EDUC 105

FACILITATE LEARNER-
CENTERED
Prepared by:

GABBY B. ILLUSTRISIMO

Subject Teacher

FACILITATE LEARNER- CENTERED:

APPROACHES WITH EMPHASIS ON
 TRAINERS METHODOLOGY 1

Learner – Centered Foundation

 Introducing Facilitating Learner-centered teaching

Objective:

Facilitated learning is where the students are encouraged to take more control of
their learning process. The trainer's role becomes that of a facilitator and organiser
providing resources and support to learners. In turn the participants learn with and
from each other as they identify and implement solutions to challenges, problems or
other developmental issues. They might also set their own objectives and be
responsible for learning assessment.
The technique is used most frequently in university education and more formal study.
It is probably not a methodology that trainers in the archive field will be able to use
exclusively, but it offers some techniques and approaches that can be incorporated
into training courses that run over several days. For example having participants
work independently to develop an action plan, related to the course content but
tailored to their needs.
In contrast to individual learning where the trainer becomes very involved and
responsive to each participant's individual needs, with facilitated learning the trainer
supports and facilitates the participants who develop and shape their own learning
goals and achievements.
Advantages and disadvantages of facilitated learning
Facilitated learning is based on the premise that the more responsibility a student
takes for his/her own learning, the more effective the training or education will be.
The advantages are:
Learners use skills like synthesis and analysis
The learner is actively involved
Learners interact with and learn from each other
There is no need for large amounts of learning materials
Learners can work in an environment similar to that of the real world
A variety of learning methods are used

There are some disadvantages:

Facilitated learning can be — or be seen to be — more expensive
The pace of instruction is based on the group rather than the individual learner
The teacher’s role is not clearly defined
There is a need for extra facilities to allow for group work etc
The learning is relatively time consuming in proportion to the amount of material
covered
Facilitated learning is not appropriate in some cultural contexts
Delivery of facilitated learning
As already noted, the teacher’s role in facilitated learning is to create and manage
collaborative learning experiences, or group learning in which exchanges between
instructors and learners and among learners occur over a period of time.
Facilitated courses and learning experiences usually take place over a series of
weeks and may include:
On-demand tutorials, presentations, and keynote addresses
 Online or face-to-face group discussions and exchanges
Handouts, readings, and links to relevant Websites
File and link sharing
Surveys and polls
Virtual real-time or physical classroom sessions, lectures, seminars
Brainstorming sessions (virtual or face-to-face)
Group activities such as role play and games
Field trips
Projects and case studies
Facilitated learning in its purist form is likely to occur in a well-resourced environment
with participants who are highly motivated and pro-active. Most training environments
are unlikely to be able to offer the necessary conditions. However, elements of
facilitated learning can be combined effectively with other styles of training to provide
many of the benefits inherent in the methodology.

 Teaching and Learning Facilities

Classroom infrastructure
Most graduate classes – seminars, lectures, tutorials, supervisions, labs – take place
in one of the three designated academic blocs. Occasionally some lectures are held
in the Cultural and Convention Centre (where there is also a SmartClass) or the
Library.
Most classes are conducted in seminar and lecture rooms reserved for graduate
studies, complete with audio-visual facilities and data projection as well as internet
connectivity. The main format of the classrooms is either a seminar room of chairs
and desks arranged in a large circle or U-shape or, for larger lectures, a traditional
lecture theatre of parallel and tiered benches and desks facing the instructor.
Students are also encouraged to use the audio-visual, data-projection and internet if
appropriate to their class work.
Class size
Our aim is to ensure the highest quality and standards of graduate study, and
therefore our ambition is not to pack as many students in as possible. Quality will
always trump quantity. As a result it is our intention to keep graduate classes
relatively small, ensuring that students can engage properly and effectively with their
classmates but also, especially, their professors. Whereas in many universities
graduate classes may number 30, 40, 50 or more students in each class, at METU
NCC we shall keep graduate classes down to less than 20 students. Often graduate
classes, especially elective classes, may have no more than 6 students which allows
for more detailed engagement and higher quality studies.
Conduct of Classes
Most graduate classes take one of two forms: Either a single three-hour
seminar/lecture once each week, or a combination of a two-hour plus one-hour
seminar/lecture each week.

For each course a Course Outline will be issued to all registered students at the
beginning of the course. The level of detail in the Course Outline may vary, but all
course outlines will at minimum indicate how, when and in what location the course
will be taught; the aims and objectives of the course; the organisation of the course;
the essential materials required in the course; and how the course will be assessed.
Although seminars and lecturers are compulsory in the graduate programs we
encourage an active and voluntarist participation in classes. The instructors want you
to attend classes and participate because you are actively interested in your chosen
field of study. Thus as well as (didactic) instruction given by the professor, students
should feel able to contribute ideas to discussion, offer different approaches to given
problems, and to openly share ways of studying with fellow students and faculty staff.
All class participants – students and instructors alike – should of course arrive at the
class in a timely manner, properly equipped with appropriate class materials, and
having prepared in advance for the class. The requirements of each class will have
been set out by the course instructor in either a course outline issued at the
beginning of the course and/or in course handouts distributed directly to students in
previous weeks.
The Library
The Campus Library makes an essential contribution to the teaching and learning,
scholarship and research undertaken in the graduate programs. In addition to its
function as the primary source of course texts, the Library is developing as a
research library and its growing collection of materials reflects well the interests of the
graduate programs. In addition to books and journals held by the Library it also
provides one of the most comprehensive range of electronic subscriptions to a wide
range of journals and other research publications and databases to be found in the
wider region.

