G20 Solution

Journal of Environmental Management 277 (2021) 111457
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman
Review
‘Unlocking circular economy for prevention of marine plastic pollution: An

exploration of G20 policy and initiatives’
Zinaida Fadeeva a, *, Rene Van Berkel b, 1
a
Centre for Global Sustainability Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), CGSS, Level 5, Hamzah Sendut Library (new wing), 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
b
UNIDO Regional Representative, United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), UNIDO Joseph Stein Lane Lodhi Gardens, Lodhi Estate, New Delhi,
110003, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Marine plastic pollution (MPP) is an urgent environmental and socio-economic problem. MPP amounts to 300
Life-cycle perspective million tons annually, originates largely from land-based sources and severely impacts marine ecosystem, harms
Resource efficiency livelihoods and causes costs for businesses and governments. Plastics permeate the whole width and depth of seas
Cleaner production
and oceans, near well-developed coastal zones and equally in remotest corners. This undermines economic and
Sustainable development
social value of the oceans, particularly in terms of fisheries productivity and tourism. The G20 members,
Design-for-environment
Sustainable consumption and production responsible for about two-thirds of global plastic waste, recognize the problem and undertake preventive mea
sures – individually and collectively. Yet, are there efficient, effective and sufficient given the urgency of MPP
and the contribution of G20 countries. This article highlights existing policies and identifies further policy op
tions using a custom framework for MPP policy that merges Circular Economy (CE) and life-cycle perspectives.
1. Introduction to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
for sustainable development. SDG target 14.1 specifically addresses
The international community has recognized marine plastic pollu marine litter: by 2025: prevent and significantly reduce marine pollu
tion (MPP)2 as an important impediment for sustainable development tion of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including
(UNEP, 2016). Mismanaged plastic waste largely ends up in oceans, marine debris and nutrient pollution. Moreover, SDGs 6 (water), 11
either directly, from sources at sea, or indirectly, from sources on land, (cities) and 12 (sustainable consumption and production) are relevant to
through littering from shores, run-off from sewage systems, or by rivers marine litter prevention.
and wind. Data suggest that plastic packaging represents the major share United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) prepared a global
of this leakage. Annually, at least 8 million tonnes of plastics leak into assessment report on marine plastic debris and microplastics. The key
the oceans — which is equivalent to dumping the contents of one messages of prevention were considered and endorsed by the ad-hoc
garbage truck into the ocean every minute (Ellen MacArthur Founda open-ended expert group, under United Nations Environment Assem
tion, 2017). If no action is taken, this is expected to double by 2030 and bly resolution 3/7 (UNEP/EA.3/Res.7) (UNEP, 2016). These messages
quadruple by 2050. were: (3) transition to a 6R circular plastic economy (Reduce, Redesign,
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has galvanized Remove, Reuse, Recycle and Recover); (8) comprehensive approach to
unanimous global commitment to address unsustainable plastic use and address leakage in all stages of production, use and disposal cycle; and
MPP. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14, Life Below Water, urges (13) urgency to start with improved waste management, in particular in
* Corresponding author. D328, Defense Colony, New Delhi, 110024, India.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Z. Fadeeva), [email protected], [email protected] (R. Van Berkel).
1
Disclaimer: The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Industrial Development Organi
sation, its Secretariat or any of its Member States. Designations such as developed, industrialised, developing and transition are intended for convenience and do not
necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached by a particular country or area in its development process.
2
MPP comprises both large objects and smaller fragments, down to micro-plastics, which remain largely invisible to the naked eye yet interfere most with marine
life. Microplastics are routinely defined as small particles or fragments of plastic measuring less than 5 mm in diameter. Some microplastics are purposefully
manufactured for industrial and domestic purposes (‘primary’ microplastics). These include ‘microbeads’ used in cosmetic and personal healthcare products, such as
toothpaste. ‘Secondary’ microplastics are created by the weathering and fragmentation of larger plastic objects.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111457
Received 19 June 2020; Received in revised form 16 September 2020; Accepted 28 September 2020
Available online 9 October 2020
0301-4797/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Fadeeva and R. Van Berkel Journal of Environmental Management 277 (2021) 111457
Table 1
Principal waste prevention approaches for MPP in plastics value chain (Amended and updated from UNIDO, 2019 ).
Life Cycle Stage Waste Prevention Approach Application for prevention of MPP
Product Design Design for Environment (DfE), Design for Sustainability or Sustainable • DfE has been proven applicable to the main contributors to addressing
Product Design (UNEP, 2009) includes environmental criteria in design of MPP, namely: (1) short-lived plastic products (including packaging,
products and services and their associated packaging, distribution and utensils, personal care products, etc.); and (2) micro-plastics (from cos
service systems. DfE includes such practices as: functional redesign/new metics and synthetic garments).
product or packaging concept; selection of renewable, recycled, recyclable •Adoption of DfE is largely hampered by: (1) lack of awareness of and
and/or less harmful materials; reduction of material diversity; product life capacity for DfE; (2) perceived superiority of single use products (w.r.t.
optimization; minimization of input requirements during use; and ease of convenience, food safety, etc.); (3) limited availability and/or (perceived)
repair, dismantling, recovery, recycling and environmentally sound inferior quality of alternative materials, including bio-based and biode
disposal. gradable plastics; and (4) unfavorable economics due to high cost of alter
natives and low costs of waste disposal.
Manufacturing and Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP): improves efficiency of •RECP has been proven applicable to prevent plastics waste generation from
Service Delivery use of materials, energy and water and reduces intensity of generation of manufacturing, processing and service sectors and associated distribution
waste, effluents and emissions in manufacturing and associated processing and maintenance, including sectors most relevant to MPP, such as plastics
and service sectors. RECP is possible through such practices as: good manufacturing, packaging, hospitality, textile, accessories and cosmetics.
housekeeping; input substitution; better operating practices; equipment •Adoption of RECP is principally hampered by: (1) lack of awareness of and
modification; technology change; onsite recovery and reuse; production of capacity for RECP; (2) weak firm-level perceptions and practices of pro
useful by-products; and product modification (Van Berkel and Fadeeva, ductivity and quality; and (3) unfavorable economics resulting from low
2020). plastic prices and low current costs of waste disposal.
Distribution and Use Sustainable Consumption (SC): (UNEP, 2010) refers to use of services and •SC has proven its applicability for plastics packaging and products that
products which enable better quality of life whilst minimizing impact on contribute significantly to MPP challenge, through focused activities on
environment. This involves actions of individual consumers, institutional short-lived products.
consumers (including government though its public procurement), and •Implementation of SC is in the main impeded by: (1) a lack of consumer
retail and service sectors. information and awareness on SC alternatives: (2) prevailing littering
practices; (3) insufficient infrastructure support for SC alternatives; and (4)
unfavorable economics resulting from low cost of short-lived plastic prod
ucts and low current costs of waste disposal.
End-of-Life Environmentally Sound Waste Management and Resource Recovery: •Best Available Techniques/Best Environmental Practices (BAT/BEP) have
Management systems for comprehensive (‘leakage free’) collection, sorting, cleaning and been demonstrated for disposal of plastic products and packaging and
processing of all end of life plastic products and packaging, into secondary microplastics, in manner that reduces MPP.
resources •BAT/BEP uptake is impeded by: (1) prevailing attitudes and associated
littering and waste disposal practices leading to low quality plastic waste;
(2) unfavorable economics due to costs of processing (and subsequently of
secondary materials) relative to costs of environmentally unsound waste
disposal and of virgin materials; and (3) high informality in waste
management and recycling sectors, in particular in LDCs/MICs
developing countries. policy initiatives of G20 Members to the CE framework. Therefore, we

