Maxwell's Equations: Date:-16-10-19

Date :-16-10-19
Maxwell’s Equations
Roll No. :- 19BME021

From :- Dhaval Mistry
To:- Pankaj Yadav Sir
Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell's equations are a set of coupled partial differential equations that, together with
the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electromagnetism, classical optics,
and electric circuits. The equations provide a mathematical model for electric, optical, and radio
technologies, such as power generation, electric motors, wireless communication, lenses, radar
etc. Maxwell's equations describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated
by charges, currents, and changes of the fields. An important consequence of the equations is
that they demonstrate how fluctuating electric and magnetic fields propagate at a constant speed
(c) in a vacuum. Known as electromagnetic radiation, these waves may occur at various
wavelengths to produce a spectrum of light from radio waves to γ-rays. The equations are
named after the physicist and mathematician James Clerk Maxwell, who between 1861 and
1862 published an early form of the equations that included the Lorentz force law. Maxwell first
used the equations to propose that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon.
The term "Maxwell's equations" is often also used for equivalent alternative formulations.
Versions of Maxwell's equations based on the electric and magnetic potentials are preferred for
explicitly solving the equations as a boundary value problem, analytical mechanics, or for use
in quantum mechanics. The covariant formulation (on spacetime rather than space and time
separately) makes the compatibility of Maxwell's equations with special
relativity manifest. Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime, commonly used in high
energy and gravitational physics, are compatible with general relativity. In
fact, Einstein developed special and general relativity to accommodate the invariant speed of
light, a consequence of Maxwell's equations, with the principle that only relative movement has
physical consequences.
Conceptual descriptions
Gauss's law
Gauss's law describes the relationship between a static electric field and the electric charges that
cause it: a static electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges,
and the net outflow of the electric field through any closed surface is proportional to the charge
enclosed by the surface. Picturing the electric field by its field lines, this means the field lines
begin at positive electric charges and end at negative electric charges. 'Counting' the number of
field lines passing through a closed surface yields the total charge (including bound charge due
to polarization of material) enclosed by that surface, divided by dielectricity of free space
(the vacuum permittivity).
Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field lines never begin nor end but form loops or extend to infinity as
shown here with the magnetic field due to a ring of current.
Gauss's law for magnetism

Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no "magnetic charges" (also called magnetic
monopoles), analogous to electric charges. Instead, the magnetic field due to materials is
generated by a configuration called a dipole, and the net outflow of the magnetic field through
any closed surface is zero. Magnetic dipoles are best represented as loops of current but
resemble positive and negative 'magnetic charges', inseparably bound together, having no net
'magnetic charge'. In terms of field lines, this equation states that magnetic field lines neither
begin nor end but make loops or extend to infinity and back. In other words, any magnetic field
line that enters a given volume must somewhere exit that volume. Equivalent technical
statements are that the sum total magnetic flux through any Gaussian surface is zero, or that the
magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field.
Faraday's law
In a geomagnetic storm, a surge in the flux of charged particles temporarily alters Earth's magnetic field,
which induces electric fields in Earth's atmosphere, thus causing surges in electrical power grids. (Not to
scale.)
The Maxwell–Faraday version of Faraday's law of induction describes how a time

varying magnetic field creates ("induces") an electric field. In integral form, it states that the work
per unit charge required to move a charge around a closed loop equals the rate of decrease of
the magnetic flux through the enclosed surface.
The dynamically induced electric field has closed field lines similar to a magnetic field, unless
superposed by a static (charge induced) electric field. This aspect of electromagnetic induction is
the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar
magnet creates a changing magnetic field, which in turn generates an electric field in a nearby
wire.
Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition
Magnetic core memory (1954) is an application of Ampère's law. Each core stores one bit of data.
Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition states that magnetic fields can be generated in two ways:
by electric current (this was the original "Ampère's law") and by changing electric fields (this was
"Maxwell's addition", which he called displacement current). In integral form, the magnetic field
induced around any closed loop is proportional to the electric current plus displacement current
(proportional to the rate of change of electric flux) through the enclosed surface.
Maxwell's addition to Ampère's law is particularly important: it makes the set of equations
mathematically consistent for non static fields, without changing the laws of Ampere and Gauss
for static fields. However, as a consequence, it predicts that a changing magnetic field induces
an electric field and vice versa. Therefore, these equations allow self-sustaining "electromagnetic
waves" to travel through empty space (see electromagnetic wave equation).
The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves, which could be predicted from experiments on
charges and currents, exactly matches the speed of light; indeed, light is one form
of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others). Maxwell understood the
connection between electromagnetic waves and light in 1861, thereby unifying the theories
of electromagnetism and optics.
Key to the notation