 Mandates/legal bases
www.academia.edu/5754596/Educational_Laws_Trends_and_issues
MAJOR LEGAL BASES
The Philippine Constitutions
1. 1935 CONST. Article XIV Section 5
2. 1973 CONST. Article XV Section 8 (1-8)
3. 1987 CONST. Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)
THE 1987 CONSTITUTIONS
Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)
Section 1. The state shall protect and promote the right of all the citizens to quality
education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education
accessible to all.
Section 2. The state shall:
Establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate and integrated system of
education relevant to the needs of the people and society;
Establish and maintain s system of free public education in the elementary and
high school levels. Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their children,
elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age;
Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs,
subsidies and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in both
public and private schools, especially to the underprivileged;
Encourage non- formal, informal and indigenous learning system, as well as self-
learning independent and out-of-school study programs particularly those that
respond to community needs; and
Provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-school youth with training in civics,
vocational efficiency and skills.
Section 3.
All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part of the
curricula.
They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for
human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development
of the country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and
spiritual values, develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical
and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote
efficiency.
At the option expressed in writing by the parent or guardians, religion shall be
allowed to be taught to their children or wards in the public elementary and high
schools within the regular class hours by instructors designated or approved by the
religious authorities of the religion to which the children or wards belong, additional
cost to the Government.
Section 4.
The state recognizes the complementary roles of the public and private institutions
in the educational system and shall exercise reasonable supervision and regulation
of all educational institutions.
Educational institutions, other than those established by religious groups and
mission boards, shall be allowed solely by citizens of the Philippines or corporations
or associations at least sixty per centum of the capital of which is owned by such
citizens. The Congress may, however, require increased Filipino equity participation
in all educational institutions. The control and administration of educational
institutions shall vested in citizens of the Philippines. No educational institution shall
be established exclusively for aliens and no group of aliens shall comprise more than
one third of the enrollment in any school. The provisions of this subsection shall not
apply to schools established for foreign diplomatic personnel and their dependents
and, unless otherwise provided by law, for other foreign temporary residents.
All revenues and assets of non- stock, non- profit educational institutions used
actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from taxes
and duties. Upon the dissolution or cessation of the corporate existence of such
institutions, their assets shall be disposed of in the manner provided by law.
Proprietary educational institutions, including those cooperatively owned, may
likewise be entitled to such exemptions subject to the limitations provided by law
including restrictions on dividends and provisions for reinvestment.
Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants endowments, donations or
contributions used actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall be
exempt from tax.
Section 5.
The State shall take into account regional and sectoral needs and conditions and
shall encourage local planning in the development of educational policies and
programs.
Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning.
Every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to fair,
reasonable and equitable admission and academic requirements.
The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement. Non-
teaching academic and non-academic personnel shall enjoy the protection of the
State.
 The State shall assign the highest budgetary priority to education and ensure that
teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the best available talents through
adequate remuneration and other means of job satisfaction and fulfillment.
BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232 (THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1982)
This was an act providing for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated
system of education. In accordance with Section 2, this act shall apply to and govern
both formal and non- formal system in public and private schools in all levels of the
entire educational system.
As provided by this Act, the national development goals are as follows:
To achieve and maintain an accelerating rate of economic development and social
progress.
To assure the maximum participation of all the people in the attainment and
enjoyment of the benefits of such growth; and
To achieve and strengthen national unity and consciousness and preserve,
develop and promote desirable cultural, moral and spiritual values in changing world.
It is also stated in Section 3 that:
The State shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education,
regardless of sex, age, creed socio- economic status, physical and mental conditions,
racial or ethnic origin, political or other affiliation. The State shall therefore promote
and maintain equality of access to education as well as the benefits of education by
all its citizens.
RIGHTS OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOL (Section 9)
The right to receive competent instruction, relevant quality education.
The right to freely choose their field of study subject to the existing curricula and
continue their course up to graduation, except in cases of academic deficiency or
violations of disciplinary regulations.
The right to school guidance and counseling services.
The right to access to his owns school records and the confidentiality of it.
The right to issuance of official certificates, diplomas, transcript of records, grades,
transfer credentials and similar document within thirty days from request.
The right to publish a student newspaper and invite resource persons during
symposia, assemblies and other activities.
The right to free expression of opinions and suggestions and to effective channels
of communication with appropriate academic and administrative bodies of the school
or institutions.
The right to form or establish, join and participate in organizations and societies
recognized by the school…, or to form, join and maintain organizations and societies
for purposes not contrary to law.
The right to be free from involuntary contributions except those approved by their
organizations and societies.
RIGHT OF ALL SCHOOL PERSONNEL (Section 10)
Free expression of opinions and suggestions.
To be provided with free legal service by the appropriate government office in case
of public school personnel and the school authorities concerned in case of private
school personnel, when charged in administrative, civil and/or criminal proceedings,
by parties other than the school authorities concerned, for actions committed directly
in the lawful discharged of professional duties and/or in defense of school policies.
Establish join, maintain labor organization of their choice to promote their welfare
and defend their interest.
To be free from involuntary contributions except those imposed by their own
organizations.
SPECIAL RIGHTS and/or PRIVILEGES OF TEACHING OR ACADEMIC STAFF
(Section 11)
Right to be free compulsory assignment not related to their duties defined in their
appointment or employment contracts unless compensated thereof. (additional
compensation Sec. 14 R.A. 4670- at least 25% his regular remuneration)
Right to intellectual property………
Teachers are persons in authority when in lawful discharge of duties and
responsibilities… shall therefore be accorded due respect and protection
(Commonwealth Act No. 578)
Teachers shall be given opportunity to choose career alternatives for
advancements.
RIGHTS OF ADMINISTRATORS (Section 12)
School administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the lawful
discharge of their duties and responsibilities…. Shall be accorded due respect and
protection (Commonwealth Act No. 578)
RIGHTS OF SCHOOLS (Section 13)
The right of their governing boards…….to adopt and enforce administrative or
management systems.
The right of institutions of higher learning to determine on academic grounds who
shall be admitted to study, who may teach, and who shall be the subjects of the study
and research.
MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY EDUCATION
Voluntary Accreditation (Section 29)
Teachers and Administrators obligations and qualification (Sections 176 and 17)
Government Financial Assistance to Private Schools (Section 41)
OTHER LEGAL BASES
1. Act No. 74
This law was enacted on January 21, 1901 by the Philippine Commission, and
provided:
a. establishment of the Department of Public Instruction headed by the General
superintendent
b. the archipelago was divided into school divisions and districts for effective
management of the school system.
c. English was made as medium of instruction in all levels of schooling
d. optional religious instructions in all schools (Section 16)
e. establishment of a Trade school in Manila (Philippine College of Arts and Trade-
PCAT now known as Technological University of the Philippines), a school of
Agriculture in Negros, a Normal school in Manila (Philippine Normal School) (Section
18)
• Philippine Normal School, however, was renamed Philippine Normal College (PNC)
by virtue of Republic Act No. 416 on June 18, 1949. And on December 26, 1991, the
PNC was converted to Philippine Normal University as provided by Republic Act No.
7168.
2. Act No. 2706

This was known as the “Private School Law”, enacted on March 10, 1917 by the
Philippine Legislature, which made obligatory the recognition and inspection of
private schools and colleges by the Secretary of Public Instruction so as to maintain a
standard of efficiency in all private schools and colleges in the country.
This law was amended by Commonwealth Act No. 180 passed on November 13,
1936 which provided that:
The Secretary of Public Instruction was vested with power to “supervise, inspect and
regulate said schools and colleges in order to determine the efficiency of instruction
given in the same.”
And all private schools come under the supervision and regulation of the Secretary of
DPI, thus eliminating “diploma mills” and substandard schools.
3. Commonwealth Act No. 1 (Amended by R.A. 9163)
Known as the “National Defense Act” passed by the Philippine Assembly on
December 21, 1935, which provided in Section 81 that:
“Preparatory Military training shall be given with the youth in the elementary grade
school at the age of ten years and shall extend through the remainder of his
schooling into college or post-secondary education.
By virtue of Presidential Decree 1706, issued by the late President Marcos on August
8, 1980, otherwise known as the “National Service Law”, Commonwealth Act No. 1
was amended, and required all citizens to render, civic welfare service, law
enforcement service and military service.
4. Commonwealth Act No. 80
This law created the Office of Adult Education on October 26, 1936, so as to
eliminate illiteracy and to give vocational and citizenship training to adult citizens of
the country.
5. Commonwealth Act No. 578
Enacted on June 8, 1940, conferred the status of “persons in authority” upon the
teachers, professors, and persons charged with the supervision of public or duly
recognized private schools, colleges and universities.
This Act also provided a penalty of imprisonment ranging from six months and one
day to six years and a fine ranging from 500 to 1, 000 pesos upon any person found
guilty of assault upon those teaching personnel.
6. Commonwealth Act No. 586 (Repealed by R.A. 896)
This is known as Education Act of 1940. It was approved on August 7, 1940 by the
Philippine Assembly.
The law provided for the following:
a. reduction of seven- year elementary course to six- year elementary course.
b. fixing the school entrance age to seven.
c. national support of elementary education.
d. compulsory attendance in the primary grades for all children who enroll in Grade I.
e. introduction of double- single session- one class in the morning and another in the
afternoon under one teacher to accommodate more children.
7. Commonwealth Act No. 589
This law, approved on August 19, 1940, established a school ritual in all public and
private elementary and secondary schools in the Philippines.
The ritual consists of solemn and patriotic ceremonies that include the singing of the
National Anthem and Patriotic Pledges.
8. Republic Act No. 139 (Repealed by R. A. 8047)
Enacted on June 14, 1947, and the Board of Textbooks. This law provided that all
public schools must only use books that are approved by the Board for a period of six
years from the date of their adoption.
The private schools may use books of their choice, provided the Board of Textbooks
has no objections with those books.
9. Republic Act No. 896
Enacted on June 20, 1953 and known as the Elementary Education Act of 1953, it
repealed Commonwealth Act 586 and provided for the following:

a. restoration of Grade VII (but never implemented due to lack of funds)

b. abolition of the double- single session and return to the former practice of only one
c. class under one teacher in the primary and three teachers to two classes or five
teachers to three classes in the intermediate level
d. compulsory completion of the elementary grades
e. compulsory enrollment of children in the public schools upon attaining seven years
of age.
10. Republic Act No. 1124 (Repealed by R. A. 7722)
Approved on June 16, 1954, this law created the Board of National Education
charged with the duty of formulating general educational policies and directing the
educational interests of the nation.
However, this Board which was later renamed National Board of Education (P.D. No.
1), was abolished bu virtue of the Creation of the board of Higher Education as
stipulated in Batas Pambansa Blg. 232. The Board’s function is now assumed by the
commission on Higher Education or CHED by virtue of Republic Act No. 7722.
11. Republic Act No. 1265 (amended by R. A. 8491)
This law was approved on June 11, 1955, and provided that a daily flag ceremony
shall be compulsory in all educational institutions. This includes the singing of the
Philippine National Anthem.
12. Republic Act No. 1425
It was approved on June 12, 1956, it prescribed the inclusion in the curricula of all
schools, both public and private, from elementary schools to the universities, the life,
works and writings of Jose Rizal especially the Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo.
13. Republic Act No. 4670
Known as the “Magna Carta for Public School Teachers”. This was approved on June
18, 1966 to promote and improve the social and economic status of public school
teachers, their living and working conditions, their employment and career prospects.
It also provided the following:
Recruitment qualifications for teachers
Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers
Teaching hours- 6 hours of classroom teaching (maximum load)
Additional compensation- 25% of the regular remuneration
Health and injury benefits (thru the GSIS)
One year study leave (sabbatical leave) after seven years of continuous teaching,
the teacher should receive 60% of the monthly salary.
One range salary increase upon retirement (basis computing the retirement fee).
Freedom to form organizations.
14. Republic Act No. 1079
Approved on June 15, 1959, it provided that Civil Service eligibility shall be
permanent and shall have no time limit.
15. Republic Act No. 6655
Known as the “Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988”, it was approved on
May 26, 1988 and provided for:
a. Free public secondary education to all qualified citizens and promote quality
education at all level.
b. No tuition or other fees shall be collected except fees related to membership in the
school community such I.D., student organization and publication.
c. Non- payment of these shall not hinder a student from enrollment or graduation.
d. Nationalization of all public secondary schools ( Section 7)
e. A student who fails in majority of his academic subjects for two consecutive years
could no longer avail of their program.