The G20 countries generate an estimated two-thirds of global plastic first review - in brief – the plastics life cycle, and operationalize therein
waste, China, US and Germany being the top producers. Seven of the ten key CE elements. Next, we map the current policy instruments that
major rivers that carry land plastic pollution to the oceans enter the impact MPP, and illustrate these with examples from G20 countries
oceans from China, India and Indonesia (Schmidt et al., 2017). This against the CE elements. We observe therein that current policy in
highlights the importance of G20 members to lead abatement of marine struments appear insufficient by intent and/or current operationaliza
litter, particularly plastics. tion to achieve the desired circular plastics transition for abating MPP.
In its 2017 Action Plan on Marine Litter, G20 recognized “the urgent The new framework may serve as lens for strengthening policy for and
need for action to prevent and reduce marine litter in order to preserve human practice of MPP abatement.
health and marine and coastal ecosystems, and mitigate marine litter’s eco
nomic costs and impacts” (OECD, 2019). In the 2019 Osaka Summit 2. Marine Plastic pollution – circular economy perspective
outcome document (G20 Osaka Leaders Declaration, 2019), G20 leaders
“reiterate that measures to address marine litter, especially MPP and 2.1. Plastics life cycle
microplastics, need to be taken nationally and internationally by all countries
in partnership with relevant stakeholders. In this regard, we are determined to Plastics escape at any stage from economic system and are then
swiftly take appropriate national actions for the prevention and significant carried to oceans where it ultimately shows up as MPP. Addressing MPP,
reduction of discharges of plastic litter and microplastics to the oceans”. And: hence, requires concerted actions throughout plastics’ life-cycles, driven
“we share …. as a common global vision, the "Osaka Blue Ocean Vision" that by consistent government policies and enabled by effective waste
we aim to reduce additional pollution by marine plastic litter to zero by 2050 collection, management and recycling sector. Table 1 highlights such
through a comprehensive life-cycle approach that includes reducing the key actions and overall illustrates that good practices and techniques
discharge of mismanaged plastic litter by improved waste management and exist and have been demonstrated for – precursors of – MPP. However,
innovative solutions while recognizing the important role of plastics for so these are not yet common place, for a variety of reasons, particularly
ciety”. This was further operationalized with the endorsement of the G20 related to prevailing behaviors of consumers, producers, retailers and
Implementation Framework for Actions on Marine Plastic Litter, which waste managers, and – perceived and/or actual – unfavorable economics
has as its main components: facilitation by information sharing on of alternatives to plastics, in particular in short-lived products. Eco
implementation of actions and developments therein, and collaborative nomics, awareness and behavior though are also a reflection of the
action and outreach beyond G20 in regard to promotion of international current status of policy, particularly for waste management and/or de
cooperation, innovative solutions, scientific information and knowledge ficiencies in their implementation and enforcement.
and multi-stakeholder involvement and awareness raising (MOFA,
2019). 2.2. Circular economy
Both the G20 process and UNEP Global Assessment stress importance
of Circular Economy (CE) to curb MPP. Hence, we set out to connect Circular Economy (CE) provides focus springboard to ascertain the
2
efficacy and efficiency of existing MPP policies. This provides further circularity is the most specifically targeted by the currently practiced set
impetus to sharpen and refine the spectrum of policies and their of policy instruments. This could reflect the necessity to deal with the
implementation, monitoring and enforcement. environment and associated community health impacts of waste
CE stresses the need for the perpetuality, circularity and shift from disposal. On the other hand, efficiency appears to be not vigorously
the notion of waste to the notion of secondary materials. It denounces addressed, except through resource efficiency/cleaner production pro
the prevailing linear ‘extract-make-use-throw’ economy and elevates the grammes which are most typically based on information, training and
need for restorative and regenerative ‘extract-make-use-recover and advisory services. This may reflect the common perception that effi
restore’ economy. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2012) explains CE ciency does have its own economic rationale of cost savings and hence
through the concepts of eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness to minimize does not require focused policy interventions. The input/resource switch
of material and energy flows through the system, generate ‘cradle- related instruments, both for encouraging preferred as well as for
to-cradle’ metabolism and retain previously wasted materials as a discouraging undesired materials and applications, are conceptually
resource. CE aims at keeping value of materials, products and their parts well-developed and mutually reinforcing, yet, so far only deployed for
at all times high. The model is based on two cycles – technical and rather narrow categories of materials and products, in view of the eco
biological where consumption “happens only in biological cycles, where nomic interests. Overall, no single policy instrument will be able to
nutrients are metabolized – e.g. through composting or anaerobic digestion – trigger a comprehensive reorientation towards CE, apart from the newly
and life processes regenerate the living systems, such as soil, plants, or ani emerging CE packages, which in their own right contain a mix of policy
mals, that give rise to materials and other resources. Technical cycles recover instruments. Furthermore, there is scope for more general-purpose
and restore products, components, and materials through strategies like reuse, enabling policies, such as knowledge development, innovation, etc.,
repair, remanufacture, refurbishment, or (in the last resort) recycling” (Ellen which will be addressed in section 5.
MacArthur Foundation, 2016). As mainstream plastics (with biobased
polymers being the only exception) are made from and with 4. Empirical Illustrations
non-renewable fossil material and fuel, they are technical materials and
from a CE perspective are to be retained in technical cycles through We turn to G20 to explore the current state of development and
production, consumption and resource recovery systems. deployment of MPP prevention policy. This is based on initiatives of
As illustrated in Box 1, we earlier operationalized CE for industry and each of the G20 members by mid-2019 as documented in the public
business (Van Berkel and Fadeeva, 2020), into a three-pronged approach domain. While this analysis illustrates trends and issues, given the dy
for: resource switch - maximizing renewables and non-harmful inputs; namic development of MPP policy and actions at national, regional and
resource efficiency - relentlessly practicing efficiency in design, produc global levels, it cannot be taken as a comprehensive and detailed policy
tion and use; and resource circularity - perpetual recovery and reuse of assessment or seen as a cross-national comparison.
end of life materials. The main waste prevention practices highlighted in
Table 1, contribute to these three elements. DfE in the main addresses 4.1. Discouraging input of undesirable materials and products
the resource switch, yet the product design itself will enable efficiency
and circularity. RECP is predominantly concerned with efficiency, and, Most G20 members have adopted laws and regulations that prevent
to a lesser extent resource switch and circularity. Both SC and waste market access of specific single-use plastic products or products con
management primarily practice circularity, though also more indirectly taining and/or causing microplastics. The measures include total ban,
contribute to resource efficiency and switch. discouragement (levy based) and encouragement (through information
and communication only), and combinations thereof. This provides a
3. Mapping the policy space strong incentive for product alternatives that allow for easy sorting and
recycling and/or make the product more environmentally benign and
Government policy would need to discourage and ultimately elimi less harmful to health. Overall, the countries aim to close the ‘front door’
nate indiscriminate and environmentally harmful disposal and burning, for undesired plastic applications, thereby encourage design alternatives
whilst encouraging the use of quality recycled materials and fostering (alternative products and packaging) and material alternatives (prod
innovation (in products, technologies, business models, lifestyle and ucts made from preferred material).
consumption patterns) (Van Berkel, 2018). Toward this, we have noted Ban on single-use plastics has become well-established approach
the stated global priority for litter and pollution prevention and abun with initial bans for individual products evolving over time into more
dance of prevention options through improvements in production and complex strategies. The European Commission (2019) works to oper
consumption systems and associated waste management and resource ationalize its Single Use Plastics Directive, initially tabled in May 2018.
recovery. MPP prevention can thus start with policies for wider and It targets ten single-use plastic items, commonly found on European
more focused application of known good practices, through consistent beaches, that represent about half of MPP. Many G20 members combine
policy and implementation, in collaboration with consumers, producers, banning free plastic bags or other single-use plastic products with
farmers and other waste generators and formal and informal waste measures facilitating change towards alternatives with different prop
management sectors (covering collection, recycling, recovery and erties – durability, recyclability, recycled contents, biodegradability –
environmentally sound disposal). Responsible behavior by all partners either in plastic or of paper, jute, etc.. In China, retailers are discouraged
along with business-like methods and systems are necessary. to use plastic bags made from materials that are not biodegradable. With
MPP policy would need to cover all CE elements as well as all life subsidies from the government, farmers in China have to use degradable
cycle stages. As illustrated in Fig. 1, this requires policies to address plastic films for agricultural use (Tze Yan, 2018).
materials extraction and selection; product design; product Life-cycle perspective accompanies bans in some G20 countries.
manufacturing and distribution; consumption and disposal; and end of Some states in India moved to enforce rules against manufacturing and
life management. Some policy instruments can be specific to plastics, or using some single-use plastics (Dasgupta, 2019). The new Packaging Act
even specific types of plastics and/or their additives, whereas others of Germany (2019) addresses plastics life-cycle to reduce end-of-life
may have a more generic scope. In Table 2 policy instruments have been plastics. By stipulating that – plastic - packaging, has to be designed
mapped against the CE elements, namely resource switch, efficiency and with recyclability in mind (VERPACKG, 2019), it provides for
circularity. This is bound to some limitations, as the actual impact of a improvement (including simplification) of the collection and sorting
policy instrument depends, to a large extent, on its detailed design and systems.
efforts towards implementation, monitoring and enforcement. Never France is introducing a penalty system to discourage the use of non-
theless, as a preliminary observation, among the three CE elements, recycled plastics for packaging – up to 10 percent of the product’s price
3
Box 1
Operationalization of Circular Economy (Adapted from Van Berkel and Fadeeva, 2020 )
1. Resource Switch: Go for renewable and eliminate harmful inputs – maximization of use of renewable materials and energy as well as elimination
of input of harmful materials into supply chains of products and services.
2. Resource Circularity: Close the loop through perpetual recovery and reuse –extending, to the maximum, ‘life’ of the materials in the system
including by utilizing discarded materials as a secondary resource. Closing the loop requires differentiation between biological and technical
cycles where biological cycles fed materials back into the system and technical cycles recapture, recover and restore value of products,
components and materials.
3. Resource Efficiency: Do more with less – minimization of intensity of use of natural, non-renewable, materials and energy.
Fig. 1. Policies for facilitating circular plastics.
Table 2
Contribution of policy instruments into elements of Circular Economy.
Policy instruments Circular Economy Element
Resource Switch Resource Circularity Resource Efficiency
Discourage input of Encourage input of Circularity - facilitate recovery of Achieve more efficient use of
undesirable materials and preferred materials and materials for subsequent materials in production and
products products application consumption systems
Stimuli for environmentally preferred/ *** * *

