 5,3 kilowatt-hours
~ at incineration of 19 cubic metres of wood
~ 19 800 5,3 = 80 000 kilowatt-hours is released
~ that is 8 kilowatt-hours per square metre per year
~ the energy irradiation by the Sun in the tropics is
3000 kilowatt-hours per square metre per year
~ so the efficiency of wood cultivation will be
(8 / 3000) x 100% = 0,3 percent
107
A few more things worth knowing

Hot-air Engine (Stirling engine)
~ a hot-air engine is heated from the outside and
contains no valves.
~ therefore the reliability will be very good, while
the engine will be very quiet.
~ virtually all energy sources are suitable to heat
the engine, including solar energy or natural gas.
Energy losses in the food cycle
~ if a man eats grain, 10% will be converted into muscle proteins
~ if a pig eats grain, 10% will be converted into pork
~ if a man eats pork, 10% of it will be converted into muscle
proteins, so that is only 1% of the grain eaten by the pig.
From the point of view of energy efficiency, eating of meat is very inefficient
Electric shaving in comparison to shaving with a razorblade
~ shaving with a razorblade: warming up 200 centilitres of water
with 50 degrees costs 10 kilocalories = 11,6 watt-hours
~ electric shaving: 2,8 watt-hours for 7 times of shaving, including
the charging cycle of the battery. = 0,4 Watt-hours at a time
So shaving with a razorblade costs 11,6 / 0,4 = 29 times as much
energy as electric shaving.
108
Comparison of a hot pitcher with an electric blanket

~ the content of a hot pitcher is 1,6 litres. Heating water from 10 to 80
degrees celsius = 1,6 70 = 112 kilocalories = 139 watt-hours
~ an electric blanket (1 person) = 25 watts
switched on the whole night (8 hours) = 200 Watt-hours
Comparison of cooking on gas with electric cooking
At first glance cooking on gas seems to be much more efficient than cooking
on electricity, but at closer inspection this has to be nuanced a little
cooking on gas:
~ much heat losses, because a lot of heat flows along the pan
~ combustion products (carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide)
in the kitchen
~ danger of gas leaks, which may cause life-threatening explosions
~ as a result in many buildings (Tower flats) cooking on gas is
prohibited
~ energy supply is (very) bad adjustable
electric cooking:
~ no combustion products in the kitchen.
~ the efficiency of the heat transfer between hob and pan
approaches the 100%
~ the energy supply is excellent adjustable
~ the energy supply can be automated, for instance setting the
desired temperature and stop heating when the water boils
~ a time switch can easily be applied (useful in elderly homes)
Energy saving lamps
The use of energy saving lamps hardly saves energy. Because these
lamps are using "virtually no energy", people are inclined to let these
lamps burn all day and the lamps are hung up everywhere.
("rebound effect")
Reliability of the supply of electricity
It is commonly expected that the supply of electricity is guaranteed for
at least 99,99% of the time. Fortunately, in practise this is considerably
better. With a reliability of only 99,99% on average we would sit in the
dark during 53 minutes per year
109
Energy consumption of lighting

The energy consumption of the lighting is approximately 15% of the total
electricity consumption of a household. If the heating of the home and the
use of the car are included, the share of lighting will be only 4%. If one
really wants to save energy, it is better to set the heating somewhat lower
and to abolish the car, than switching off the lighting in the kitchen every
now and then. Small bits only help a (very little) bit.
If everyone does a little, well achieve only a little
Also it will have little effect to reduce the lighting of highways (to save
energy) while the car traffic is unaffected.
In the Netherlands households consume 27% of the total quantity
of primary energy
~ in 2008 the consumption of primary energy of all households
was 254 billion kilowatt-hours, including the heating of houses
and the use of cars.
~ the total primary energy consumption, including industry,
transport and public transport, was 927 billion kilowatt-hours.
So the households consumed 27% of the total amount of primary energy
In 2008 the Netherlands consumed 0,65% of the world energy
~ the consumption of primary energy in the Netherlands
was 927 billion kilowatt-hours.
~ the world consumption of primary energy was
142 670 billion kilowatt-hours.
So the Netherlands consumed 0,65% of the world energy
110
A Dutchman consumes 53 times as much energy as needed to

stay alive
~ on average the consumption of food of 1 Dutchman is
2500 calories per day, which equals 3 kilowatt-hours per day.
~ in 2008 the consumption of primary energy was 927 billion
kilowatt-hours.
Converted to 1 person per day the consumption was about
160 kilowatt-hours That is 53 times as much energy as needed to
stay alive and equivalent to the energy-contents of 18 litres of petrol.
Inhabitants of Africa must live on 13 kilowatt-hours per day.
During his lifetime a Dutchman consumes almost as much
energy as a Jumbo jet, that flies one time around the Earth
~ the energy consumption of a Dutchman is 18 litres of petrolequivalent per day
~ in 80 years that amounts to: 80 365 18 = 525 600 litres
of petrol-equivalent
~ that causes 1500 tonnes of CO2
~ a Jumbo jet consumes 600 000 litres of kerosene for a flight
of 40 000 kilometres. (= the circumference of the Earth)
In 2011 the 7 billionth earthling was born
~ if we count the number of people on Earth with a speed
of 1 per second, then therefore 222 years will be needed:
~ at a distance of 1 metre between 2 people this will be a queue
of 7 billion metres which is 175 times the earths circumference
~ that is a distance of 23 light seconds
~ it takes an airplane, flying with a speed of 900 kilometres
per hour, 324 days to cover this distance
~ 7 billion people is a column of 18 people wide and a length
equal to the distance Earth Moon
(at a distance of 1 metre between the rows)
(What do you mean, overpopulation?)
"In 2010 there will be 1 billion cars and trucks driving around on Earth.
Currently, there are 942 million vehicles worldwide. Achieving
1 billion vehicles in 2010 is only an intermediate phase.
Despite the environmental problems the fleet grows in 2015 to
1,124 billion units".
(At an average length of 5 metres per car, one comes on a file of
5 billion metres, which is 125 times the earths circumference)
111
Overview of the main locations where fossil fuels are found

(percentages)
Middle
East
coal
Africa
North
South
America America
Asia and
Oceania
Eastern
Europe
West
Europe
6,9
37,3
3,1
35,4
6,1
11,2
oil
62,1
6,3
7,4
7,9
3,8
9,8
2,7
natural gas
32,5
6,4
5,5
3,9
9,3
37,3
5,2
In 2013 the world production of primary energy was