 Fundamental principles: Physiological, Cognitive (Affective &

Psychomotor), Emotional, Socio cultural and etc.
 Physiology
Physiology is the study of normal function within living creatures. It is a sub-
section of biology, covering a range of topics that include organs, anatomy, cells,
biological compounds, and how they all interact to make life possible.
From ancient theories to molecular laboratory techniques, physiological research
has shaped our understanding of the components of our body, how they
communicate, and how they keep us alive.
Merrian-Webster defines physiology as:
“[A] branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of life or of living
matter (such as organs, tissues, or cells) and of the physical and chemical
phenomena involved.”
Fast facts on physiology
Here are some key points about physiology. More detail and supporting
information is in the main article.
Physiology can be considered a study of the functions and processes that
create life.
The study of physiology can be traced back to at least 420 BC.
The study of physiology is split into many disciplines covering topics as
different as exercise, evolution, and defense.
What is physiology?

Physiology covers a multitude of disciplines within human biology and beyond.

 The study of physiology is, in a sense, the study of life. It asks questions about
the internal workings of organisms and how they interact with the world around
them.
Physiology tests how organs and systems within the body work, how they
communicate, and how they combine their efforts to make conditions favourable for
survival.
Human physiology, specifically, is often separated into subcategories; these
topics cover a vast amount of information.
Researchers in the field can focus on anything from microscopic organelles in cell
physiology up to more wide-ranging topics, such as ecophysiology, which looks at
whole organisms and how they adapt to environments.
The most relevant arm of physiological research to Medical News Today is
applied human physiology; this field investigates biological systems at the level of
the cell, organ, system, anatomy, organism, and everywhere in between.
In this article, we will visit some of the subsections of physiology, developing a
brief overview of this huge subject. Firstly, we will run through a short history of
physiology.
History

Hippocrates is considered by many to be the “father of medicine.”

The study of physiology traces its roots back to ancient India and Egypt.
As a medical discipline, it goes back at least as far as the time of Hippocrates, the
famous “father of medicine” – around 420 BC.
Hippocrates coined the theory of the four humors, stating that the body contains
four distinct bodily fluids: black bile, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile. Any
disturbance in their ratios, as the theory goes, causes ill health.
Claudius Galenus (c.130-200 AD), also known as Galen, modified Hippocrates’
theory and was the first to use experimentation to derive information about the
systems of the body. He is widely referred to as the founder of experimental
physiology.
It was Jean Fernel (1497-1558), a French physician, who first introduced the term
“physiology,” from Ancient Greek, meaning “study of nature, origins.”
Fernel was also the first to describe the spinal canal (the space in the spine where
 the spinal cord passes through). He has a crater on the moon named after him for
his efforts – it is called Fernelius.
Another leap forward in physiological knowledge came with the publication of William
Harvey’s book titled An Anatomical Dissertation Upon the Movement of the Heart and
Blood in Animals in 1628.
Harvey was the first to describe systemic circulation and blood’s journey through
the brain and body, propelled by the heart.
Perhaps surprisingly, much medical practice was based on the four humors until
well into the 1800s (bloodletting, for instance). In 1838, a shift in thought occurred
when the cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann arrived on the
scene, theorizing that the body was made up of tiny individual cells.
From here on in, the field of physiology opened up, and progress was made
quickly:
Joseph Lister, 1858 – initially studied coagulation and inflammation following
injury, he went on to discover and utilize lifesaving antiseptics.
Ivan Pavlov, 1891 – conditioned physiological responses in dogs.
August Krogh, 1910 – won the Nobel Prize for discovering how blood flow is
regulated in capillaries.
Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin, 1952 – discovered the ionic mechanism by
which nerve impulses are transmitted.
Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, 1954 – made advances in the study of
muscles with the discovery of sliding filaments in skeletal muscle.
Biological systems
The major systems covered in the study of human physiology are as follows:
Circulatory system – including the heart, the blood vessels, properties of the
blood, and how circulation works in sickness and health.
Digestive/excretory system – charting the movement of solids from the mouth
to the anus; this includes study of the spleen, liver, and pancreas, the conversion
of food into fuel and its final exit from the body.
Endocrine system – the study of endocrine hormones that carry signals
throughout the organism, helping it to respond in concert. The principal endocrine
glands – the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads – are
a major focus, but nearly all organs release endocrine hormones.
Immune system – the body’s natural defense system is comprised of white
blood cells, the thymus, and lymph systems. A complex array of receptors and
molecules combine to protect the host from attacks by pathogens. Molecules such
as antibodies and cytokines feature heavily.
Integumentary system – the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous
glands (secreting an oily or waxy substance).
 Musculoskeletal system – the skeleton and muscles, tendons, ligaments, and
cartilage. Bone marrow – where red blood cells are made – and how bones store
calcium and phosphate are included.
Nervous system – the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the
peripheral nervous system. Study of the nervous system includes research into
the senses, memory, emotion, movement, and thought.
Renal/urinary system – including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, this
system removes water from the blood, produces urine, and carries away waste.
Reproductive system – consisting of the gonads and the sex organs. Study of
this system also includes investigating the way a fetus is created and nurtured for
9 months.
Respiratory system – consisting of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs.
This system brings in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide and water.

 Cognitive
www.foundalis.com/res/poc/PrinciplesOfCognition.htm
An alternative title for this page that I considered for a while was “Fundamental Laws
of Cognition”. What you see listed below conceivably could be called “laws”, in the
sense that every sufficiently complex cognitive agent necessarily follows them: it is
beyond human will or consciousness to try to avoid them. But in this text I opted for
the term “principles” in order to emphasize that if anyone makes a claim of having
constructed (programmed) a cognitive agent, that agent should show evidence of
adhering to the principles listed below. My view is that the fewer of these principles
an agent employs the less cognitively interesting the agent is.
The principles listed here are not meant to be construed as exhaustive; that is, no
claim is made that there exist these and no other principles in cognition. The present
article should be seen as a proposal; if further principles can be proposed by others,
the present list should be augmented. The present list is simply the distilled and
crystallized output of the author’s research in cognitive science (see link above).
Also, the given principles concern “core” (or “abstract”) cognition, not the “embodied”
one; e.g., they do not cover robotics.