friendly materials, e.g., bio-based
Ban on undesirable materials or *** **
material applications
Resource efficiency policies and * * ***
programmes
Waste laws and regulations (with focus * * ***
on recycling)
Packaging regulations ** ** ***
Extended Producer Responsibility * *
(EPR)
Plastic regulations *** *** *
Regulations with regards to ***
formalization of the waste
management sector
Circular economy promotion packages * ** ***
(***) intended outcome, (**) significant contribution; (*) positive correlation.
would be subtracted or added to the VAT, if it is made of non-recycled imposing levies on consumer packaging and products. Provisions also
plastic (Rush, 2018). Moreover, pilots for a deposit system are under include measures to advance use of durable bags for multiple use, or
way in different regions. These complement the ban on single-use other, more environmentally preferred, bags (Jiménez Martínez, 2015).
plastics adopted in 2016, which comes into full effect in 2020. Mea In the UK, a tax has been imposed on virgin plastic (Hirsh, 2019), which
sures have been prepared to ban plastic straws and stirrers, cups and has upped the demand for recycled plastics, thereby facilitating the re
food containers under the country’s sustainable food initiative (Gov covery of plastic wastes into the production-consumption cycle.
ernment of France, 2018). Mexico, through additions to the Waste Law of Notably, local authorities in several countries, such as Australia
the Federal District, aims at reduction of single-use plastic bags through (Smith, 2020), Brazil (Global Site Plans, 2019), Canada, Italy (Xin Huan
4
Table 3 bioeconomy that could benefit, among others, bioplastic. Policies in