157 x 1012 kilowatt-hours. That is equivalent to:
or 17,25 x 1012 litres of petrol,
that is a cube with an edge of 2,6 kilometres
or 19,38 x 1012 kilograms of coal,
that is a train with 39 x 107 goods wagons of
50 tonnes and a length of 10 metres each
The length of the train will be 39 x 105 kilometres
= 100 times the circumference of the earth
Energies worldwide
(per year and converted into kilograms mass equivalent)
electricity consumption =
860 kilograms mass equivalent
total primary energy
=
6280 kilograms mass equivalent
irradiated solar-energy = 44 million kilograms mass equivalent
112
Some units
Watt peak
Watt peak is the electrical power of a solar panel, at an perpendicular
irradiation of 1000 watts per square metre and a panel temperature of
25 degrees celsius
For example:
~ a solar panel has a surface of 1 square metre
~ the efficiency is 15% (current state of the art)
~ then the electrical power will be 1 1000 15% = 150 watt peak.
The theoretical annual yield of 1 watt peak is 1 x 8760 = 8760 watt-hours.
In the Netherlands the actual annual yield of 1 watt peak is approximately
850 watt-hours. This is caused by the following circumstances:
~ the production factor of solar energy in the Netherlands is 11,4%
~ the efficiency of a solar panel depends on the irradiated power
and on the panel temperature. (the warmer the worse).
~ a solar panel will be subject to aging and pollution.
~ in addition, losses can be experienced in the "inverter"
The inverter is a circuitry that converts the low direct voltage
from the solar panel into an alternating voltage of 230 volts
This enables feed back of the solar energy into the grid.
~ a fixed solar panel almost never is mounted under the ideal
angle of 36 degrees and is rarely exactly facing South.
So in the Netherlands the annual yield of a 150 watt peak solar panel
will be 150 x 850 watt-hours = 127 500 watt-hours.
On average that will be 127 500 / 365 = 350 watt-hours a day
1 household = 3650 kilowatt-hours a year = 10 kilowatt-hours a day
(that is a continuous power of 417 watts)
1 household is the average consumption of electrical energy per household
per year in the Netherlands. Of course that is not the same each year, but
this (rounded) value is often used to indicate the yield of solar or wind energy.
For example:
The wind farm at IJmuiden generates 422 000 megawatt-hours per year.
So that will be sufficient for 422 000 000 / 3650 = 115 600 households
1 kilocalorie = 427 kilogram-metres = 1,16 watt-hours
1 kilocalorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature
of 1 kilogram of water with 1 degree celsius
~ melting down 1 kilogram of ice of 0 degrees celsius costs
80 kilocalories
~ bringing to the boil 1 kilogram of water of 0 degrees costs
100 kilocalories
~ fully evaporating 1 kilogram of water of 100 degrees costs
540 kilocalories That is (coincidentally?) 3 times as much
as needed for melting + bringing to the boil
113
1 mtoe = 11,63 billion kilowatt-hours

1 mtoe (mega ton oil equivalent) is the amount of energy produced by
burning 1 million tonnes of crude oil.
(so 2 mtoe is almost as much energy as 1 kilogram-mass equivalent)
1015 btu = 293 billion kilowatt-hours
1 btu (British thermal unit) is the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound (= 0,45 kilograms) of water with 1 degree fahrenheit
(= 0,56 degree celsius) 1 btu = 0,252 kilocalories
114
Tables and graphs

World Total Primary Energy Supply in 2013
was 13 541 mtoe = 157 x 1012 kilowatt-hours
(distribution by energy sources)
oil
31,1%
coal
28,9%
natural gas
21,4%
bio fuel
10,2%
nuclear energy
4,8%
hydro power
2,4%
wind and Sun
1,2%
total world
100,0%
(source: IEA = International Energy Agency)

One may be "against coal" but that does not alter the fact that
29% of the world production of primary energy comes from coal
(distribution by countries)
OECD
39,2%
China
22,3%
Asia (without China)
12,2%
Non OECD Europe and Eurasia
8,5%
Africa
5,5%
Middle East
5,1%
Non OECD Americas
4,6%
Bunkers
2,6%
total world
100,0%

OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
This is an international economic organisation of 34 countries to
stimulate economic progress and world trade.
115
Total Primary Energy Supply in 2013 (TPES)

A = total production per year (mtoe)
B = number of inhabitants (x 1 million)
C = production per inhabitant per year (toe)
A
OECD
5 300
1 261
4,20
1 156
341
3,39
689
218
3,17
3 023
1 367
2,21
619
472
1,31
1 655
2 348
0,71
747
1 111
0,67
13 541
7 118
1,90
Middle East
China
Non OECD Americas
Africa
total World

In 1973 the world population was 3,860 billion
In 2013 it was 7,118 billion, so an increase of van 84%
Increase in primary energy use in 1973 to 2013

(mtoe)
1973
2013
49
691
1 410%
China
427
3 020
707%
336
1 652
492%
Africa
207
745
360%
Non OECD Americas
214
623
291%
3 739
5 308
142%
946
1 151
122%
6 100
13 541
222%
Middle East
OECD
total World
116
increase
The total primary energy production and the electricity consumption in 2013
(per country and in billion kilowatt-hours)
total primary
energy production
electricity
consumption
Netherlands
911
115
Middle East
8 013
841
China
35 157
5 165
19 248
2 155
Africa
8 688
649
Non OECD Americas
7 199
1 011
OECD
61 639
10 179
Non OECD Europe en Eurasia
13 444
1 538
153 388
21 538
World
The total primary energy production and the electricity consumption in 2013
(per inhabitant and in kilowatt-hours)
total primary
energy production
electricity
consumption
Netherlands
53 614
6 823
Middle East
36 867
3 863
China
25 702
3 778
8 257
918
Africa
7 792
584
Non OECD Americas
15 235
2 142
OECD
48 846
8 072
Non OECD Europe en Eurasia
39 426
4 510
World
22 097
3 026
117
Distribution of the electricity consumption in the Netherlands