 Emotional
When most people think of intelligence, they think about IQ and mental knowledge or
mastery over some field of study. They think of the ability to remember facts,
understand complicated theories, or interpret the world in a way that goes far beyond
our individual selves.
But there is more to intelligence than just brains and cleverness.
In the 1990’s the term, emotional intelligence, was coined and has since become a
widely recognized element of both personal and professional development. It simply
means having the ability to notice one’s own and other’s emotions, understand them,
and be able to manage them.
In times of change and uncertainty, having the ability to tap into one’s own emotional
intelligence becomes crucial. It allows us to connect and understand others on a
deeper level.
Intuitively we know that our feelings are important. Emotions play a role in how we
move through the world, regardless of how “smart” we are in other ways. Just as the
holistic model of wellness includes health in many forms, so too should we consider
just how valuable emotional intelligence is in directing our future towards greater
fulfillment and happiness.
Here are 5 essential principles of emotional intelligence:
Self-Awareness
Self-awareness is the ability to recognize your own emotions, especially in the
moment when they arise, which is often the easiest time to get swept away by them.
Being emotionally self-aware allows you to diffuse strong emotions long enough to
realize why they are happening and prepare you for addressing them with
thoughtfulness and balance.
Self-Control
Once you recognize your emotions, self-control means being able to manage them
with relative calm. Whether it’s through deep breathing, communicating openly with
someone, or going for a walk, if you can maintain emotional control you’re much
more likely to meet challenges in a clear and relaxed way.
Adaptability
Life is fluid and circumstances are bound to change on a dime, leaving us feeling
frustrated and unsure of how to move forward. Adaptability is akin to going with the
flow, without getting too attached to any particular processes or outcomes. The more
adaptable you are, the easier life will feel no matter what comes your way.
Empathy
Being empathetic means having the ability to see from the perspective of others and
respond naturally to their feelings, something that can help us form deep and
nurturing relationships. Genuine empathy isn’t just a nice feeling, it can create
opportunities that help us thrive, all because we took the time to genuinely listen to
someone else.
Conflict Management
Whether at work, at home, or out in public, conflicts are inevitable, and being in their
midst without getting sucked in – or better yet, being able to step in and lower
tensions – is a great skill. If you can experience a conflict and walk away having
reached some resolution, then that’s a sign that you have great conflict management
abilities.
Health Coaches tend to have a firm footing in all of the above, that’s what makes
them great leaders of wellness, able to inspire others while continuing to grow in their
own ways.
You can develop your emotional intelligence just as you can develop any other skills,
through learning and patience. Go through the above and see what might be a
common challenge for you, then work on it, asking for help if you need it. After you try
it, share your experience in the comment below!

 Socio Cultural

When considering theories of learning, LIDT professionals should also consider

sociocultural perspectives and the role that culture, interaction, and collaboration
have on quality learning. Modern social learning theories stem from the work of
Russian psychologist Vygotsky, who produced his ideas between 1924 and 1934 as
a reaction to existing conflicting approaches in psychology (Kozulin, 1990).
Vygotsky’s ideas are most recognized for identifying the role social interactions and
culture play in the development of higher-order thinking skills, and it is especially
valuable for the insights it provides about the dynamic “interdependence between
individual and social processes in the construction of knowledge” (John-Steiner &
Mahn, 1996, p. 192). Vygotsky’s views are often considered primarily as
developmental theories, focusing on qualitative changes in behavior over time as
attempts to explain unseen processes of development of thought, language, and
higher-order thinking skills. Although Vygotsky’s intent was mainly to understand
higher psychological processes in children, his ideas have many implications and
practical applications for learners of all ages.

Interpretations of Vygotsky’s and other sociocultural scholars’ work have led to

diverse perspectives and a variety of new approaches to education. Today,
sociocultural theory and related approaches are widely recognized and accepted in
psychology and education and are especially valued in the field of applied linguistics
because of its underlying notion that language and thought are connected.
Sociocultural theory is also becoming increasingly influential in the field of
instructional design. In this chapter, we first review some of the fundamental
principles of sociocultural theory of learning. We then suggest design implications for
learning, teaching, and education in general. Following, we consider how socio
cultural theories of learning should influence instructional design.
 Learner – Centered Psychologist and Theorist

 Prominent Educational Psychologist & their Theories

Sigmund Freud (3 component of Personality, 5 Psychosexual stage of dev & id, the
ego, the superego, psychosexual development, and the death instincts.)
www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method
for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior.

Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives,
shaping our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences
in a person's past is hidden from consciousness, and may cause problems during
adulthood (in the form of neuroses).

Thus, when we explain our behavior to ourselves or others (conscious mental

activity), we rarely give a true account of our motivation. This is not because we are
deliberately lying. While human beings are great deceivers of others; they are even
more adept at self-deception.

Freud's life work was dominated by his attempts to find ways of penetrating this often
subtle and elaborate camouflage that obscures the hidden structure and processes of
personality.

His lexicon has become embedded within the vocabulary of Western society. Words
he introduced through his theories are now used by everyday people, such as anal
(personality), libido, denial, repression, cathartic, Freudian slip, and neurotic.

Erik Erikson (8 stages of Psychosocial dev.) www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight

stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage,
the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative
outcome for personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they
involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs
of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy

personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic
strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete

further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These
stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½
2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3
3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5
4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

Jean Piaget (4 stages of Cognitive Dev) www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a

mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed
trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to
biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop
French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with
the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required
logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important
differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive
development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development,
detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but
ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.

What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or
solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was
the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number, time, quantity,
causality, justice and so on emerged.

Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are
merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think
in strikingly different ways compared to adults.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically
inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.

Lawrence Kohlberg (3 stages & 6 substances on Moral Development)

www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development
in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further.

He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral

dilemmas. In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example,
between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who
is being unfairly treated.

One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who
lived somewhere in Europe.

Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug
might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz
tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it
cost to make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.

Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He
explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug
cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.

The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to
make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night
he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.

Lev Vygotsky (Sociolcultural, Zone Proximal Dev & guided practice)

www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and
theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what
has become known as Social Development Theory.

Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the

development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community
plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."

Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their
learning, Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the
process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function"
(1978, p. 90). In other words, social learning tends to precede (i.e., come before)
development.

Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development. He

developed his theories at around the same time as Jean Piaget was starting to
develop his ideas (1920's and 30's), but he died at the age of 38, and so his theories
are incomplete - although some of his writings are still being translated from Russian.

No single principle (such as Piaget's equilibration) can account for development.

Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and
cultural context within which it is embedded. Higher mental processes in the
individual have their origin in social processes.

Urie Brofenbrenner (Bio-ecological system)

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model is a theory of educational psychology that

studies human development over time.
Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian-American developmental psychologist whose
bioecological model was integral to the formation of American Headstart pre-
kindergarten programs. [1] He was influenced by fellow developmental psychologist
Lev Vygotsky. The model suggests the interactions between the individual and their
environment, categorized into various systems, shape their development over time.

Bronfenbrenner conceptualized four ecological systems that an individual interacted

with, each nested within the others. Listed from closest to the person to furthest:

1. Microsystem — The prefix “micro” comes from the Greek for “small,” and is the first
and most immediate layer of the nested systems. It encompasses an individual’s
human relationships, interpersonal interactions and immediate surroundings. An
example of this system would be the relationship between an individual and his or her
parents, siblings, or school environment.

2. Mesosystem — The second layer from the individual, surrounding the microsystem
and encompassing the different interactions between the characters of the
microsystem. For example, the relationship between the individual’s family and their
school teachers or administrators. In order for an interaction to be considered part of
the mesosystem, it has to be a direct interaction between two aspects of the
microsystem that influences the development of the individual.

3. Exosystem — The exosystem is the third layer, and contains elements of the
microsystem which do not affect the individual directly, but may do so indirectly. For
example, if a parent were to lose their job or have their hours cut back, this would
affect their child in an indirect way such as financial strain or increased parental
stress.

4. Macrosystem — The prefix “macro” comes from the Greek for “large,” and is used
because this system was thought to be all-encompassing. The fourth and outermost
layer of the bioecological model, it encompasses cultural and societal beliefs and
programming that influence an individual’s development. Examples of this would
include gender norms or religious influence.
Criticism of the early model

Bronfenbrenner’s early model of the bioecological system has sometimes been

criticized for not emphasizing the active role of the individual in his or her own
development. As such, sometimes the individual’s own biological and identifying
characteristics, such as age, health, sex or gender are considered the unofficial first
layer of the nested systems.

In later iterations, a fifth stage is considered part of the bioecological model, called
the chronosystem. This system focuses on the interaction between the various
systems and how they affect one another over time. One instance of this would be
parents scolding a child for disobedience, which is an instance of microsystem-
macrosystem interaction. While the parents are members of the microsystem, they
are reinforcing a cultural belief that children should always listen to their parents. The
assumption is that over time, the child would grow up to be obedient.
Later Models

Process — Person — Context — Time (PPCT)

This model was later adapted to include the chronosystem, based on four
establishing principles and their interactions which were Bronfenbrenner’s original
basis for the bioecological theory:

Process — The developmental processes that happen through the systematic

interactions mentioned above. What Bronfenbrenner referred to as proximal
processes functioned as the primary mechanism of an individual’s development.

Person — This principle was establish to indicate the role of the individual and their
personal characteristics in social interactions and their individual development. These
characteristics include age, sex, gender, physical or mental health, and others. Some
of these characteristics are more visible than others (such as age) and as such, are
more easily measured over time.
Context — The (now five) systems of the bioecological model serve as the context for
an individual’s development — the micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and chronosystems.