National restrictions on use of microbeads (source: UNIDO, 2019). Brazil (OECD 2013), from the 1990s, have created a self-sustaining
Government of Ban on the sale, manufacture and import of rinse-off market of ethanol produced from agricultural crops and facilitated in
France, 2018 products vestments in bioplastics production. The Strategic Plan for the
Canada, 2018 Ban on products with microbeads less than 5 mm in size Sugar-Energy Industry (2012) introduced measures, including credits
UK, 2018 Ban on plastic microbeads in cosmetics and personal care and government financing, and accompanying measures for financing
products renovation of sugarcane farms and cultivated areas, added to the gen
Italy Draft legislation to ban microbeads in rinse-off cosmetics eration of material for bioplastics. A number of research institutes,
from 2020
India Ban on microbeads to enter into force in 2020
including one of the largest research facilities - the Institute for Tech
South Africa Microbeads ban has been proposed nological Research (IPT) - supported research in bioplastics in Brazil.
United States of Federal ban on manufacture and sale of rinse-off cosmetics The São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) supported, for decades,
America containing intentionally-added plastic microbeads, 2015; scientific and technological research for plastics produced from renew
as of October 2015, all states, except California, banned
able materials.
plastic microbeads but allow biodegradable ones. The state
of California ban does not allow even biodegradable Even the G20 members that do not – yet - have specific policies for
microbeads. production of bioplastics, see their research and technology institutions
work on new, more environmentally benign materials. n. For example,
in Canada, NRC Industrial Materials Institute in Boucherville, QC; the
Net, 2018), Indonesia (Break Free from Plastic, 2020) and Mexico École Polytechnique in Montréal; and the University of British Columbia
(UNEP, 2018), have taken on more ambitious strategies and targets than in Vancouver (Nay, 2014). Notably, research by public and private in
their national counterparts, particularly for banning various single-use stitutions has developed competitive technologies for production of
plastic products. bioplastics from locally available bio-resources, such as bioplastic made
A number of countries have also moved towards bans on microbeads from starch material and pits discarded from the production of olive oil
(see Table 3), particularly in personal care products, with some differ in Turkey (Ozdamar and Ates 2018), (Mlalila et al. 2018), (Barrett 2019)
entiation, as in the different states of USA, between biodegradable and and cassava in Indonesia (Avani 2019).
non-biodegradable materials.
4.3. Facilitating recovery of materials for subsequent application
4.2. Encouraging input of preferred materials and products
4.3.1. Packaging regulations
Demand for new and different plastic materials comes with re As packaging is the single largest user of plastics (Ellen MacArthur
quirements of a clear classification system enabling producers, con Foundation, 2017), plastic waste management, littering and MPP are
sumers and recyclers to make verifiable informed choices. The frequently addressed through packaging regulations. Packaging regu
Government of France launched a recycled plastic initiative in 2019 lations typically aim to strike a balance between multiple objectives,
(Rush, 2018), which includes a stipulation to indicate if the packaging is including food/product safety, weight and volume of packaging relative
made from recycled plastic or is recyclable. The French law on energy to packaged product, and the resultant packaging waste.
transition and green growth differentiates between biobased, bio The policy measures often specify desirable qualities of plastic
degradable/compostable plastics and oxo-fragmentable plastics (which packaging, e.g., recyclable or compostable, and impose differentiated
generates microplastics), and prohibits the latter (European Bioplastics, fees for non-desirable, e.g., non-sortable or non-recyclable, packaging
2015). South Africa plans to support establishment of recycling infra materials. This is typically stipulated along with timetabled objective for
structure and an accompanying compulsory specification for plastic realization, including, potentially, recovery and recycling targets for
bags and measures for their compliance and enforcement (Environment, post-consumer packaging waste recovery. In Australia, by 2025, 100
2017). In 2016 recyclability has become a focus in Saudi Arabia that percent of packaging should be recyclable, compostable or reusable. The
issued a regulation requiring certain plastics - produced domestically or Australian Packaging Covenant Organisation (Government of Australia,
imported - to be made of approved and certified oxo-degradable mate 2018), with its 950 member companies and other stakeholders spear
rial (SASO, 2016). heads implementation with Packaging Sustainability Guidelines and
The success of any new product though relies heavily on its ability to measurable targets (APCO, 2019). Its Strategic Plan 2017–2022 focuses
meet quality and market expectations Australia has seen non fossil– on improving resource efficiency through packaging design and other
based plastics enter the market, yet further standards and systems are measures such as consumer education, labelling, research and sharing of
required to verify and label plastics to biodegrade and compost. (Aus knowledge. The 2019 Packaging Act of Germany requires the recycling
tralasian Bioplastics Association, 2019). rate for plastic packaging to be increased from 36 percent today to 63
Although bioplastics have a very low market share many G20 percent by 2022. France initiated a "National Pact on Plastic Packaging"
members actively encourage its development3. Some countries state in February 2019 that stipulates manufacturers and distributors of
substitution of fossil feedstock with bio-feedstock for plastic production consumer goods to reach 60 percent of recyclable plastic by 2022,
as their policy goals. For example, in 2018, Japan announced its reaching 100 percent recyclability or compostability by 2025 (Gvern
commitment to introduce 50 times the current amount of animal and ment of France, 2019).
plant-derived biomass plastic by 2030. The Draft New Plan for a Sound Economic incentives have become an integral part of facilitation
Material-Cycle Society states, as one of the goals, replacement of fossil- strategies. In Italy, for example, CONAI scheme for industrial packaging,
fuel based plastics with bioplastics while improving its practicality in applies a high fee to non-sortable and non-recyclable packaging and no
use (Inoue, 2018). fee to reusables (Italian Good News, 2017).
Some countries have taken action to facilitate investments in the Following the success of Germany’s 1991 Packaging Ordinance,
countries have brought packaging waste under extended producer re
sponsibility (EPR). However, even though EPR principles are commonly
3
The term ‘bioplastic’ indicates the nature of input materials – biological referenced in packaging regulations, in several countries EPR is not (yet)
instead of petroleum-based. It does not automatically mean biodegradable or fully operationalized in particular for post-consumer packaging waste.