industry
40%
households
23%
services
30%
agricultures
total
7%
100%

Distribution of the electricity consumption in the Netherlands
Overview of the energy sources foe generating electricity in some countries (2009)
(billion kilowatt-hours)
nuclear
energy
hydro
energy
4,2
0,1
4,6
0,05
7,8
96,9
113,5
Belgium
47,2
1,8
1,0
0,17
5,3
35,7
91,2
Germany
134,9
24,7
38,6
6,58
41,9
345,7
592,5
69,1
8,9
9,3
0,02
12,4
275,9
375,7
409,7
61,9
7,9
0,17
6,1
55,9
542,2
27,7
37,5
0,0
0,05
2,4
0,8
68,5
0,0
53,4
6,5
0,67
10,0
216,6
292,6
Spain
52,8
29,2
37,8
6,04
4,5
163,6
293,8
Sweden
52,2
66,0
2,5
0,00
12,2
3,9
136,7
Norway
0,0
127,1
1,0
0,00
0,4
4,4
132,8
Denmark
0,0
0,0
6,7
0,00
4,0
25,6
36,4
Russia
163,6
176,1
0,0
0,00
3,1
649,2
992,0
Africa
12,8
101,3
1,7
0,03
2,2
514,9
632,8
Japan
279,8
82,1
3,0
2,80
24,3
656,0
1047,9
China
70,1
615,6
26,9
0,32
2,4
3019,2
3734,7
0,0
12,3
3,8
0,27
2,8
241,8
260,9
USA
830,2
298,4
74,2
2,50
72,9
2892,9
4188,2
World
2696,8
3329,2
273,2
21,00
298,2
13447,2
20132,2
Netherlands
United Kingdom
France
Switzerland
Italy
Australia
wind
energy
solar
energy
118
geothermal
biomass
coal, oil,
natural gas
total
Overview of the energy sources foe generating electricity in some countries (2009)
(percentages)
nuclear
energy
hydro
energy
wind
energy
solar
energy
geothermal
biomass
coal, oil,
natural gas
total
3,7
0,1
4,1
0,04
6,9
85,3
100
Belgium
51,8
1,9
1,1
0,18
5,9
39,2
100
Germany
22,8
4,2
6,5
1,11
7,1
58,4
100
United Kingdom
18,4
2,4
2,5
0,01
3,3
73,4
100
France
75,6
11,5
1,5
0,03
1,1
10,3
100
Switzerland
40,5
54,8
0,0
0,07
3,5
1,1
100
0,0
18,3
2,2
0,23
5,2
74,0
100
Spain
18,0
9,9
12,9
2,06
1,5
55,7
100
Sweden
38,2
48,3
1,8
0,00
8,9
2,8
100
Norway
0,0
95,7
0,7
0,00
0,3
3,3
100
Denmark
0,0
0,1
18,5
0,01
11,1
70,4
100
Russia
16,5
17,8
0,0
0,00
0,3
65,4
100
Africa
2,0
16,0
0,3
0,00
0,1
81,4
100
Japan
26,7
7,8
0,3
0,26
2,3
62,6
100
China
1,9
16,5
0,7
0,01
0,1
80,8
100
Australia
0,0
4,7
1,5
0,10
1,1
92,7
100
USA
19,8
7,1
1,8
0,06
1,7
69,1
100
World
13,4
16,5
1,4
0,10
1,5
66,8
100
Netherlands
Italy
Energy sources for generating electricity worldwide
green energy = wind energy, solar energy, geothermal and biomass
119
Wind energy en solar energy in some countries (2009)

(billion kilowatt-hours)
wind energy
the Netherlands
solar energy
4,6
0,05
Germany
38,6
6,58
Spain
37,8
6,04
China
26,9
0,32
USA
74,2
2,50
World
273,2
21,00
Compared to other countries very little solar energy is generated in the Netherlands.
Germany generates 31% of the world production of solar-energy. This is 132 times
as much as the Netherlands. Spain is second best with 29% of the world production.
Sources for the generation of electrical energy in Germany in 2014

billion
kilowatt-hours
percentage
140,9
27,0
coal
99,0
19,0
Uranium
91,8
17,6
biomass
53,9
10,3
wind
51,4
9,9
Sun
32,8
6,3
natural gas
33,2
6,4
hydro power
18,5
3,6
521,5
100,0
brown coal
total
(source: Fraunhofer Institute)
120
Alternative energy sources

Anything can be calculated, but that does not mean that it can
be achieved in practice, or that it is economically feasible
The following forms of alternative energy have in common, that they have not
(yet) been realized. Often they are fantasies, more than practicable projects.
A good example of this is the "solar Tower". which should have a height of
1 kilometre. The highest building in the world (in Dubai) is 828 metres high.
The efficiency of the solar tower is 1,5%
Solar Tower
Solar radiation warms the air located under a low circular, translucent collector.
This collector is open at the border. The translucent roof of this collector
together with the ground is a storage space for the heated air. A tower is stated
in the centre of the round roof. The heated air rises in this tower. As a result
new cold air enters on the edge of the storage space. At night also there is a
continuous flow of warm air to the tower, because the entire ground surface
consists of tubes filled with water. At daytime these tubes are being heated
and at night they release their heat again. In the air flow to the tower a number
of wind turbines are placed. The associated generators generate electricity.
It is possible that such a tower might be built in Australia.
Some data: (rounded)
~ the temperature of the air under the collector rises 30 degrees
~ the speed of the airflow at the foot of the tower is 60 kilometres
per hour
~ the power is 200 megawatts
~ a 600 megawatts power plant produces 6 times as much
energy in 1 year
~ the tower is 1 kilometre high and the diameter is 130 metres
~ the diameter of the round collector is 5 kilometres
(so the radius r = 2500 metres)
~ at the foot of the tower there are 32 turbines of 6,5 megawatts
121
Calculation of the return

~ the surface of the collector is r2 = 3,14 25002 =
19 625 000 square metres.
~ the annual radiant energy from the Sun in Australia is
2,3 megawatt-hours per square metre.
~ so the total amount of energy transmuted in the
collector will be 45 137 500 megawatt-hours per year.
~ so the efficiency will be
(680 000 / 45 137 500) 100% = 1,5%
~ compare the efficiency of an electric solar panel = 15%
The advantages of the solar tower are:
~ there is virtually no maintenance required
~ no (water) cooling is needed
(a great advantage in dry and warm areas)
~ the installation works on the heat irradiated by the
Sun and therefore it has little burden of pollution
~ the energy supply during day and night is
(more or less) continuous
Blue Energy
Blue Energy is a form of generation of sustainable energy based on the difference in
salt concentration of seawater (salt) and river water (fresh). By building a "generator"
that consists of plastic membranes (a kind of filters) on the border area some energy
might be won. The technique used is called "reverse electro dialysis". The water on
one side of the membrane is charged positively, on the other side negatively. The
voltage difference is 80 mill volts. Enough voltage may be obtained for a practical
application through stacking of a large number of membranes. The system works as
a kind of battery. There is no other energy source than fresh and salt water.
Theoretically the yield should be sufficient for the electricity supply of the Northern
part of the Netherlands, if all the fresh water that flows through the Netherlands in
sea, would be used for this form of energy-generation.
An unrealistic story.
122
Ladder Mill
The ladder mill consists of a system worn by the wind. There are a large number
of wings that are bound to a strong rope that forms a loop. One end of the loop
gives power to a dynamo on the ground. The wings are set as blades in such a way
that along one side of the loop the wings move upward under the influence of the
wind. Beyond the top high in the air, the wings along the other side of the loop
move down again. This is achieved by altering the state of the wings, by which
they suffer an upward or downward pressure. This creates a spinning movement
of the loop. The energy yield of the ladder mill is said to be at least 50 times
more than of an ordinary windmill with a capacity of 1 megawatt.
This doesn't seem to be very realistic.
The Maglev wind turbine
Maglev is the abbreviation of magnetic levitation. The Maglev wind turbine has
a vertical axis. The axis and the blades are resting on a magnetic bearing.
A magnetic bearing is virtually frictionless. (but does consume energy). Due
to the very low friction, this wind turbine already provides a useful amount of
energy at an air speed of 3 metres per second. Very high wind speeds do not
constitute a problem, the mill can continue to run. Therefore, according to the
Chinese inventors, this type of wind turbine may provide 20% more energy in
comparison with a conventional wind turbine of the same power. One has to
guess how the magnetic bearing works. It is unclear how it should be built
with permanent magnets and the use of no electrical energy for the levitation.
Therefore this seems to be a very unlikely story. The friction of the bearings
normally consumes only a few percents of the energy that is generated by a
wind turbine. Therefore very little profit can be achieved. Interesting is the
vertical axis, causing this mill to be insensitive for the direction of the wind,
while very large constructions are possible. The wind energy is exited over
the entire height of the mill. This kind of constructions has already been
known many years (centuries). The mill would have monstrous dimensions,
(like 600 metres high, with a diameter of 400 metres) and then generates just
as much energy as 1000 ordinary windmills.
123
Wave energy
Wave energy is energy won from the rapidly changing water height at sea by
the presence of waves. Although theoretically (very much) energy can be won,
until now it has not been done on a large scale because the costs usually
exceed the benefits. Off the coast of Portugal the first commercial wave
plant will be build. A plant that converts energy from ocean waves into
electrical energy. The system will generate enough electricity for (only)
1500 households.
Energy radiation from space