Time — The most essential element of the bioecological model. Because this model
measures an individual’s development, these interactions occur on a measurable,
chronological scale. Time influences the systemic interactions within an individual’s
lifespan as well as across generations, such as in the case of “family values,” a set of
morals or beliefs that are passed down between generations and shape
development. This would be an example of microsystem interaction over time.

John Bowlby (developing attachment theory on child care and parenting)

www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.html

John Bowlby (1907 - 1990) was a psychoanalyst (like Freud) and believed that
mental health and behavioral problems could be attributed to early childhood.

Take-home Messages of Bowlby's Theory

 Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment suggests that children come into

the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others,
because this will help them to survive.
 Bowlby suggested that a child would initially form only one attachment and
that the attachment figure acted as a secure base for exploring the world.
 The attachment relationship acts as a prototype for all future social
relationships so disrupting it can have severe consequences.

Bowlby's Evolutionary Theory of Attachment

Bowlby (1969, 1988) was very much influenced by ethological theory in general, but
especially by Lorenz’s (1935) study of imprinting. Lorenz showed that attachment
was innate (in young ducklings) and therefore has a survival value.

During the evolution of the human species, it would have been the babies who stayed
close to their mothers that would have survived to have children of their own. Bowlby
hypothesized that both infants and mothers have evolved a biological need to stay in
contact with each other.

Bowlby (1969) believed that attachment behaviors (such as proximity seeking) are
instinctive and will be activated by any conditions that seem to threaten the
achievement of proximity, such as separation, insecurity, and fear. Bowlby also
postulated that the fear of strangers represents an important survival mechanism,
built in by nature.

Babies are born with the tendency to display certain innate behaviors (called social
releasers) which help ensure proximity and contact with the mother or attachment
figure (e.g., crying, smiling, crawling, etc.) – these are species-specific behaviors.

These attachment behaviors initially function like fixed action patterns and all share
the same function. The infant produces innate ‘social releaser’ behaviors such as
crying and smiling that stimulate caregiving from adults. The determinant of
attachment is not food but care and responsiveness.

Harry Harlow (contact & comfort-surrogate)

www.simplypsychology.org/attachment.html

Harlow (1958 wanted to study the mechanisms by which newborn rhesus monkeys
bond with their mothers.

These infants were highly dependent on their mothers for nutrition, protection,
comfort, and socialization. What, exactly, though, was the basis of the bond?

The behavioral theory of attachment would suggest that an infant would form an
attachment with a carer that provides food. In contrast, Harlow’s explanation was
that attachment develops as a result of the mother providing “tactile comfort,”
suggesting that infants have an innate (biological) need to touch and cling to
something for emotional comfort.

Harry Harlow did a number of studies on attachment in rhesus monkeys during the
1950's and 1960's. His experiments took several forms:

1. Infant monkeys reared in isolation – He took babies and isolated them from birth.
They had no contact with each other or anybody else.

He kept some this way for three months, some for six, some for nine and some for
the first year of their lives. He then put them back with other monkeys to see what
effect their failure to form attachment had on behavior.

Results: The monkeys engaged in bizarre behavior such as clutching their own
bodies and rocking compulsively. They were then placed back in the company of
other monkeys.

To start with the babies were scared of the other monkeys, and then became very
aggressive towards them. They were also unable to communicate or socialize with
other monkeys. The other monkeys bullied them. They indulged in self-mutilation,
tearing hair out, scratching, and biting their own arms and legs.

Harlow concluded that privation (i.e., never forming an attachment bond) is

permanently damaging (to monkeys). The extent of the abnormal behavior reflected
the length of the isolation. Those kept in isolation for three months were the least
affected, but those in isolation for a year never recovered the effects of privation.

2. Infant monkeys reared with surrogate mothers – 8 monkeys were separated from
their mothers immediately after birth and placed in cages with access to two
surrogate mothers, one made of wire and one covered in soft terry toweling cloth.

Four of the monkeys could get milk from the wire mother and four from the cloth
mother. The animals were studied for 165 days.

Both groups of monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother (even if she had no
milk). The infant would only go to the wire mother when hungry.

Once fed it would return to the cloth mother for most of the day. If a frightening
object was placed in the cage the infant took refuge with the cloth mother (its safe
base).

This surrogate was more effective in decreasing the youngsters fear. The infant
would explore more when the cloth mother was present.

This supports the evolutionary theory of attachment, in that it is the sensitive

response and security of the caregiver that is important (as opposed to the provision
of food).

The behavioral differences that Harlow observed between the monkeys who had
grown up with surrogate mothers and those with normal mothers were;

a) They were much more timid.

b) They didn’t know how to act with other monkeys.

c) They were easily bullied and wouldn’t stand up for themselves.

d) They had difficulty with mating.

e) The females were inadequate mothers.

These behaviors were observed only in the monkeys who were left with the surrogate
mothers for more than 90 days. For those left less than 90 days the effects could be
reversed if placed in a normal environment where they could form attachments.

Harlow concluded that for a monkey to develop normally s/he must have some
interaction with an object to which they can cling during the first months of life (critical
period).

Clinging is a natural response - in times of stress the monkey runs to the object to
which it normally clings as if the clinging decreases the stress.

He also concluded that early maternal deprivation leads to emotional damage but
that its impact could be reversed in monkeys if an attachment was made before the
end of the critical period.

However, if maternal deprivation lasted after the end of the critical period, then no
amount of exposure to mothers or peers could alter the emotional damage that had
already occurred.

Harlow found therefore that it was social deprivation rather than maternal deprivation
that the young monkeys were suffering from.

When he brought some other infant monkeys up on their own, but with 20 minutes a
day in a playroom with three other monkeys, he found they grew up to be quite
normal emotionally and socially.

Raymond Cattell (factor analysis and multivariate analysis-16factor-model of

personality)
www.verywellmind.com/cattells-16-personality-factors-2795977
Born in 1905, Cattell witnessed the advent of many 20th-century inventions such as
electricity, telephones, cars, and airplanes. He was inspired by these innovations and
was eager to apply the scientific methods used to make such discoveries to the
human mind and personality.

Personality, he believed, was not just some unknowable and untestable mystery. It
was something that could be studied and organized. Through scientific study, human
characteristics and behaviors could then be predicted based on underlying
personality traits.

Cattell had worked with psychologist Charles Spearman, who was known for his
pioneering work in statistics. Cattell would later use the factor analysis techniques
developed by Spearman to create his own personality taxonomy.

Clark L. Hull (drive-reduction theory – rigorous scientific method)

https://exploringyourmind.com/clark-l-hull-deductive-behaviorism-theory/
Clark L. Hull (1884-1952) proposed a new way of understanding behavior. Hull
wanted to establish the basic principles of behavioral science to explain the behavior
of different animal species as well as individual and social behavior. His theory is
known as deductive behaviorism.

Hull’s theory was the most detailed and complex of the major learning theories
throughout the twentieth century. For Hull, strength of habit was the most basic
concept. He believed that practice reinforced habits.

Hull described habits as stimulus-response connections based on rewards.

According to Hull, responses, not perceptions or expectations, are what help form
habits. The process is gradual and a reward is essential.
Hull’s deductive behaviorism theory

Clark L. Hull proposed a new way of understanding behaviorism that stemmed from
the logical positivism that prevailed in his time.

Like other leading theorists, Hull believed that human behavior could be explained by
conditioning and reinforcement. The reduction of impulses acts as a reinforcement for
behavior.

This reinforcement increases the likelihood that the same behavior will happen again
when, in the future, the same need arises. Therefore, to survive in its environment,
an organism must behave in a way that satisfies these survival needs. Thus, in a
stimulus-response relationship, when the stimulus and the response are followed by
a reduction in the need, the probability that the same stimulus “produces” the same
response in the future increases.
A dog with its tongue out.

Hull wanted to establish the basic principles of a behavioral science to explain the
behavior of animals, as well as individual and social behavior. His theory of deductive
behaviorism proposes habit as a central concept. The strength of the habit depends
on whether the stimulus-response sequence is followed by a reinforcement. In turn,
the magnitude of the reinforcement depends on the reduction of the impulse
associated with a biological need.

Hull presented his learning theories for the first time in Mathematico-Deductive
Theory of Rote Learning (1940), a collaboration with several colleagues, in which he
expressed his findings through claims expressed in both mathematical and verbal
forms.

Hull developed these ideas in Principles of Behavior (1943), where he suggested that
the stimulus-response connection depends on both the type and the amount of
reinforcement.

Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning)

www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html

Like many great scientific advances, Pavlovian conditioning (aka classical

conditioning) was discovered accidentally.

During the 1890s, Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov was researching salivation in
dogs in response to being fed. He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each
dog to measure saliva when the dogs were fed (with a powder made from meat).

Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food placed in front of
them, but he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever they heard the
footsteps of his assistant who was bringing them the food.

Pavlov classical conditioning

When Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learned to
associate with food (such as the lab assistant) would trigger the same response, he
realized that he had made an important scientific discovery. Accordingly, he devoted
the rest of his career to studying this type of learning.

Pavlovian Conditioning

Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that there are some things that a dog does not
need to learn. For example, dogs don’t learn to salivate whenever they see food. This
reflex is ‘hard-wired’ into the dog.

In behaviorist terms, food is an unconditioned stimulus and salivation is an

unconditioned response. (i.e., a stimulus-response connection that required no
learning).

Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) > Unconditioned Response (Salivate)

In his experiment, Pavlov used a metronome as his neutral stimulus. By itself the
metronome did not elecit a response from the dogs.

Neutral Stimulus (Metronome) > No Conditioned Response

Next, Pavlov began the conditioning procedure, whereby the clicking metronome was
introduced just before he gave food to his dogs. After a number of repeats (trials) of
this procedure he presented the metronome on its own.

As you might expect, the sound of the clicking metronome on its own now caused an
increase in salivation.

Conditioned Stimulus (Metronome) > Conditioned Response (Salivate)

So the dog had learned an association between the metronome and the food and a
new behavior had been learned. Because this response was learned (or
conditioned), it is called a conditioned response (and also known as a Pavlovian
response). The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be presented
close together in time (such as a bell). He called this the law of temporal contiguity. If
the time between the conditioned stimulus (bell) and unconditioned stimulus (food) is
too great, then learning will not occur.

Pavlov and his studies of classical conditioning have become famous since his early
work between 1890-1930. Classical conditioning is "classical" in that it is the first
systematic study of basic laws of learning / conditioning.

John Broadus Watson (Behavior)

www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html www.betterhelp.com/advice/psychologists/john-b-watson-and-behaviorism/
John B. Watson is an American psychologist who is best known for establishing the
psychological school of Behaviorism. His theories, research, and work were
influential to the field of psychology, and through that, he left his marks on the larger
world.

Childhood and Early Education

Born on January 9, 1878, John Broadus Watson became more commonly known as
John B. Watson in academic circles. He was born in Traveler's Rest, South Carolina.
His parents were Pickens Butler and Emma Watson. His mother Emma was a
religious woman and, so she named John after a Baptist minister. She hoped that he
too would grow up and preach the Gospel and thus subjected John to harsh religious
training. Her methods backfired as John eventually felt quite antipathic towards
religion and instead identified as an atheist.

John's father, an alcoholic, left his family when John was 13 to live with two other
women. The family was left in poverty, and eventually, Emma had to sell the family
farm. At that time, they moved to Greenville, South Carolina, where Emma felt John
might see more success in life. Indeed, in Greenville, John was exposed to many
different people and started to view the world with a psychologist's mindset.

Wilhelm Wundt (structuralism & consciousness)

www.simplypsychology.org/wundt.html

Wilhelm Wundt opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of
Leipzig in Germany in 1879. This was the first laboratory dedicated to psychology,
and its opening is usually thought of as the beginning of modern psychology. Indeed,
Wundt is often regarded as the father of psychology.

Wundt was important because he separated psychology from philosophy by

analyzing the workings of the mind in a more structured way, with the emphasis
being on objective measurement and control.

Hermann Ebbinghause (learning & forgetting)

scihi.org/hermann-ebbinghaus-memory/

On January 24, 1850, German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus was born.

Ebbinghaus pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his
discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect.

“When we read how one mediæval saint stood erect in his cell for a week without
sleep or food, merely chewing a plantain-leaf out of humility, so as not to be too
perfect; how another remained all night up to his neck in a pond that was freezing
over; and how others still performed for the glory of God feats no less tasking to their
energies, we are inclined to think, that, with the gods of yore, the men, too, have
departed, and that the earth is handed over to a race whose will has become as
feeble as its faith.”
– Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) [8]
Hermann Ebbinghaus – Early Years

Hermann Ebbinghaus was born in Barmen, in the Rhine Province of the Kingdom of
Prussia and attended the University of Bonn where he intended to study history and
philology. In 1870, his studies were interrupted when he served with the Prussian
Army in the Franco-Prussian War. Ebbinghaus evolved a great interest in philosophy
and finished his dissertation on Eduard von Hartmann‘s Philosophie des
Unbewussten (Philosophy of the Unconscious). After earning his doctorate degree in
1873, Ebbinghaus spent much time in Halle and Berlin and also traveled through
England and France. It is assumed that Ebbinghaus took teachers positions while on
travel and apparently he discovered Gustav Fechner‘s book Elemente der
Psychophysik (Elements of Psychophysics) while in London.[4] The book highly
inspired the young scientist to start his own research on memory studies.
Experimental Psychology

Ebbinghaus’ famous work, Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology was

already published in 1885 and was so successful that he was appointed professor at
the University of Berlin. Ebbinghaus and Arthur König founded the Psychological
journal Zeitschrift für Physiologie und Psychologie der Sinnesorgane in 1890.
Ebbinghaus joined the University of Breslau, Poland and studied how children’s
mental ability declined during the school day. He also founded a psychological testing
laboratory there. Die Grundzüge der Psychologie where published in 1902, which
was an instant success. Two years later, Ebbinghaus moved to Halle. His last and
quite successful work Abriss der Psychologie (Outline of Psychology) was published
in 1908.

Edward B. Titchener (structuralism-breaking down human consciousness into the

smallest possible elements)

Edward B. Titchener, in full Edward Bradford Titchener, (born January 11, 1867,
Chichester, Sussex, England—died August 3, 1927, Ithaca, New York, U.S.),
English-born psychologist and a major figure in the establishment of experimental
psychology in the United States. A disciple of the German psychologist Wilhelm
Wundt, the founder of experimental psychology, Titchener gave Wundt’s theory on
the scope and method of psychology a precise, systematic expression.

In 1890 Titchener entered Wundt’s laboratory at the University of Leipzig, and he

received a Ph.D. in 1892. Though he had little personal contact with Wundt, he
thoroughly assimilated and espoused the view that the concern of psychology is the
systematic experimental study of the normal adult mind and that its proper, not to say
exclusive, method is introspection, or the precise examination and description of
conscious experience. He continued to expound Wundt’s views after his arrival at
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York (1892), where he became professor of
psychology (1895–1927).
From 1898 Titchener was the foremost exponent of structural psychology, which
concerns itself with the components and arrangement of mental states and
processes. In his ambition to transplant the psychology established by Wundt and
nurtured in Germany, he translated 11 German works, including titles by Wundt and
Oswald Külpe. He himself wrote eight works, many of which went through several
revised editions and were translated into a number of languages. By far the most
important was Experimental Psychology, 4 vol. (1901–05), consisting of two student
manuals and two teachers’ manuals. Designed to drill students in laboratory method,
the manuals were patterned on those used in qualitative and quantitative
experiments in chemistry.
00:09
03:21
Among Titchener’s other works was A Textbook of Psychology (1910), a
comprehensive, yet concise, exposition of his psychology. Though a charter member
of the American Psychological Association in 1892, he did not remain with it for long.
In 1904 he founded the Society of Experimental Psychologists.

Learner-centered advocates and advocacies

Learner-centered advocates and advocacies

Sophist - Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon, Prodicus, and Thrasymachus (to be train in

order to take care of himself)

The sophists were itinerant professional teachers and intellectuals who frequented
Athens and other Greek cities in the second half of the fifth century B.C.E. In return
for a fee, the sophists offered young wealthy Greek men an education in aretē (virtue
or excellence), thereby attaining wealth and fame while also arousing significant
antipathy. Prior to the fifth century B.C.E., aretē was predominately associated with
aristocratic warrior virtues such as courage and physical strength. In democratic
Athens of the latter fifth century B.C.E., however, aretē was increasingly understood
in terms of the ability to influence one’s fellow citizens in political gatherings through
rhetorical persuasion; the sophistic education both grew out of and exploited this
shift. The most famous representatives of the sophistic movement are Protagoras,
Gorgias, Antiphon, Hippias, Prodicus and Thrasymachus.