additive-free. While there are some serious criticisms of bio-based plastics, they In 2016, a New Comprehensive Packaging Waste Management Bill was
are viewed positively in the area of climate change because of the avoidance of proposed to the Argentina’s Chamber of Deputies together with a number
fossil fuel input into their core material. of other bills relevant for circular management of plastics. The Bill,
5
based on EPR principles, will require producers, packagers, importers from $4 million in 2017 to $15 million in 2018. In the same year, Japan
and manufacturers of packaging materials to set up and finance a set up a target for reducing use of single-use plastics to 25 percent and 60
packaging waste management system (Beveridge & Diamond PC, 2016). percent recycling target for plastic containers by 2030, partially through
The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) has incineration and energy recovery (Mainichi Japan, 2018).
developed a strategy, built on the Canada-wide Action Plan for EPR, to
reduce packaging waste and promote more sustainable packaging 4.3.4. Plastic policies
choices (CCME, 2019). In their attempts to address marine plastic pollution, many G20
members have developed a range of policy measures related directly to
4.3.2. Extended producer responsibility plastic materials or products to facilitate circularity of plastics. Much
Analysis of waste management practices as well as practices related effort is devoted to creating favorable conditions for plastics recycling,
to materials and products, demonstrate that the bigger economies of including development of recycling infrastructure, extracting additional
today (and most of the G20 members) have operationalized – elements value of plastic waste or elimination of materials that present challenges
of - EPRs. Many countries apply EPR to packaging, by mandating quality in recycling. For example, the Recycled Plastic Initiative of France (Rush,
of packaging materials and assigning responsibilities for financing end- 2018) includes reduced VAT rate on recycling operations, increased
of-life management of plastic products. EPR is generally accepted by landfill taxes, simplified collection system (through uniform colors for
stakeholders as a good practice that incentivizes producers to improve waste bags), introduction of a label (by 2020) to indicate nature of
end-of-life product management and achieve higher material recovery material, i.e., recycled and/or recyclable. In November 2018, Canada
across the product life cycle with great efficiency. Including mandatory released its national Strategy of Zero Plastic Waste, with ongoing work
recycling targets in EPR requirements adds to their effectiveness. Gov on the Action Plan, which states the goals of prevention and recycling
ernment oversight over EPR systems is critical to assure a level playing commensurate with CE philosophy. In India, the Plastic Waste and
field among producers and avoid ‘race to the bottom’, wherein producer Management Rules (2016) apply to every waste generator, local body,
responsibility organizations (PROs) manipulate data to show compli Gram Panchayat (village council), manufacturer, importer and pro
ance on paper only.4 ducer, and are framed to govern recycling and to phase out undesirable
plastic materials. Republic of Korea undertook measures to upgrade
4.3.3. Driving circularity through waste management rules recycling facilities and help to efficiently recycle or compost more types
Waste management regulations are aimed at reducing leakage (or of plastic material in addition to PET plastic (Vink 2914). In 2018, the
littering) of waste and of discouraging inappropriate final disposal and UK launched the 25 Year Environment Plan that aims at elimination of
burning – each of these directs end-of-life material flows towards avoidable plastic waste by 2042, and announced a new strategy that
circularity, particularly with mandatory source segregation and recov refers to circularity and puts greater responsibility on businesses for
ery (or diversion) targets. addressing waste challenges (DEFRA, 2018).
Reducing waste leakage o from production and consumption, Some countries take a broader perspective for plastics policy. Ger
through appropriate and controlled waste management remains a pri many’s Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and
ority for several G20 members. New waste management policies aim to Nuclear Safety explicitly states closing of the material loop as a pre
ban illegal dumping and introduce planned waste management, pre requisite for sustainable plastic use. It has set up a dialogue along the
dominantly in the cities. The waste-related goal of the PROMARNAT entire production chain focusing on the use of secondary raw materials.
(SEMARNAT, 2013) environmental plan of Mexico was reduction of In 2018, the Ministry unveiled a plan for addressing plastic pollution
uncontrolled disposal from 30 percent in 2013 to 17 percent in 2018. In based on five strategies (Deutsche Welle, 2020): 1. Avoiding unnec
2010, Brazil adopted its progressive National Solid Waste Policy (2010), essary products and packaging, 2. Making packaging and other products
which mandates the preparation of solid waste plans by municipalities, more environmentally sound, 3. Creating more recycling, 4. Preventing
closure of dump sites, increase in recycling (up to 45 percent), increase plastic getting into organic waste, and 5. Supporting international
in waste-to-energy production and social inclusion of waste pickers cooperation for clean-up of the world’s most polluted rivers.
(IBRD and World Bank, 2018). A few G20 members specifically focus on plastic pollution in the
Mandatory source segregation and recovery targets drive improve marine environment. In 2018, France announced the creation of the
ments in waste policy. In China, the target of 35 percent recycling of "Oceans Mission" to deal with chemicals and plastics pollution of oceans
household waste is expected to be achieved by 2020. Forty-six major and coral reef (Government of France, 2018). The German national
cities have developed facilities for sorting, collecting, transporting and program has a series of measures to implement the EU Marine Strategy
treating waste, with some of them issuing local regulations for waste Framework Directive (MSFD) and the Round Table on ship-generated
classification. The core Programme on Prevention of Waste in France waste (including plastic waste) (Round table marine litter 2017).
aims at reduction of all household and commercial waste by 7 percent Indonesia forms a Plan of Action on Marine Plastic Debris (2017–2025),
per capita in 2020 (Government of France, 2014) with plastics seen as based on 3R principle, that would focus on behavioral change and
the second highest priority in this group of waste materials. Russia fo reduction of land-based leakage (Government of the Republic of
cuses on recycling in waste management through the “On Waste from Indonesia, 2017).
Production and Consumption” law (Government of Russian Federation, G20 members also adopt collective actions. The United States, Italy,
2018) and the upcoming disposal ban for untreated/unsorted waste. The Japan, Canada, Germany, France and the United Kingdom signed the