To make this possible, huge solar panels must be brought in a geo stationary
orbit around the Earth. The absorbed solar energy is then beamed down by
means of microwaves and converted into electricity. An insane plan, which
of course will never be realized. (fun for James Bond movies)
124
Free energy
Nikola Tesla
In this enumeration of alternative energy sources, the indication of "free energy"

must be mentioned. There is no scientific basis for the existence of "free energy"
However, one can have vague doubts, because Tesla would have invented this
in 1889.
Tesla (1856-1943) was one of the greatest inventors of all time. Among other
things he designed the infrastructure of electricity networks as we are currently
using everywhere. This is energy transport by means of alternating current
transported through high tension power lines and transformers. He also was the
inventor of the alternating current induction motor, the fluorescent tube, the radio
and the remote control. In 1943, shortly after his death, the American Supreme
Court officially established that Tesla was the inventor of the radio and therefore
not Marconi. His greatest invention however would be the global energy supply
by "free energy", drained from the "ether". However, experiments with this have
never taken place because his lenders left failed. They saw nothing in free energy
The Warden Clyff Tower

With 5 of these towers Tesla would make a
worldwide, wireless energy supply possible
Tesla was able to transport energy wireless over great distances. It was stated
that he left lamps burning wireless at a distance of several hundred metres. He
also would have converted an electric car, that could drive for a week without
charging the battery. This would also be made possible by the wireless transfer
of energy.
The wireless transmission of energy in itself is nothing special. Virtually all the
energy we use on Earth is transferred wirelessly from the Sun to the Earth.
It is much stranger actually that large amounts of electrical energy can be
transported through a few copper wires. For example, from a power plant
to a big city
An electric 2-seater sports car was named "Tesla Roadster". This car is
powered by a 3-phase alternating current induction motor. The principle of
this motor was invented by Tesla in 1888.
125
Storage of Energy
Some forms of storage of energy
1. Electrical energy in super capacitors
2. Chemical energy in batteries and hydrogen
3. Thermal energy in materials with a large heat capacity
4. Kinetic energy in flywheels
5. Potential energy by moving mass against gravity
to a higher level or by compressing air
1. Electrical energy
Electrical energy may be stored in the form of electric charge in a super
capacitor. Super capacitors can be charged and discharged very fast
with high peak currents. In hybrid and electric cars super capacitors can
be used for saving the brake energy quickly and effectively, while that
energy then is available again quickly in acceleration. The energy content
of a super capacitor is relatively small, while the tension rapidly declines
during the discharge. However, recent developments are promising.
An example is the k2 super capacitor made by Maxwell
~ the cell voltage is 2,85 volts
~ the capacity of one cell is 3400 farad
~ the energy content of one cell is 4 watt-hours
~ the lifetime is more than 1 000 000 load cycles
~ the power is 18 kilowatts per kilogram
the energy-content (joule) of a capacitor = CV2
C = the capacity (farad) and V = the voltage (volts)
There are already modules with super capacitors on the market, which
have an energy content of 282 watt-hours at a capacity of 17,8 farad and
a voltage of 390 volts. Also there are plans for a super capacitor with an
energy content of 52 kilowatt-hours. In the long term the super capacitor
might replace the battery in certain applications. The lifetime is virtually
unlimited, while the efficiency of the charging cycle is very high, about 97%.
Recently the graphene super capacitor is announced. In this capacitor
20 times as much energy could be saved as in a regular super capacitor
2. Chemical energy
In batteries and accumulators, but also at the production of hydrogen gas,
electrical energy is stored in the form of chemical energy.
2.1. Batteries
Batteries are relatively cheap and reliable. The efficiency of the charging
cycle is quite high, approximately 85%. On the other hand, batteries are
overweight and they need much room, while the capacity is limited. Also
the long charging time or the huge charging current often consist a problem.
An interesting possibility seems the application of the vanadium redox
battery
126
2.2. The home battery of Elon Musk

In 2015 Elon Musk, founder of Tesla Motors, launches the home battery.
This battery has an energy content of 10 kilowatt-hours. That equals the
energy consumption of a household in 24 hours. In combination with a
sufficient number of solar panels then in summer one doesnt need
electricity from the mains anymore. But in winter that will not work.
2.3. Hydrogen gas
The production of hydrogen gas and recovery of electricity in a fuel cell is
accompanied by a bad (total) efficiency. Although the energy content of
hydrogen per unit of weight is large, the volume also is(very) large, even
if the gas is strongly compressed. Compressing takes a lot of energy.
Hydrogen is only liquid at 252 degrees celsius below zero. Therefore
liquefaction is not an option. However, it seems possible, to store hydrogen
efficiently in metal hydrides or gas hydrates using nano technology. The
use of hydrogen is potentially dangerous. (ox hydrogen). Chemical
compounds of hydrogen and carbon are problem-free. That are the well
known hydrocarbons like natural gas and synthetic petrol
2.3.1. Season storage of solar energy in hydrogen gas
(theoretical and everything in kilowatt hours)
yield of
solar energy
season
storage
consumption
of a household
March
to August
80% of the annual yield

= (1825 + E)
in hydrogen
E
1825
September
to February
20% of the annual yield

= 0,25 x (1825 + E)
from hydrogen
(0,40 x E)
1825
~ the electricity consumption of a household is 3650 kilowatt-hours

per year, that is 1825 kilowatt-hours in half a year
~ in March to August E kilowatt-hours extra should be available for
season storage in hydrogen gas
~ the yield of the solar panels in March to August should be:
(1825 + E) kilowatt-hours
~ available from the solar panels in September to February:
0,25 x (1825 + E) kilowatt-hours
~ available from season storage in September to February:
(0,40 E) kilowatt-hours (the cycle efficiency of the energy storage
in hydrogen gas = 40%)
~ total available in September to February
0,25 x (1825 + E) + (0,40 x E) = 1825 kilowatt-hours
~ it follows: E = 2106 kilowatt-hours
~ the annual yield of the solar energy must therefore be:
(100 / 80) x (1825 + 2106) = 4914 kilowatt-hours
2.3.2. Required amount of hydrogen gas for season storage
of solar energy for 1 household
~ the season storage E = 2106 kilowatt-hours
~ that is 63 kilograms of hydrogen gas
~ the density of hydrogen gas is 0,09 kilogram
per cubic metre at a pressure of 1 bar
~ that is 9 kilograms at a pressure of 100 bar
~ at this pressure 7 cubic metres of hydrogen
gas will be needed
127
2.4. Season storage of solar and wind energy in ammonia

