Writing in a second language

Author: Alasdair Archibald

© Dr Alasdair Archibald

Abstract
Writing is not only the process the writer uses to put words to paper but also the resulting
product of that process. This process and product are also conditioned by the purpose and place
of writing (its audience and genre). Writing in a second language is further complicated by issues
of proficiency in the target language, first language literacy, and differences in culture and
rhetorical approach to the text. Instruction in writing can effectively improve student proficiency
in a number of key areas. Approaches to instruction have variously targeted process, product and
purpose of writing. More recent approaches both to its teaching and assessment recognise the
need to integrate all aspects of writing.

Table of contents
 1. Introduction
 2. Writing
 3. Teaching and learning
 4. Concluding remarks
 Bibliography
 Related links

1. Introduction
Writing, together with its teaching in both first and second language contexts, is currently the
subject of a considerable amount of research and other educational endeavour. Papers on aspects
of writing can be found in almost any issue of applied linguistics or educational journals, and
there are currently a number of journals devoted to the subject (see bibliography).

This is, however, a fairly recent development, with writing and its teaching only emerging as a
scholarly discipline in the 1970s (Nystrand, Green, & Wiemelt 1993; Raimes 1991). Before that
time writing was seldom seen as something to be taught for its own sake and in the second
language classroom it was most often used as a way of demonstrating mastery of the structures
studied in class or for dictation.

Despite this huge increase in interest in writing and a considerable amount of work on models of
how people write (see e.g. Flower & Hayes 1981 and Hayes 1996 for L1 writing and
Zimmerman 2000 for L2 writing), there have been relatively few models developed of the role of
instruction in writing in a second language (Cumming & Riazi 2000; Grabe 2001). This is, at
least in part, due to the multifaceted nature of writing. The term ‘writing’ refers both to an act
and the result of that act. This immediately sets up two possible perspectives on acquiring
writing: learning the process of composing and learning the form and organization of the
product. But writing also has a social dimension and purpose, which can lead to other
perspectives focussing on genre, voice, and audience (Swales 1990; Cope & Kalantzis 1993;
Fairclough 2001; Ivanic 1998). There is overlap with reading skills in these areas: the reader is
required to decode the formal and social aspects of the text where the writer is required to encode
them.

2. Writing
2.1 The writer

When writers write, they bring to the task knowledge of the process of writing and of the
strategies they will use in composing. They bring knowledge of the subject matter to be written
about and plans for how it can be ordered and structured for presentation (Bereiter &
Scardamalia 1987; Faigley & Witte 1981; Flower & Hayes 1981; Hayes 1996). They bring
knowledge of the product of writing, of the formal structures of language and of discourse
structure and the construction of texts (Connor & Johns 1990; De Beaugrande 1980, 1984). They
bring knowledge of the situation within which the writing takes place, its social and professional
context, together with their experience of the expectations of the reader within the discourse
community and of the forms, social contexts, genres, and expectations of their background
culture (Bruffee 1986; Cope & Kalantzis 1993; Fairclough 2001; Ivanic & Camps 2001; Johns
1997).

2.2 Writing in a first and second language

A number of recent studies have suggested that the processes of L2 writing are in many ways
distinct from those of L1 writing. Silva evaluated 72 studies comparing L1 writing with L2
writing and found a number of

salient differences between L1 and L2 writing with regard to both composing processes (and
subprocesses: planning, transcribing, and reviewing) and features of written texts (fluency,
accuracy, quality, and structure, i.e., discoursal, morphosyntactic, and lexicosemantic). (Silva
1993)

The writer’s relative proficiency in the target language is also claimed to be a source of
differences between L1 and L2 writing (Bardovi-Harlig 1995; Cumming 1989), as is the writer’s
knowledge of the target language genres and associated sociocultural expectations (Cope &
Kalantzis 1993; Leki & Carson 1997; Silva 1997; Swales 1990), and the interaction between the
writer’s L1 experiences and the meaning of literacy in the target language culture (Bell 1995;
Connor 1996; Cope & Kalantzis 1993, 2000; Mohan & Lo 1985; Pennycook 1996).

These differences clearly do exist between writers writing in their L1 and in their L2, and
particularly for writers with low levels of proficiency in their L2 who often rely heavily on their
first language resources (Manchón, Roca de Larios, & Murphy 2000; Zimmerman 2000).
However, there is considerable variation among L2 writers. Weissberg (2000) suggests that for
L1 literate adults, writing plays an important role in second language development, not only in
the development of accuracy but also in the emergence of new structures. The ways in which
such individuals write, and use writing, in their L2 is likely to be quite different from their
colleagues for whom writing in their L1 plays a lesser role. For writers who are more proficient
in their L2, differences may be fewer. Matsumoto (1995) found that proficient bilingual writers
tend to use the same strategies when writing in both L1 and L2. A similar study by Beare (2002)
supported this finding.