Recycling Enterprise Support Programme (RESP) of South Africa under Ocean Plastics Charter at the G7 meeting in Halifax (G7, 2018). It
the National Waste Management Strategy provides funds for projects contains a commitment to reach 100 percent reusable, recyclable, or,
and startups for buy-back centres, material recovery facilities, con where viable alternatives do not exist, recoverable plastics by 2030.
struction and demolition solutions as well as plastic palletization plants
(DAFF, 2018). Separation of municipal waste in Japan - mandated ac 4.3.5. Policies and actions towards informal waste sector
cording to specific waste fractions - is supported by information activ Informal sector, significant in G20 countries across a range of eco
ities by local governments and financial support for upgrading domestic nomic activities, also plays a role in closing the materials cycle. Ac
recycling, with subsidies for the new facilities. The budget for it grew cording to estimates, informal waste collectors are responsible for 17–35
percent of municipal recycling in urban China (Steuer et al., 2018) and
nearly all recycling in Saudi Arabia (Abdul-Sattar, 2019). The informal
4
Focus group discussions with major beverage producers in India, March waste sector of South Africa employs two or three times more people
2019. than formal waste management (Arnold, 2018). About 1 percent of
6
urban dwellers in India are reportedly involved in informal waste towards wastage of material and energy along all life cycle of materials.
collection and recycling (GIZ, 2010). National and sub-national gov European Union and India Resource Efficiency Initiative (EU-REI)
ernments have paid closer attention to inclusion of informal waste col (REI-EU, 2017) is a project aimed at supporting India in implementing
lectors, aggregators and recyclers as in their efforts to improve waste the SCP agenda that deals with resource recovery (e-waste, plastics and
management practices. packaging) while facilitating collaboration between Indian and Euro
Mexico City recognizes the role of the informal waste pickers (Wiego, pean businesses around issues of resource efficiency.
2016) and ‘volunteer workers’ in the waste management system
(SEDEMA), and so does Buenos Aires. In 2002, the city withdrew the law 4.5. Circular approaches
that earlier made litter picking illegal (Balch, 2016), accepting informal
recyclers as legitimate contributors to waste management. It gave Specific CE initiatives in some G20 countries provide coherent pol
formal status to a number of waste pickers grouped in 12 cooperatives icies to perpetuate circulation of material and energy in their economies
and some separation activities are taking place in the state-run ‘green and foster efficiency of their use while focusing on an increase of
centres’. Yet, the challenge remains as the total number waste pickers is renewable inputs. They address several stages of life-cycle – from design
twice as large (Gutman, 2018). Similarly, Brazil (Lima and Mancini, to return to the production-consumption cycles, and comprise a variety
2017), sees waste picking as a legitimate activity and waste pickers as of laws, regulations and programmes.
stakeholders with a voice at the local, state, and national levels. Its In The Law for CE Promotion of, passed by China (Standing Committee
tegrated Solid Waste and Carbon Finance Project (World Bank, 2018) of the National People’s Congress, 2008), has become a reference point
includes specific strategies for integrating waste pickers into local waste for circular initiatives. The 13th ‘Five Year Plan’ (2016–2020) (NDRC,
management, for example through organization of waste pickers into 2016) emphasized the strategies of reuse, recycling, use of renewable
cooperatives, e.g., CEMPRE (Brazilian Business Commitment for Recy energy sources and productivity targets towards circular economy. In
cling) (Cempre, 2020). Some initiatives aim at adding value to the ac June 2018, the country presented a white paper where it reaffirmed the
tivities of waste pickers by enabling them to create products from the country’s commitment to stop all recycling imports by the end of 2020.
collected waste. For example, the Clean Urban Delta Initiative provides a Low carbon cities and industrial symbiosis have been set up in various
low-cost plastic shredder and molding machine to waste pickers in Rio regions of the country to facilitate achievement of the goal. France
de Janeiro so that they can make plastic statues and other souvenirs for introduced a new CE law in February 2020 (Government of France,
tourists (Lacey, 2018). 2020). An year earlier, "National Pact on Plastic Packaging" had been
In India, extended producer responsibility organizations (EPROs) launched with requirements for manufacturers and distributors of con
work to provide incentives for the informal sector to formalize partic sumer goods to reach 60 percent of recyclable plastic by 2022 (Gov
ularly for collection of plastics and electronic waste (GIZGIZ, 2010) - ernment of France, 2019).
They do this, for example, by assisting with paying necessary adminis The Framework Act on Resource Circulation (2016) of the Republic of
trative fees and making sure that such actions do not jeopardize earnings Korea aims at CE creation. Larger enterprises are mandated to reduce
of the waste pickers, or by encouraging them to limit their actions to waste to meet specified targets. The market of recycled products is
operations that are safe (in case of Waste Electronic and Electrical facilitated through green public procurement and their on-line trading.
Equipment (WEEE)) (Singhal, 2019). The Department of Environmental To substitute and convert public recycling infrastructure, the govern
Affairs in South Africa is developed guidelines to include the informal ment has been investing in supporting of installation and improvement
sector into the waste economy (Arnold, 2018) and initiatives like of business recycling facilities, technology development and bringing it
GreenCape’s Greater Tygerberg Picker Project assist waste pickers to to the market, management training for recycling businesses. In Japan,
establish micro-enterprises. the Fundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society
gives attention to life-cycle of plastic products and associated services,
4.4. Achieving more efficient use of materials in production and reduction in the use of plastics, particularly single-use packaging and
consumption products and microplastics (Government of Japan, 2018).
An ambitious programme towards circularity exists in the EU. The CE
Plastic industry broadly employs modern manufacturing practices to Package (European Commission, 2015), with reference to its commu
achieve productivity and minimize material and energy losses through nication "Towards a circular economy, a zero waste programme for
design and planning, new plastics machinery, mobile technology and Europe", proposes an aspirational 30 percent target on reduction of
internet services, which may be further enhanced by transition to In beach litter and fishing gear by 2020, with action plans for each of the
dustry 4.0. National and international support of resource efficiency four marine regions of the EU. The 7th Environment Action Programme
measures have been provided through a number of initiatives, including (EEA, 2020) calls for the vision of a “CE where nothing is wasted and