In practice the hydrogen economy might be an ammonia economy
Dutch teletext 26 March 2018
The Nuon gas fired power station in Eemshaven will be converted into a super
battery where excess (?) solar and wind energy can be saved. The energy is
stored using ammonia, a form of energy storage that is not yet widely applied.
With the excess energy nitrogen from the air and hydrogen from water is produced.
From these components ammonia is made. The ammonia can be burned
in turbines and no CO2 is released. Around 2025 the plant will be in operation
3. Thermal energy
Storage of thermal energy (= heat) can take place in material with a high
heat capacity, for example in water (solar boiler), or in water retaining
layers (aquifers) in any depth in the ground. Usually it concerns relatively
low temperature levels, which cannot be used for the production of
electricity. However, the stored heat can be used for heating purposes
using heat pumps
3.1. Heat storage in a reservoir
At heat storage in a reservoir, the ratio between the surface and the content is
important. The heat losses are proportional to the surface (so with the 2nd power)
while the heat capacity is proportional to the content (so with the 3rd power).
The relative heat losses decrease as the reservoir is larger.
Example:
~ a cube with an edge of 1 metre has a content of
1 cubic metre and a surface of 6 square metres
~ a cube with an edge of 2 metres has a content of
8 cubic metres and a surface of 24 square metres
~ so at a content 8 times as large the surface is only
4 times as large
3.2. Storage of heat in molten salt
At a sun-thermal power plant for (short-lived) storage of the solar energy, molten
salt is often used. With the stored heat electricity can be produced during sunless
periods. The stored heat is largely released as igneous heat and that is many
times more than what is released in just cooling. Compare the properties of water.
For melting of ice 80 times as much heat is required as for heating of water
1 degree. When freezing that heat is released again
3.3. Storage of solar thermal energy in the form of chemical energy
At ECN (Energieonderzoek Centrum Nederland) experiments are performed
with materials where heat is stored in the form of chemical energy. At prolonged
storage of this chemical energy no heat losses occur. This will allow season
heat storage. Salt hydrates seem to be good possibilities. In summer the heat of
a solar boiler is used to separate water molecules from salt. Then salt and water
are stored separately. This process is reversed in winter and the binding of water
delivers heat again.
128
4. Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy can be stored in a flywheel. The storage capacity is pretty small.
A flywheel can be used for slowing down a vehicle. Then the kinetic energy is
stored in the flywheel. The energy will be used again for acceleration. This is
applied in some city buses
5. Potential energy
Potential energy can be obtained by moving mass to a higher level. For example by
pumping water to a higher located reservoir. This often happens at hydroelectric
plants. For pumping, the excess energy is used that is available in the valley hours.
In times of drought, the potential energy, which is stored in the reservoir, can be
converted again in electrical energy by the hydroelectric plant The efficiency of this
form of energy storage is quite high, approximately 80%.
5.1. Potential energy in a pressurised vessel
Another form of potential energy arises, if air is compressed. Compressing
air is accompanied by a bad return. Compressed air can be used to power
tools and even cars.
~ A cylinder with a diameter of 50 centimetres and a
length of 2 metres has a content of 0,4 cubic metres
~ If this cylinder is filled with compressed air of
200 atmospheres, the potential energy will be almost
as much as the energy content of 1 litre of petrol
(= 9,1 kilowatt-hours)
~ the weight of the compressed air is 100 kilograms
5.2. Potential energy of compressed air
There are 2 possibilities:
1. Compressing air in a fixed volume.
The pressure is determined by the amount of air.
2. Compressing air in an adjustable volume.
The pressure may remain constant.
5.2.1. Compressing air in a fixed volume
For compressing air in a fixed volume one often makes use of underground
spaces such as salt domes and caves. When compressing air heat is created,
while when expanding air it cools. As a result the returns are often bad.
Two forms of compression are possible:
1. Adiabatic compression
There will be no heat exchange with the surroundings
Temperature rises during compression and decreases
at expansion
2. Isothermal compression
Heat exchange does take place with the surroundings
Temperature remains (more or less) constant during
compression and expansion
129
5.2.2. Compressing air in a variable volume

For compressing air at a constant pressure one often makes use of a space with
a variable volume a few hundred metres under water. The water pressure will
arrange a constant pressure within that variable space. Then the efficiency of the
pumps and turbines for storing and use of the compressed air can be optimised
5.3. Potential energy of a Gravity Power Module
At this form of energy storage use is made of the potential energy of a mass
of 8000 tonnes in a hydraulic system. This mass may be moved up and down
over a distance of 500 metres. The mass is a steel cylinder with a diameter of
6 metres and a height of 36 metres. That is a volume of 1000 cubic metres.
Due to the upward pressure in the system the effective mass will be 7000 tonnes.
~ the potential energy = 7000 tonnes x 500 metres
= 3,5 x 109 kilogram-metres
~ 1 kilowatt-hour = 3,67 x 105 kilogram-metres
~ so the potential energy of the gravity module
will be 10 000 kilowatt-hours (rounded)
5.4. Potential energy of an Underground pumped storage power plant
Maybe someday in Limburg an Underground pumped storage power plant
will be built. To do this a water reservoir of 2,5 million cubic metres on the
Earths surface has to be made and a water reservoir with the same capacity
on a depth of 1400 metres. There are also the turbines, pumps and generators.
situated. The operation is the same as at a hydroelectric power plant with a
reservoir.
~ 2,5 million cubic metres of water
~ decline 1400 metres
~ that equals 2,5 x 106 x 103 kilograms x 1400 metres
= 3,50 x 1012 kilogram-metres
~ 1 kilowatt-hour = 3,67 x 105 kilogram-metres
~ so the potential energy will be
10 000 megawatt-hours (rounded)
Such an underground pumped storage power plant could contain almost two third
of the daily energy production of a 600 megawatts power plant
Some possibilities for storage of energy (rounded)
watt-hours
per kilogram
watt-hours
per litre
efficiency of the
storage cycle
petrol (for comparison)
12 600
9 100
---
hydrogen 200 atmosphere
33 600
600
40%
200
300
99%
20
25
80%
80%
lithium-ion polymer battery