The historical and philological difficulties confronting an interpretation of the sophists

are significant. Only a handful of sophistic texts have survived and most of what we
know of the sophists is drawn from second-hand testimony, fragments and the
generally hostile depiction of them in Plato’s dialogues.

The philosophical problem of the nature of sophistry is arguably even more

formidable. Due in large part to the influence of Plato and Aristotle, the term sophistry
has come to signify the deliberate use of fallacious reasoning, intellectual
charlatanism and moral unscrupulousness. It is, as the article explains, an
oversimplification to think of the historical sophists in these terms because they made
genuine and original contributions to Western thought. Plato and Aristotle
nonetheless established their view of what constitutes legitimate philosophy in part by
distinguishing their own activity – and that of Socrates – from the sophists. If one is
so inclined, sophistry can thus be regarded, in a conceptual as well as historical
sense, as the ‘other’ of philosophy.

Perhaps because of the interpretative difficulties mentioned above, the sophists have
been many things to many people. For Hegel (1995/1840) the sophists were
subjectivists whose sceptical reaction to the objective dogmatism of the presocratics
was synthesised in the work of Plato and Aristotle. For the utilitarian English classicist
George Grote (1904), the sophists were progressive thinkers who placed in question
the prevailing morality of their time. More recent work by French theorists such as
Jacques Derrida (1981) and Jean Francois-Lyotard (1985) suggests affinities
between the sophists and postmodernism.

This article provides a broad overview of the sophists, and indicates some of the
central philosophical issues raised by their work. Section 1 discusses the meaning of
the term sophist. Section 2 surveys the individual contributions of the most famous
sophists. Section 3 examines three themes that have often been taken as
characteristic of sophistic thought: the distinction between nature and convention,
relativism about knowledge and truth and the power of speech. Finally, section 4
analyses attempts by Plato and others to establish a clear demarcation between
philosophy and sophistry.

a. Protagoras

Protagoras of Abdera (c. 490-420 B.C.E.) was the most prominent member of the
sophistic movement and Plato reports he was the first to charge fees using that title
(Protagoras, 349a). Despite his animus towards the sophists, Plato depicts
Protagoras as quite a sympathetic and dignified figure.

One of the more intriguing aspects of Protagoras’ life and work is his association with
the great Athenian general and statesman Pericles (c. 495-429 B.C.E.). Pericles, who
was the most influential statesman in Athens for more than 30 years, including the
first two years of the Peloponnesian War, seems to have held a high regard for
philosophers and sophists, and Protagoras in particular, entrusting him with the role
of drafting laws for the Athenian foundation city of Thurii in 444 B.C.E.

From a philosophical perspective, Protagoras is most famous for his relativistic

account of truth – in particular the claim that ‘man is the measure of all things’ – and
his agnosticism concerning the Gods. The first topic will be discussed in section 3b.
Protagoras’ agnosticism is famously articulated in the claim that ‘concerning the gods
I am not in a position to know either that (or how) they are or that (or how) they are
not, or what they are like in appearance; for there are many things that prevent
knowledge, the obscurity of the matter and the brevity of human life’ (DK, 80B4). This
seems to express a form of religious agnosticism not completely foreign to educated
Athenian opinion. Despite this, according to tradition, Protagoras was convicted of
impiety towards the end of his life. As a consequence, so the story goes, his books
were burnt and he drowned at sea while departing Athens. It is perhaps significant in
this context that Protagoras seems to have been the source of the sophistic claim to
‘make the weaker argument defeat the stronger’ parodied by Aristophanes.

Plato suggests that Protagoras sought to differ his educational offering from that of
other sophists, such as Hippias, by concentrating upon instruction in aretē in the
sense of political virtue rather than specialised studies such as astronomy and
mathematics (Protagoras, 318e).

Apart from his works Truth and On the Gods, which deal with his relativistic account
of truth and agnosticism respectively, Diogenes Laertius says that Protagoras wrote
the following books: Antilogies, Art of Eristics, Imperative, On Ambition, On Incorrect
Human Actions, On those in Hades, On Sciences, On Virtues, On Wrestling, On the
Original State of Things and Trial over a Fee.
b. Gorgias

Gorgias of Leontini (c.485 – c.390 B.C.E.) is generally considered as a member of

the sophistic movement, despite his disavowal of the capacity to teach aretē (Meno,
96c). The major focus of Gorgias was rhetoric and given the importance of
persuasive speaking to the sophistic education, and his acceptance of fees, it is
appropriate to consider him alongside other famous sophists for present purposes.

Gorgias visited Athens in 427 B.C.E. as the leader of an embassy from Leontini with
the successful intention of persuading the Athenians to make an alliance against
Syracuse. He travelled extensively around Greece, earning large sums of money by
giving lessons in rhetoric and epideictic speeches.

Plato’s Gorgias depicts the rhetorician as something of a celebrity, who either does
not have well thought out views on the implications of his expertise, or is reluctant to
share them, and who denies his responsibility for the unjust use of rhetorical skill by
errant students. Although Gorgias presents himself as moderately upstanding, the
dramatic structure of Plato’s dialogue suggests that the defence of injustice by Polus
and the appeal to the natural right of the stronger by Callicles are partly grounded in
the conceptual presuppositions of Gorgianic rhetoric.

Gorgias’ original contribution to philosophy is sometimes disputed, but the fragments

of his works On Not Being or Nature and Helen – discussed in detail in section 3c –
feature intriguing claims concerning the power of rhetorical speech and a style of
argumentation reminiscent of Parmenides and Zeno. Gorgias is also credited with
other orations and encomia and a technical treatise on rhetoric titled At the Right
Moment in Time.
c. Antiphon
The biographical details surrounding Antiphon the sophist (c. 470-411 B.C.) are
unclear – one unresolved issue is whether he should be identified with Antiphon of
Rhamnus (a statesman and teacher of rhetoric who was a member of the oligarchy
which held power in Athens briefly in 411 B.C.E.). However, since the publication of
fragments from his On Truth in the early twentieth century he has been regarded as a
major representative of the sophistic movement.

On Truth, which features a range of positions and counterpositions on the

relationship between nature and convention (see section 3a below), is sometimes
considered an important text in the history of political thought because of its alleged
advocacy of egalitarianism:

Those born of illustrious fathers we respect and honour, whereas those who come
from an undistinguished house we neither respect nor honour. In this we behave like
barbarians towards one another. For by nature we all equally, both barbarians and
Greeks, have an entirely similar origin: for it is fitting to fulfil the natural satisfactions
which are necessary to all men: all have the ability to fulfil these in the same way,
and in all this none of us is different either as barbarian or as Greek; for we all
breathe into the air with mouth and nostrils and we all eat with the hands (quoted in
Untersteiner, 1954).

Whether this statement should be taken as expressing the actual views of Antiphon,
or rather as part of an antilogical presentation of opposing views on justice remains
an open question, as does whether such a position rules out the identification of
Antiphon the sophist with the oligarchical Antiphon of Rhamnus.
d. Hippias

The exact dates for Hippias of Elis are unknown, but scholars generally assume that
he lived during the same period as Protagoras. Whereas Plato’s depictions of
Protagoras – and to a lesser extent Gorgias – indicate a modicum of respect, he
presents Hippias as a comic figure who is obsessed with money, pompous and
confused.

Hippias is best known for his polymathy (DK 86A14). His areas of expertise seem to
have included astronomy, grammar, history, mathematics, music, poetry, prose,
rhetoric, painting and sculpture. Like Gorgias and Prodicus, he served as an
ambassador for his home city. His work as a historian, which included compiling lists
of Olympic victors, was invaluable to Thucydides and subsequent historians as it
allowed for a more precise dating of past events. In mathematics he is attributed with
the discovery of a curve – the quadratrix – used to trisect an angle.

In terms of his philosophical contribution, Kerferd has suggested, on the basis of

Plato’s Hippias Major (301d-302b), that Hippias advocated a theory that classes or
kinds of thing are dependent on a being that traverses them. It is hard to make much
sense of this alleged doctrine on the basis of available evidence. As suggested
above, Plato depicts Hippias as philosophically shallow and unable to keep up with
Socrates in dialectical discussion.
e. Prodicus

Prodicus of Ceos, who lived during roughly the same period as Protagoras and
Hippias, is best known for his subtle distinctions between the meanings of words. He
is thought to have written a treatise titled On the Correctness of Names.