the flagshop UNIDO/UNEP National Cleaner Production Centres where natural resources are managed sustainably”. The Programme also
(UNIDO, 2015). However, the proof of concept and practices of plastics calls for the development of quantitative targets for reduction of marine
waste minimization in various countries by the pioneering companies litter.
does not appear to automatically lead to a widespread uptake of the such
practices by a broader range of industry and service sector, especially by 5. Enabling instruments
small and medium size enterprises (SMEs) (Van Berkel, 2018).
Some G20 members have ambitious cleaner production policy The previous sections outlined elements for a comprehensive policy
measures or programmes promoting sustainable consumption and pro approach with life-cycle perspective and CE vision to prevent leakage of
duction (SCP) aiming at doing more and better with less material and plastic into marine ecosystems. Their effectiveness though is contingent
energy inputs. CE Promotion Law of China is a foundation for resource on enabling actions, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Circularity of plastics relies
efficiency along with a number of other regulations including Cleaner strongly on innovations in the area of technology, business and policy
Production Promotion Law (adopted in 2002 and amended in 2012) practices, and depends on targeted efforts in their development.
(People’s Republic of China, 2007). The Strategy on Resource Efficiency Development of CE for plastics is a gradual process and its optimization
formulated in 2017 by NITI Aayog (2017) in India suggests a framework depends on the knowledge of plastic pollution sources, pollution dis
for enhancing resource-use efficiency in the Indian economy and in tribution and fate in the environment and calls for systems of research and
dustry. The recently published Draft Resource Efficiency Policy (Gov monitoring. With 150 million tonnes circulating in the oceans today and
ernment of India, 2019) emphasises the importance of market-based 8 million tonnes of plastics added every year (Ocean Conservancy,
instruments as well as command and control in changing attitude 2020), the task of addressing legacy waste through retrieving leaked
7
plastic is critical to minimize serious damage to the marine ecosystems. investigate pollution impact in the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. The
Attention to protection of marine ecosystems lends yet another instrument aquarium also conducts a study on microplastics impact on marine life in
for combating actions harming their health, and the health and well the Arctic Ocean (Our Ocean, 2017).
being of communities that depend on them. Data collection and monitoring are used for specifying methodolo
gies for research on marine plastic wastes – work critical for a deeper
5.1. Knowledge development and monitoring understanding of facts and the compatibility of data, especially in view
of collaborative commitments of G20 member states. Within the Inter
To address complexity of MPP, governments require knowledge of governmental Joint Programming Initiative Oceans, Germany, Italy,
the problem, including sources of pollution, distribution patterns and together with nine other EU countries, have an ongoing commitment of
data on the effectiveness of policy interventions. The governments have over 7.5 million EUR on transnational research projects with a focus on
supported research and monitoring projects that aim at understanding microplastics in the marine environment. This aims at harmonization of
the amounts, types and distribution patterns of MPP on the coast and methodologies and protocols for microplastics research (Our Ocean,
nearshore environment as well as seabed litter in ports and major fish 2017). Japan is also working on harmonization of microplastics moni
eries areas (e.g., Australia, Republic of Korea, China (Our Ocean, 2017), toring in oceans since 2016 to arrive at a national procedure of Marine
India (Karanir, 2018). They also focused on identification of key Microplastic Monitoring (MoEJ, 2018). The microplastic monitoring
polluting activities (France) (UNEP, 2015)) or main polluters. Source technology is also in focus of China (Qin, 2018).
assessment and monitoring result in modeling of distribution patterns
(Australia), databases (India) and are often linked to other programmes, 5.2. Supporting innovations
such as the development of a Total Management System for Marine
Debris and restoration of coastal ecosystems in the Republic of Korea Bioplastics stands out as a major focus for innovations to address
(Kang, 2019), the reduction programmes of the EU Member States under plastic pollution, as countries extensively fund R&D for plastics inno
the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Our Ocean, 2017). vation. Innovations and research are ongoing to find appropriate bio-
Engagement of knowledge institutions is a common practice. based materials and biodegradation properties (Folino et al., 2020).
Australia, for example, undertook a comprehensive study into source and The government of the UK plans to fund plastics innovation through a
fate of MPP, jointly through University of Western Australia, bid into the government’s £7 billion research and development pot (PM
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Aus Office, 2018). It will invest £60m in projects for development of bio
tralia’s Marine National Facility, Australian Fisheries, Australian Insti plastics made from industrial or post-consumer food waste and increase
tute of Marine Science, CSIRO’s Flagship postgraduate scholarship, and the use of recycled content in plastic packaging (Barret, 2018). China has
the Shell social investment program (Shaw et al., 2013). Similarly, ini set up a special biomass equity fund intended, among other things, to
tiatives led by WWF and Vancouver Aquarium, and the Ocean Conser support plastic-related research. The US has announced a contribution
vancy help to quantify and classify marine debris, including plastic of USD 500,000 to the New Plastics Economy Initiative’s Circular Design
waste in Canada. From 2017 Fisheries and Oceans Canada provides re Challenge to identify solutions for new packaging and alternative busi
sources to the Vancouver Aquarium to implement Pollution Tracker and ness models for plastics (Our Ocean, 2017).
Fig. 2. Framework for appraising policy alignment for elimination of marine plastic pollution.
8
Some countries have been successful in promoting innovators to financial commitments. Republic of Korea committed to invest, annually,
startups that have commercialized their innovative solutions, including EUR 28 million to manage the marine environment around the Korean
towards MPP challenge. Programmes, often in strong partnership with Peninsula. This investment also foresees monitoring of the inflow of
academia or international organizations, have helped entrepreneurs to pollutants into the sea, restoration of coastal ecosystems and research on
embody their ideas into products (or services), bring them to the market marine litter (Our Ocean, 2017).
and to create business. (UNIDO&GEF, 2018).
6. Final observations
5.3. Legacy marine plastic waste clean-up programmes
MPP has come in focus as oceans of the world are being turned into