vanadium redox battery
pumped storage power plant
130
Energy saving
The largest profits in energy saving can be achieved in the insulation and heating of
the home and in the use of hot water. Followed by the car and finally lighting.
Insulation of the house
Annually an average of 2150 cubic metres of natural gas will be required to heat a
poorly insulated house. A good insulated house does not need more than 700 cubic
metres. So insulation really helps a lot.
Heating of the house
The principle of Combined Heat and Power (CHP) can also be applied in the
heating of a dwelling. A good example of this is the Hee boiler (high efficiency
electric). This boiler contains a hot-air engine that generates electricity. The excess
electricity is delivered back to the grid. The total efficiency is more than 90%. If all
homes should be equipped with such a boiler, then perhaps less electric power
plants would be needed. Because the efficiency of a conventional power plant is
only 40%, large scale application of the Hee boiler might save a significant amount
of energy. Thus a reduction of CO2 emissions might be achieved. A problem
however is, that in summer this system will not work (only for the heating of
water), because then one usually wants cooling rather than heating.
The total installed capacity of electric power plants will therefore probably not be
much smaller. Calculated over the entire year the energy supply of the plants
might be less.
Hot water
The (pre)heating of water can take place using high efficiency (65%) solar
collectors. When showering one can restrict the consumption of hot water a little
by using a water-saving showerhead. Taking a bath once costs 120 litres of water
Showering once takes half as much. (7,5 litres of water per minute, for 8 minutes).
A water saving showerhead consumes 7,5 litres of water per minute, an ordinary
showerhead 8,2 litres. Much saving in energy can be achieved by placing the water
boiler as close as possible near the tap, as well in the kitchen as in the shower. In
many homes a combo boiler is in the attic. That is the worst place imaginable. When
hot water is needed, the long branch to the kitchen or bathroom must be warmed
up before the water on the consumable place gets the desired temperature. After
closing the tap the water cools in the water pipe again, what means pure energy
losses. It also costs a lot of water.
131
Car
One can achieve a considerable saving in fuel by driving a hybrid car. This can save
up to 25%. Of course the only real saving is the abolition of the car. Unfortunately,
public transport is of such poor quality, that this is a difficult step to take. Only an
extreme increase in the petrol price, for example up to 5,- per litre, will have any
effect on the long term, but most people are addicted to their car.
The most fuel-efficient 4-seater car with a petrol engine, and a speed of
100 kilometres per hour can never reach a more economical rate than 1 litre per
40 kilometres. One can calculate this on the basis of the lowest conceivable air
and rolling resistance, combined with the highest conceivable efficiency of a petrol
engine. Consumption of 1 litre per 40 kilometres has been announced for the new
plug-in Prius, which will be launched in 2012. (Apparently one is forgotten that
part of the time this car runs on electricity)
For comparison:
The vehicle on solar energy that won the "World Solar Challenge" in 2007
had a consumption (converted to petrol-equivalent) of 1 litre per 70 kilometres.
This vehicle only has room for 1 person in half reclining posture.
Lighting
Although lighting consumes very little energy, one can save a bit by the consistent
use of energy saving lamps. In the near future also Led lamps will play a role in
energy savings
132
The collapse of the Oil Economy
Civilization as we know it today will soon come to an end, because we will run out
of oil. That is a scientifically based conclusion. The oil will not suddenly be gone,
because its production follows a bell-shaped curve. On the ascending side of the
curve cheap oil is available in increasing extent. On the descending side there is less
oil, which is becoming increasingly more expensive. The top of the production
coincides with the point, where half of the oil has been consumed. After the peak,
the production takes off and the costs increase because it is harder to win the oil.
Moreover scarcity has a very strong effect in rising the price. Yet this year (2007)
the world oil consumption will exceed 1000 barrels per second. That equals
86 million barrels per day. (1 barrel = 159 litres)
Suppose that the top of the production has been achieved in the year 2000, Then
as much oil as in 1980 will be produced in 2020. In the meanwhile, the world's
population has been doubled and is furthermore becoming increasingly dependent
on oil. The result is, that the worldwide demand for oil in 2020 will exceed its
production by large. The oil price then will explode to about 400 dollars per barrel.
Oil-dependent economies will collapse and probably wars will break out
The price development of the crude oil
year
dollars per barrel
1973
3 - 12
1998
10 - 15
2000
24 - 37
2002
20 - 28
2004
30 - 51
2006
58 - 80
2007
53 - 99
2008
32 - 146
2009
32 - 81
2010
67 - 92
2011
75 - 115
2012
77 - 110
2013
86 - 108
2014
53 - 107
2015
34 - 62
2016
26 - 50
133
Meanwhile (2014) the situation on the oil and gas market has changed
completely. The oil price drops
~ In America large stocks of shale gas and oil are
discovered
~ In 2005 America imported 60% of its need for oil.
Now that has fallen to 30% and in time, America
will even export oil
~ It appears that also in Russia, Europe and Asia very
much shale gas and oil will be found
~ The global recession reduces the need for oil
Shale gas and oil

Shale gas and oil is extracted from shale formations Winning is accomplished
by a major pollution of the environment. First there is horizontally drilling in slate
Under high pressure a mixture of water, sand and chemicals is pumped into
the horizontal well. This mixture causes mechanical stress in the rock, causing
small cracks. The gas and oil in the rocks will be released trough these cracks
According to IEA (International Energy Agency) the global shale gas reserves
are sufficient for 60 years of world consumption. The reserves of shale oil are
almost equal to the proven conventional reserves
It appears that there is no energy crises anymore, but only a climate crisis
Less than 10 years ago, experts believed that oil production finally had
started to decline. Experts now do not use the term Peak Oil anymore.
The era of fossil fuels is far from over. It is clear that the increase of
CO2 in the atmosphere will still continue for a very long period
source: The Engineer (February 2013)
134
How will the future look?