3. Teaching and learning

Teaching writing has, since the 1970s, reflected this same multiplicity of perspectives as the
research. Raimes (1991) outlined four approaches that dominated the teaching of writing at
different times. These have involved a focus on form, on the writer, on content, and on the
reader. A slightly later survey (Raimes 1998) added approaches that have focused on more social
issues such as genre and on ‘critical’ approaches to writing pedagogy. One of the key areas in
growth of teaching writing over the past 20 years has been in English for Academic Purposes.
The recent sharp increase in the number of applicants to higher education from countries without
a strong background in the English language has highlighted the need for specialised support
(Jordan 1997; Björk, Bräuer, Rienecker & Jörgensen 2003).

3.1 Teaching writing

Although proficiency in writing is somewhat related to overall language proficiency, particularly

at the lower end of the scale (Cumming 1989), improvements in general language proficiency do
not necessarily affect a student’s proficiency in writing in their L2. However, as illustrated in the
next section, writing instruction can be effective in raising proficiency in a number of areas.
Recent approaches to instruction have recognised that, while weak areas can and should be
specifically addressed, writing must always be seen as culturally and socially situated. Cumming
(2002) cautions writing teachers to be wary of exercises that attempt to break writing down into
component skills as such exercises often eliminate portions of the task that are important to the
personal and cultural significance of the writing.

This more eclectic and holistic approach recognises that learners’ needs are different at various
stages in their learning and that teachers must develop tasks to accommodate this. Grabe and
Kaplan (1996) give a detailed discussion of teaching approaches at beginning, intermediate and
advanced levels of proficiency. At lower levels frequent, short writing activities can help to build
familiarity and develop a useful, productive vocabulary. The variety and length of tasks can be
extended for intermediate level students - developing more complex themes and building a
repertoire of strategies for effective writing. Advanced level students need to develop a greater
understanding of genres and the place of writing in particular discourse communities. They also
need to develop their strategies and establish their own voice in the second language.

3.2 Evidence of instructional effect

Despite the lack of models of learning to write, there is an assumption that instruction in writing
does have an effect and that the knowledge required of a writer is learnable and the skills
trainable. It is central to writing instruction that writers make progress as a direct result of the
instruction they receive. In a general second language learning context, a student’s progress in
writing is often assumed to be simply a part of the overall increase in their language proficiency.
Whilst it is clear that students’ ability to write clearly and accurately depends to an extent on
their general level of proficiency in the target language (Bardovi-Harlig 1995; Cumming 1989)
there are aspects of proficiency that are either specific to students’ writing or that may be
specifically seen to develop through writing (Weissberg 2000).

Instruction affects student accuracy in the use of the target language in their writing and also the
range of choice of structure and vocabulary available to them for use in writing. Tsang and
Wong (2000) studied the effects of explicit grammar teaching on student writing. They claim
that there were indications that the students were able to write with greater readiness and use
more mature syntax.

Instruction affects the student’s understanding of the cultural and contextual appropriacy of
particular structures or vocabulary, their understanding of the norms and expectations of the
target genres regarding form, and their understanding of the norms of the target genres regarding
the choice of information and its sequencing and structuring. Archibald (1994) investigated how
the discourse proficiency of secondary school students writing in English as a second language
developed in different age groups. He found that students improved in their use of discourse
markers and links and that they developed a better feel for the contextual appropriacy of their
language. Shaw and Liu (1998) analysed the ways in which the features associated with
academic register changed over the period of a pre-sessional course in English for academic
purposes. They found an increase in areas such as impersonality, formality, and hedging in the
students’ writing at the end of the course. They attribute this to an increased understanding of the
norms of academic writing and a move away from a single ‘neutral’ variety of English that
learners tend to use for all purposes. Archibald (2001), also using pre-sessional course students,
found that teaching had a significant effect on the structure and organisation of the students’
writing.

Instruction in the processes of composition has an effect on the students’ ability to reflect on
their writing and to produce more effective and appropriate texts in the target language. Sengupta
(2000), working with secondary school students, describes the effects of giving instruction in
revision strategies to writers of English as a second language. He found that explicit teaching of
these strategies had a measurable effect on the quality of the students’ final draft. Cresswell
(2000) reported on the effects of students learning to self-monitor their writing and to pay
attention to the process and the organization of their writing. He reported improvement in the
students’ ability to pay attention to the content and organization of their writing. Connor and
Farmer (1990) found that teaching second language writers topical structure analysis to use as a
revision strategy had a positive effect on the clarity of focus of the final texts. At a more general
level, Akyel and Kamisli (1997) reported on the effects of EFL writing instruction on composing
in both first and second languages. They found that the students used similar composing
strategies in both their L1 (Turkish) and L2 (English) and that writing instruction in the L2 had a
positive effect both on their writing processes and on their attitudes to writing in the two
languages.