Removal of plastic debris already present in – marine – environment plastic soups as a result of continued widespread littering and leaking
happens across G20 countries through clean-up campaigns and associ waste management systems – this is a thorn in the eye for tourism and
ated initiatives. Preventive action is though justifiable given high cost coastal zone development, interferes with fishing and impacts wildlife.
and limited recovery through clean-up operations. US spends USD 10.8 Several consecutive and parallel international, regional and national
billion on litter clean-up with amount for cleaning marine litter in West processes and initiatives have put CE firmly on the agenda to minimize
Coast communities exceeding USD520 million (includes beach and MPP at source, given the inability to recover plastic litter from seas and
waterways cleanup, street sweeping, storm water capture devices, storm shores. CE is attractive to embrace conceptually, however, this con
drain cleaning and maintenance, manual cleanup, and public educa ceptual acceptance, hides that CE means many different things to
tion). An amendment of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad different producers, consumers and governments. Hence, we first clari
ministration’s Marine Debris Act was signed with funding allocated until fied operational scope of CE, through switch, efficiency and circularity
2022. The goal of the law is cleaning ocean plastic waste and improving of resources, and illustrated each with plastic related actions.
waste management in order to prevent its leakage into the oceans (US A worldwide, actionable framework is urgently needed. The global
Congress, 2018). scale of MPP, the dominance of indirect and highly diversified land-
Many clean-up actions become formally linked with other policies based sources (relative to seashore and sea-based sources) and resul
dealing with leakage of plastics into the natural environment and based tant diversity of technological, management and behavioral solutions,
on partnerships. Turkey announced to develop Marine Litter Action all stand in the way of joint understanding and collective policy initia
Plans for all coastal cities. The plan will include clean-up activities, tive and actions of producers, consumers and waste managers. Hence,
collaboration for marine litter minimization, pollution reduction studies we coupled the comprehensive CE operationalization with a life-cycle
and progress reporting (Our Ocean, 2017). Litter strategy for England perspective of plastics production, use and recovery to map the policy
(2017) introduced a system of measures ranging from education to space for MPP prevention.
infrastructure development and assessment of different reward and re Putting the inventory of G20 initiatives on this MPP ‘policy map’,
turn schemes. revealed that G20 members have undertaken a variety of MPP-related
Innovative initiatives are also based on creating stimuli for collecting actions that contribute differently to CE. Despite significant variations
plastic waste from the ocean. All of Germany’s costal states (Umwelt between countries, there is common trust around, firstly, discouraging
Bundesamt, 2015) and many regions in the UK implement the plastic materials for application in short-lived products and packaging
Fishing-For-Litter Initiative where fishing vessels collect plastic with (‘single use plastics’), secondly, encouraging bio-based and biodegradable
their nets and dispose of it in the harbors. Technology for removing plastic substitutes, and thirdly, improving plastic waste collection and
marine plastic litter is also in the focus of attention, with Germany’s €50 recycling. This is being supported and informed by knowledge and ca
million investment in the export of technology that removes marine pacity building initiatives. From a CE perspective, the primary focus is
garbage setting an example. on resource circularity, with notably less focus on resource switch and,
even less, resource efficiency. This reveals on one hand the difficulty for
5.4. Marine conservation and protection programmes policy makers, often working within strict sectoral mandates, to design
and roll out a systems approach to MPP, and on the other hand a
Several Regional Seas Programmes (UNEP, 2020), the Regional Seas reflection of the need to balance the societal benefits (health, food
Conventions and Action Plans and national laws and programmes focus safety, energy, environment, etc.) of plastics use against the negative
on planning, licensing, conservation and enforcement of marine pro environmental impacts of plastics, including MPP. Complexities that are
tection. While these do not necessary directly address MPP, by intro further aggravated by the truly international and global dimension of
ducing regimes of more stringent control over water and land activities, the fight against MPP, as also observed with other global environmental
including fishing, they present an additional effort towards MPP challenges, such as climate change, biodiversity and protection of the
elimination. ozone layer.
UK is one of the countries that have dedicated Marine Acts5 - the laws
that mandate allocation of resources, institutional arrangements and Declaration of competing interest
allocated responsibilities for protection of marine life. Legal framework
also exists in Indonesia where the Maritime Law, too, contributes to MPP The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
reduction (Government of the Republic of Indonesia, 2014). interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Designation of protected marine areas is important, Argentina has the work reported in this paper.
established two new marine protected areas – Yaganes and the extension
of Namuncurá-Burdwood Bank contributing close to 100,000 square Acknowledgements
kilometers to costal marine protection. Mexico has announced the
establishment of Revillagigedo National Park of 140,000 square kilo Some data presented in this paper were originally collected for the
meters, protecting the islands and surrounding waters, with a total ban United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) as input
of fishing activities in the area (Our Ocean, 2017). for its preparations to the 2019 G20 High Level Meeting held in Osaka,
Management of marine environment comes with announcements of Japan.
5
The UK Marine and Coastal Access Act (2009), Marine (Scotland) Act
(2010) and Marine Act (Northern Ireland) 2013.
9
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Journal of Environmental Management 277 (2021) 111457

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

‘Unlocking circular economy for prevention of marine plastic pollution: An

* Corresponding author. D328, Defense Colony, New Delhi, 110024, India.

developing countries. policy initiatives of G20 Members to the CE framework. Therefore, we

Fig. 1. Policies for facilitating circular plastics.

Resource Switch Resource Circularity Resource Efficiency

Stimuli for environmentally preferred/ *** * *

() intended outcome, () significant contribution; () positive correlation.

Table 3 bioeconomy that could benefit, among others, bioplastic. Policies in

lication/317335571_Integration_of_informal_recycling_sector_in_Brazil_and_the_ca er-states-in-banning-single-use-plastic-bags-20200308-p5480b.html. (Accessed 19

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