Oil
The easily extractable oil is running out. Therefore in Canada and Venezuela
the difficult extractable oil from tar sands will be exploited. Also one starts drilling
for oil at the North Pole and to a depth of 5 kilometres in the Gulf of Mexico.
In America, Western Europe and Russia great stocks of shale oil and gas are
found. Winning of this is accompanied by a major pollution of the environment.
But no one objects, because "the car must be driven".
Gas
There is still sufficient gas, and that will last probably for the next 60 years. The
top of gas production will be reached in about 20 years. Then the price will rise
strongly. West Europe will be particularly dependent on Russia, Norway, North
Africa and the Middle East.
NRC-Handelsblad 14 July 2010:
"After shortage now a surplus of natural gas". New technology has revolutionised
the world of natural gas. Huge stocks of gas from coal and compact shale layers
come within range, among other in America. The result is overproduction.
Shell is working worldwide on projects to use gas for the manufacture of a kind
of diesel oil. GTL = Gas to liquid, a variant on the Fischer-Tropsch process.
Coal
Worldwide coal is available for at least 200 years. Coal is good for everything. It
can be used to make City gas, hydrogen, synthetic petrol and diesel oil. In addition
very much CO2 is released. But no objections will be raised if there is shortage of
energy. The technique for the production of synthetic petrol from coal has been
known since 1923. It was applied by Germany on a large scale during the
2nd World War. (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis)
Hydropower
Although the most profitable projects have been realized already, there are still
great opportunities in Africa and South America. Hydroelectric power plants
cause a lot of damage to the environment.
Dutch Teletext 4 March 2011:
In Brazil, the preparations for the construction of the largest hydroelectric power
plant in the world are being continued. The power plant is situated in the north of
the Amazon region. The local population and the environmental organisations are
opposing vehemently. The construction would cause homelessness for tens of
thousands of people. The Government stresses that the dam can deliver sufficient
energy for 23 million households and it will create many jobs
135
Green Energy
Green energy obtained from wind, solar, biomass etc. will be of little meaning
provisionally. It is believed this will be up to 14% (in the Netherlands) of (only)
the electricity in 2020. Wind energy is still in an initial state in some countries.
Solar energy is still negligible. One should think of no more than a few thousandths
of the total electricity generation. In 2009, the world production of solar energy
was only 0,1%
Bio Fuel
Large-scale production of bio diesel etc. comes at the expense of the long-term
food production. In addition, it will cost much fossil fuel. This is not a real option.
The conversion of solar energy into bio fuel is accompanied with an extremely low
efficiency, in the order of 1%
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy at the current consumption can last for the next 75 years. Before
Uranium has been run out, a solution might be to apply breeder reactors. Then we
would have enough Uranium to carry on for 5000 years. (only for the electricity
generation) If the Uranium has run out, probably one can continue with Thorium.
Thorium can be "burned" completely in simple reactors. This is in contrast to
Uranium, of which only 0,7% can be used. (the isotope U235). In India already
some Thorium reactors are operational. In future Thorium will probably be the
most important nuclear fuel. The amount of Thorium on Earth is 3 times as large
as the amount of Uranium.
Nuclear Fusion
We may expect the first practical results of nuclear fusion around 2050. Then
mankind can have an infinite amount of "clean" energy. The total development time
then has seized about 100 years. One might wonder whether one will ever succeed
in generating very large quantities of energy by means of controlled nuclear fusion.
Until now a technical development has never taken so long. For example,
electricity, radio, (satellite)television, airplane, computer, aerospace, laser, nuclear
energy, hydrogen bomb etc. have all been achieved in a period of some decades,
from an idea to a product that can be used
Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be produced using nuclear energy via a thermo-chemical process or
by electrolysis of water. The necessary electricity for the electrolysis of water must
be generated by nuclear fusion, or by "green" energy. But that is still a long way to
go. Hydrogen is an "unruly" fuel, for which no infrastructure exists. The fuel cell is
still far too expensive and requires much development yet. Hydrogen is not an
energy source, but an energy carrier. Producing hydrogen by electrolysis of water
costs 1,25 times more energy than it delivers
So hydrogen is not a solution to the energy problem
136
There is a mismatch to occur between the production and consumption of energy.

There would hardly be a problem, if there were a few billion people less walking
around (driving around) on Earth. Reality is that a few billion people more are to
come before the year 2050.
That will be an increase of 1 million people per week on average.
The only solution seems to be: a strong cut down on energy consumption and
far less people. Cutting down on energy consumption, while at the same time
the number of earthlings increases, provides nothing per balance. That is emptying
the ocean with a thimble.
Many people think: Crises are of all times and humanity has always found
a solution, so now that will happen again
~ for the first time in the history of the world, humanity
is threatened by an extreme overpopulation
~ sooner or later we will run out of all energy resources
~ the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is growing all
the time
~ this situation has never occurred before
These are going to be interesting times
137
The Energy Agreement

source: NRC-Handelsblad and Trout 13 July 2013
Forty parties and more than seven months of negotiations yielded the
following (provisional) Energy Agreement
~ the energy consumption in the Netherlands has to go down
with 1,5% per year
~ 16% renewable energy in 2023 instead of in 2020
~ 400 million euro will be made available for home insulation
~ 5 coal-fired power stations will be closed.
~ in 2023 half of all households should be powered by wind energy:
4400 megawatts by turbines at sea and 6000 megawatts by
turbines on land
This requires 2600 wind turbines of 4 megawatts.
Then for 10 years, every week 5 pieces should be placed.
I dont believe a word of it
138
139
Urgenda
Urgenda is a Dutch organisation that aims to make the Netherlands
sustainable faster. On 24 June 2015 the Foundation won a court case
against the Dutch State about the rural climate policy. Through the court
it was enforced that the Dutch state must have reduced greenhouse gas
emissions by the end of 2020. The reduction should be at least 25%
compared to 1990
140
Energy content of a battery

Voltage and the number of ampere-hours are always mentioned on a battery.
The energy content can be calculated by multiplying the voltage (volts) with
the number of ampere-hours. The result is the amount of watt-hours which
can be stored in the battery.
Two examples:
~ a battery of 24 volt and 15 ampere-hours has an
energy content of 24 15 = 360 watt-hours
~ a battery of 36 volt and 10 ampere-hours has an
energy content of 36 10 = 360 watt-hours
So both batteries have the same energy content. Mentioning only the voltage
or the ampere-hours does not give any information about the energy content.
In shops where electric bicycles are sold one often talks about "a battery of
10 amperes". That doesn't indicate the energy content, as long as the voltage
and the time are not mentioned. There are even manufacturers of electric
bicycles who only mention the number of ampere-hours of the battery in their
leaflets and thus not the energy content.
141
Water Example
The water example is often used to make clear what the properties of
electricity are. Suppose the water pipe is capable of supplying (maximum)
10 litres of water per minute through a tap in a bucket.
Then the "power" of the water pipe is 10 litres of water per minute
This power is also present when the tap is closed.
Power is a property
As soon as the tap is fully open, every minute 10 litres of water is flowing into
the bucket. For example, after 5 minutes 50 litres of water have flowed from
the tap. Then the "energy" supplied is 50 litres of water
Energy always generates something, in this example it is water
Energy = power x time
The longer the tap is open, the more "energy" is flowing from it. If one closes
the tap, the "energy supply" stops but the power to provide energy remains.
There cannot be more water in the bucket, than its content permits. The shape
of the bucket is not important. A low bucket with a large diameter may contain
as much water as a high bucket with a small diameter. One can compare a battery
with the bucket. There can be no more energy in the battery than the energy
content permits. Which type is not important. A battery with a low voltage and
high ampere-hours can contain as much energy as a battery with a high voltage
and low ampere-hours.
Comparison of water electricity

water
electricity
power
energy
litres per minute
litres
joules per second
joules
142
Energy and labour