The direct effects of different types of feedback on student writing have also been analysed.
Ferris (1997) found that changes made by students in response to teacher comments did have a
positive effect on the overall quality of their papers. Villamil and de Guerrero (1998)
investigated the impact of peer revision on L2 writing and found that it had a positive effect on
the quality of the final draft. Berg (1999) trained students in how to give effective peer response
to writing. She found that this training had a positive effect on the students’ revision types and on
the quality of their texts.

3.3 Assessing writing

Assessment in writing should ask students to “demonstrate their membership in the community
of fluent writers of [English]” (Hamp-Lyons & Kroll 1997:17). It should reflect not only the
stage of general linguistic proficiency of the student, but also their ability to use the forms
appropriately within the social and professional conventions of writing in the target language.
The assessment of students’ levels of proficiency in writing and of its change over time has been
the subject of a considerable amount of recent research (see Kroll 1998). Assessment has tended
to mirror instruction with new approaches to assessment accompanying changes in teaching.

Assessment of the classroom work involved in writing has been carried out through portfolios
(Belanoff 1997). Feedback has been given on the written product through the reader responding
to the writer’s message (Ferris, Pezone, Tade & Tinti 1997) or through directly evaluating the
form of the product. Assessment of the product of writing has involved assessments of the
overall quality of the text, usually using a holistic or a primary or multiple trait scoring system
(Hamp-Lyons 1991b; Kroll 1998). Other assessments of the product of writing have involved
assessments of linguistic accuracy (Polio 1997).

Assessments of the quality of the text as a product using a variety of holistic and/or multiple trait
scales are perhaps the most common ways in which students’ writing is assessed. Such scales are
most easily applied to situations in which large numbers of students need to be assessed
simultaneously and are often associated with mass testing.

Holistic assessment became popular in the mid 1970s and is still one of the most common forms
of assessment for shorter pieces of writing. The rater or raters read the text quickly and, based on
guidelines, give an impressionistic mark. If the text being marked shows a uniformity in the
writer’s proficiency in language use, knowledge of the genre, skills of text production, then this
holistic mark may indeed be a fair representation of the writer’s performance. The writing of
second language learners, however, often displays marked differences of proficiency in the
various facets of writing, and holistic marking in these cases becomes difficult and suspect. The
problems relate both to the adequacy of the scheme to represent the writers efforts (Hamp-Lyons
1995; Connor-Linton 1995) and, relatedly, to rater reliability (Vaughan 1991).

Hamp-Lyons (1995) suggests that a multiple trait scheme - one that scores a number of different
facets or traits in a student’s writing - has advantages over holistic marking in that it can
highlight rather than cover differences in proficiencies within a student’s writing. She claims that
multiple trait schemes are more reliable than holistic approaches, that they provide more
diagnostic information to the student and the teacher, that they highlight salient features of the
text, and that they have greater validity (Hamp-Lyons 1991).

Certainly, multiple trait scoring has the attraction of at least recognising that student writing in a
second language often displays quite variable levels of proficiency in different areas. There is a
danger, however, of it being seen as reducing writing to a series of discreet skill areas that can be
quantified and assessed separately from one another. Traits are not separate or separable features
of a piece of writing, they are interwoven and interdependent and their analysis provides
different perspectives on the text. An important question is whether the perspectives chosen in a
particular scheme are really different enough from one another to warrant being scored
separately.

4. Concluding remarks
This article has highlighted areas in which research into writing in a second language can and
does inform classroom practice. It has focused on the complexity of writing and the interplay of
the various issues that must be addressed by teachers and learners who approach writing in a
second language. There has been considerable interplay in recent years between research into
writing and learning and instruction in writing. Much of the research has direct relevance to the
classroom, and classroom practice and observation are the source of many research studies. The
rising profile of second language writing and particularly of writing for academic purposes has
also led to a proliferation of resources aimed at both teachers and students. Some useful Internet
sites, journals, and published overviews on writing are listed below.

Bibliography
Further reading

Grabe, W. & W. Kaplan (1996). Theory and Practice of Writing: An Applied Linguistic
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Hyland, K. (2002). Teaching and R esearching W riting . Harlow: Longman.

Kroll, B. (ed.) (2003). Exploring the Dynamics of Second Language Writing . Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Silva, T. & P. Matsuda (eds) (2001). On Second Language Writing . Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Earlbaum Erlbaum Associates.

Tribble, C. (1996). Writing . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Archibald, A. (1994). The Acquisition of Discourse Proficiency: A Study of the Ability of

German School Students to Produce Written Texts in English as a Foreign Language . Frankfurt:
Peter Lang.

Archibald, A. (2001). Targeting L2 writing proficiencies: Instruction and areas of change in

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