Symbols in bold represent vector quantities, and symbols in italics represent scalar quantities,
unless otherwise indicated. The equations introduce the electric field, E, a vector field, and
the magnetic field, B, a pseudovector field, each generally having a time and location
dependence. The sources are
 the total electric charge density (total charge per unit volume), ρ, and

 the total electric current density (total current per unit area), J.
The universal constants appearing in the equations (the first two ones explicitly only in the SI
units formulation) are:
 the permittivity of free space, ε0, and

 the permeability of free space, μ0, and
 the speed of light,
Differential equations
In the differential equations,
 the nabla symbol, ∇, denotes the three-dimensional gradient operator, del,

 the ∇⋅ symbol (pronounced "del dot") denotes the divergence operator,
 the ∇× symbol (pronounced "del cross") denotes the curl operator.
Integral equations
In the integral equations,
 Ω is any fixed volume with closed boundary surface ∂Ω, and

 Σ is any fixed surface with closed boundary curve ∂Σ,
 Here a fixed volume or surface means that it does not change over time. The equations
are correct, complete, and a little easier to interpret with time-independent surfaces. For
example, since the surface is time-independent, we can bring the differentiation under
the integral sign in Faraday's law:
Formulation in Gaussian units convention

The definitions of charge, electric field, and magnetic field can be altered to simplify theoretical
calculation, by absorbing dimensioned factors of ε0 and μ0 into the units of calculation, by
convention. With a corresponding change in convention for the Lorentz force law this yields the
same physics, i.e. trajectories of charged particles, or work done by an electric motor. These
definitions are often preferred in theoretical and high energy physics where it is natural to take
the electric and magnetic field with the same units, to simplify the appearance of
the electromagnetic tensor: the Lorentz covariant object unifying electric and magnetic field
would then contain components with uniform unit and dimension.[7]: Such modified definitions are
conventionally used with the Gaussian (CGS) units. Using these definitions and conventions,
colloquially "in Gaussian units",[8] the Maxwell equations become:[9]
The equations are particularly readable when length and time are measured in compatible units
like seconds and lightseconds i.e. in units such that c = 1 unit of length/unit of time. Ever since
1983 (see International System of Units), metres and seconds are compatible except for
historical legacy since by definition c = 299 792 458 m/s (≈ 1.0 feet/nanosecond).
Further cosmetic changes, called rationalisations, are possible by absorbing factors

of 4π depending on whether we want Coulomb's law or Gauss's law to come out nicely,
see Lorentz-Heaviside units (used mainly in particle physics). In theoretical physics it is often
useful to choose units such that Planck's constant, the elementary charge, and even Newton's
constant are 1. See Planck units.
Relationship between differential and integral
formulations
The equivalence of the differential and integral formulations are a consequence of the Gauss
divergence theorem and the Kelvin–Stokes theorem.
Flux and divergence
Circulation and curl

By the Kelvin–Stokes theorem we can rewrite the line integrals of the fields around the closed
boundary curve ∂Σ to an integral of the "circulation of the fields" (i.e. their curls) over a surface it
bounds, i.e.
Since Σ can be chosen arbitrarily, e.g. as an arbitrary small, arbitrary oriented, and arbitrary
centered disk, we conclude that the integrand is zero iff Ampere's modified law in differential
equations form is satisfied. The equivalence of Faraday's law in differential and integral form
follows likewise.
The line integrals and curls are analogous to quantities in classical fluid dynamics:
the circulation of a fluid is the line integral of the fluid's flow velocity field around a closed loop,
and the vorticity of the fluid is the curl of the velocity field.

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Date :-16-10-19

Roll No. :- 19BME021

Gauss's law for magnetism

The Maxwell–Faraday version of Faraday's law of induction describes how a time

Magnetic core memory (1954) is an application of Ampère's law. Each core stores one bit of data.

Key to the notation

 the total electric charge density (total charge per unit volume), ρ, and

 the permittivity of free space, ε0, and

 the nabla symbol, ∇, denotes the three-dimensional gradient operator, del,

 Ω is any fixed volume with closed boundary surface ∂Ω, and

Formulation in Gaussian units convention

Further cosmetic changes, called rationalisations, are possible by absorbing factors

Flux and divergence

Circulation and curl

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