~ Energy can be converted into labour
for example: electricity can make a motor run
~ Labour can be converted into energy
for example: a dynamo can generate electricity
Suppose we make a trip by car and we return on the point of departure. The car
then has consumed a number of litres of petrol. The petrol contains energy.
(9,1 kilowatt-hours per litre). The efficiency of a petrol engine is about 25%.
That means that 25% of the energy in the petrol is converted into useful mechanical
labour. This propels the car during the trip. Through the cooling of the engine and
the hot exhaust gases 75% of the energy disappears in the form of useless heat.
After the trip has been finished the useful mechanical labour is also fully converted
into heat. That heat arises from overcoming the air resistance, the friction in the
tires, the gearbox, the bearings, etc. After ending the trip all energy has be "bygone"
in the form of heat in space. The mechanical labour was an intermediate form.
143
Energy consumption of some household appliances

appliance
Led lamp
coffee machine
water kettle
power
use per day
energy per day
costs per day
10 watts
5 hours
50 watt-hours
0,01
750 watts
12 minutes
150 watt-hours
0,03
2000 watts
6 minutes
200 watt-hours
0,04
electric blanket
25 watts
8 hours
200 watt-hours
0,04
incandescent lamp
50 watts
5 hours
250 watt-hours
0,05
10 minutes
250 watt-hours
0,05
vacuum cleaner
1500 watts
internet router
12 watts
24 hours
288 watt-hours
0,06
electric bicycle
100 watts
3 hours
300 watt-hours
0,06
flat screen TV
100 watts
3 hours
300 watt-hours
0,06
computer
100 watts
4 hours
400 watt-hours
0,08
steam iron
1000 watts
30 minutes
500 watt-hours
0,10
25 watts
24 hours
600 watt-hours
0,12
180 watts
5 hours
900 watt-hours
0,18
washing machine
1000 watts
1 hour
1000 watt-hours
0,20
dryer
2000 watts
90 minutes
3000 watt-hours
0,60
120 litre boiler
3000 watts
90 minutes
4500 watt-hours
0,90
air conditioner
1000 watts
12 hours
12000 watt-hours
2,40
hidden consumption
refrigerator
144
~ Per day an internet router consumes almost as much energy as needed

for the fully charging of an electric bicycle, or watching TV for 3 hours.
~ The refrigerator is enabled by the thermostat from time to time.
The "on" time is about 5 hours per day.
~ The power of 1000 watts for a washing machine is an average value.
The washing process can be divided into 3 phases with different energy
consumption:
1. heating the water, this will consume most energy
2. washing, the motor that rotates the washing consumes little energy
3. drying, the motor of the centrifuge consumes much energy
~ Per washing a (thermal) dryer consumes 3 times as much energy as
a washing machine.
~ The boiler is usually warmed up at night. With 4,5 kilowatt-hours
50 litres of water is heated from 10 to 85 degrees celsius.
~ A hidden consumption of 600 watt-hours per day will be a minimum
value for most households. That is about 6% of the total electricity
consumption.
In the Netherlands the electricity consumption of a household is about
10 kilowatt-hours per day. At an energy price of 20 euro cents per
kilowatt-hour, that will cost 2 per day = 730 per year.
The continuous power of a household is 417 watts
The energy consumption (and also the "surreptitious consumption") of household
appliances can be measured very easily with a energy meter. This can be placed
between the wall socket and the device one wants to measure the energy
consumption of.
Anecdote
During a birthday party I entered into conversation with a middle-aged lady The
conversation soon went to trains and cars. "Did You come here by train?"
she asked with an expression of disbelief and horror on her face. When I said that
in the long term, we will run out of petrol, she suddenly became very aggressive.
Her reaction was: "but you cannot suppose that I will stop driving my car?"
(so even if the petrol has gone !?)
The most horrible stories about public transport are always told by people who
never use it.
145
A book on energy
"Sustainable Energy without the hot air
This book gives a complete overview of the (imp)possibilities of sustainable energy
Author: David MacKay, professor at the University of Cambridge. Read especially
chapter 19: "Every BIG helps"
Some quotes from the book:
~ if everyone does a little, we'll achieve only a little
~ is the population of the Earth six times too big?
~ any sane discussion of sustainable energy requires numbers
This book also mentions an interview with Tony Blair (4 children) in response to
his position in 2006 on the energy problematic
Tony Blair:
"Unless we act now, not in some distant time, but now these consequences,
disastrous as they are, will be irreversible. So there is nothing more serious,
more urgent or more demanding of leadership."
Interviewer:
Have you thought or perhaps not flying to Barbados for a holiday and not using
all those air miles?
Tony Blair:
I would, frankly, be reluctant to give up my holidays abroad
Interviewer:
It would send out a clear message though wouldn't it, if we didn't see that great
big air journey off to the sunshine? a holiday closer to home?
Tony Blair:
Yeah but I personally think these things are a bit impractical to actually
expect people to do that. I think that what we need to do is to look at how you
make air travel more energy efficient, how you develop the new fuels that will
allow us to burn less energy and emit less. How for example in the new frames
for the aircraft, they are far more energy efficient. I know everyone always people
probably think the Prime Minister shouldn't go on holiday at all, but I think if
what we do in this area is set people unrealistic targets, you know if we say to
people we're going to cancel all the cheap air travel - You know, I'm still waiting
for the first politician who's actually running for office who's going to come out
and say it and they're not.
146

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What are some renewable energy sources discussed in the document?

What are some renewable energy sources discussed in the document?

What are some means of transportation discussed and their energy usage?

What are some means of transportation discussed and their energy usage?

June 2016

See also: www.energiefeiten.nl

Some facts, calculations, and things worth knowing

Some preliminary remarks

Overview of the population growth (rounded)

Daily increase of the world population (medium variant)

increase per day

Some definitions and fundamental laws

In daily life is valid:

Production factor (the availability)

Some efficiencies (approximately)

Units and conversion factors for power

= 1 joule per second

= 1 newton-metre per second

Units and conversion factors for energy

Converting kilowatt-hours to kilogram-metres

Energy content of some fuels

Efficiencies at the conversion of energy

Energy consumption of a household

refrigerator, TV, washing, ironing etc.

heating, hot water, cooking

Primary energy consumption of a household

Solar energy in the Netherlands

electric solar panel

solar water heater

The average electricity consumption of a household in the Netherlands is

Concentrated solar power (CSP)

~ a parabolic mirror revolves around 2 perpendicular

~ a solar trough is a trough-shaped mirror, with a parabola

~ a heliostat is a slightly curved or flat mirror, which turns around

Concentrated solar power with solar cells

The Waldpolenz Solar Park

The Waldpolenz Solar Park is a large photovoltaic power station

A solar power plant with solar troughs

Waldpolenz Solar Park

Andasol (solar troughs)

Egmond aan Zee

The largest wind mill in the world

Storage of solar and wind energy

A = comparison with a 600 megawatts power plant.

Energy storage in the batteries of electric cars

Combined Heat and Power

~ a heat pump consists of a closed circuit, in which

Press release on 13 January 2009:

waste heat useful heat

Combined Heat and Power

Electricity (40%) is completely converted into heat in the heat pump.

nickel-metal hydride battery

lithium-ion polymer battery

vanadium redox battery

The zinc-air battery

The vanadium redox battery

The lifetime of a rechargeable battery or accumulator

The effective number of ampere-hours of a battery