Plato gives an amusing account of Prodicus’ method in the following passage of the
Protagoras:

Prodicus spoke up next: … ‘those who attend discussions such as this ought to listen
impartially, but not equally, to both interlocutors. There is a distinction here. We ought
to listen impartially but not divide our attention equally: More should go to the wiser
speaker and less to the more unlearned … In this way our meeting would take a most
attractive turn, for you, the speakers, would then most surely earn the respect, rather
than the praise, of those listening to you. For respect is guilelessly inherent in the
souls of listeners, but praise is all too often merely a deceitful verbal expression. And
then, too, we, your audience, would be most cheered, but not pleased, for to be
cheered is to learn something, to participate in some intellectual activity; but to be
pleased has to do with eating or experiencing some other pleasure in the body’
(337a-c).

Prodicus’ epideictic speech, The Choice of Heracles, was singled out for praise by
Xenophon (Memorabilia, II.1.21-34) and in addition to his private teaching he seems
to have served as an ambassador for Ceos (the birthplace of Simonides) on several
occasions.

Socrates, although perhaps with some degree of irony, was fond of calling himself a
pupil of Prodicus (Protagoras, 341a; Meno, 96d).
f. Thrasymachus

Thrasymachus was a well-known rhetorician in Athens in the latter part of the fifth
century B.C.E., but our only surviving record of his views is contained in Plato’s
Cleitophon and Book One of The Republic. He is depicted as brash and aggressive,
with views on the nature of justice that will be examined in section 3a.

Plato (the individual must be trained by the state)

Plato (427—347 B.C.E.)

platoPlato is one of the world’s best known and most widely read and studied
philosophers. He was the student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, and he
wrote in the middle of the fourth century B.C.E. in ancient Greece. Though influenced
primarily by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main character in
many of Plato’s writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the
Pythagoreans.

There are varying degrees of controversy over which of Plato’s works are authentic,
and in what order they were written, due to their antiquity and the manner of their
preservation through time. Nonetheless, his earliest works are generally regarded as
the most reliable of the ancient sources on Socrates, and the character Socrates that
we know through these writings is considered to be one of the greatest of the ancient
philosophers.

Plato’s middle to later works, including his most famous work, the Republic, are
generally regarded as providing Plato’s own philosophy, where the main character in
effect speaks for Plato himself. These works blend ethics, political philosophy, moral
psychology, epistemology, and metaphysics into an interconnected and systematic
philosophy. It is most of all from Plato that we get the theory of Forms, according to
which the world we know through the senses is only an imitation of the pure, eternal,
and unchanging world of the Forms. Plato’s works also contain the origins of the
familiar complaint that the arts work by inflaming the passions, and are mere
illusions. We also are introduced to the ideal of “Platonic love:” Plato saw love as
motivated by a longing for the highest Form of beauty—The Beautiful Itself, and love
as the motivational power through which the highest of achievements are possible.
Because they tended to distract us into accepting less than our highest potentials,
however, Plato mistrusted and generally advised against physical expressions of
love.

Aristotle (training of good citizen is a state concern)

Aristotle’s life was primarily that of a scholar. However, like the other ancient
philosophers, it was not the stereotypical ivory tower existence. His father was court
physician to Amyntas III of Macedon, so Aristotle grew up in a royal household.
Aristotle also knew Philip of Macedon (son of Amyntas III) and there is a tradition that
says Aristotle tutored Philip’s son Alexander, who would later be called “the Great”
after expanding the Macedonian Empire all the way to what is now India. Clearly,
Aristotle had significant firsthand experience with politics, though scholars disagree
about how much influence, if any, this experience had on Aristotle’s thought. There is
certainly no evidence that Alexander’s subsequent career was much influenced by
Aristotle’s teaching, which is uniformly critical of war and conquest as goals for
human beings and which praises the intellectual, contemplative lifestyle. It is
noteworthy that although Aristotle praises the politically active life, he spent most of
his own life in Athens, where he was not a citizen and would not have been allowed
to participate directly in politics (although of course anyone who wrote as extensively
and well about politics as Aristotle did was likely to be politically influential).

Aristotle studied under Plato at Plato’s Academy in Athens, and eventually opened a
school of his own (the Lyceum) there. As a scholar, Aristotle had a wide range of
interests. He wrote about meteorology, biology, physics, poetry, logic, rhetoric, and
politics and ethics, among other subjects. His writings on many of these interests
remained definitive for almost two millennia. They remained, and remain, so valuable
in part because of the comprehensiveness of his efforts. For example, in order to
understand political phenomena, he had his students collect information on the
political organization and history of 158 different cities. The Politics makes frequent
reference to political events and institutions from many of these cities, drawing on his
students’ research. Aristotle’s theories about the best ethical and political life are
drawn from substantial amounts of empirical research. These studies, and in
particular the Constitution of Athens, will be discussed in more detail below (Who
Should Rule?). The question of how these writings should be unified into a consistent
whole (if that is even possible) is an open one and beyond the scope of this article.
This article will not attempt to organize all of Aristotle’s work into a coherent whole,
but will draw on different texts as they are necessary to complete one version of
Aristotle’s view of politics.

Marcus Fabius Quintilianus-Quintilian (society revolved around language, morals

and education)
Quintilian is thought to have been born somewhere around 35-40 A. D. (Kennedy,
1969, p. 15) in Calagurris, now known as Calahorra, Spain. He studied in Rome, later
becoming a teacher of oratory and rhetoric (Mayer, 1967, p. 101). His father had
been an orator before him (Russell, 2001, p. 143, Book IX) but never was as
prominent as his son would become.

Quintilian's major work titled Institutio Oratoria (The Orator's Education) was a series
of twelve books containing lessons involved with the form of rhetoric. In Book I
Quintilian recommended that the orator's education in rhetoric begin as a young boy,
in the tradition of the Greeks. Book II then dealt with the foundations of rhetoric,
leading to the next nine books, in which the first five detailed 'Invention' and ended
with "Elocution, with which was associated Memory and Delivery" (Ibid., p. 63, Book
I).

His final book depicted the orator in every facet of life from "his character, the
principles of undertaking, preparing, and pleading cases, his style, the end of his
active career and the studies he may undertake thereafter" (Ibid., p. 63, Book I).
Overall, it was Quintilian's hope to "educate the perfect orator" (Ibid., p. 63, Book I),
by providing a template of teaching rhetoric as well as formatting methods of teaching
altogether through his books.

Peter Abelard (language itself cannot determine the reality of things, but that physics
must do so)
Peter Abelard (1079—1142)

abelardPeter Abelard (1079-1142) was the preeminent philosopher of the twelfth

century and perhaps the greatest logician of the middle ages. During his life he was
equally famous as a poet and a composer, and might also have ranked as the
preeminent theologian of his day had his ideas earned more converts and less
condemnation. In all areas Abelard was brilliant, innovative, and controversial. He
was a genius. He knew it, and made no apologies. His vast knowledge, wit, charm,
and even arrogance drew a generation of Europe’s finest minds to Paris to learn from
him.
Philosophically, Abelard is best known as the father of nominalism. For contemporary
philosophers, nominalism is most closely associated with the problem of universals
but is actually a much broader metaphysical system. Abelard formulated what is now
recognized as a central nominalist tenet: only particulars exist. However, his solution
to the problem of universals is a semantic account of the meaning and proper use of
universal words. It is from Abelard’s claim that only words (nomen) are universal that
nominalism gets its name. Abelard would have considered himself first a logician and
then later in his life a theologian and ethicist. He may well have been the best
logician produced in the Middle Ages. Several innovations and theories that are
conventionally thought to have originated centuries later can be found in his works.
Among these are a theory of direct reference for nouns, an account of purely formal
validity, and a theory of propositional content once thought to have originated with
Gottlob Frege. In ethics, Abelard develops a theory of moral responsibility based on
the agent’s intentions. Moral goodness is defined as intending to show love of God
and neighbor and being correct in that intention.

Martin Luther (urges everyone must know how to read his bible and understands
here own),
Martin Luther (1483—1546)

lutherGerman theologian, professor, pastor, and church reformer. Luther began the
Protestant Reformation with the publication of his Ninety-Five Theses on October 31,
1517. In this publication, he attacked the Church’s sale of indulgences. He
advocated a theology that rested on God’s gracious activity in Jesus Christ, rather
than in human works. Nearly all Protestants trace their history back to Luther in one
way or another. Luther’s relationship to philosophy is complex and should not be
judged only by his famous statement that “reason is the devil’s whore.”

Given Luther’s critique of philosophy and his famous phrase that philosophy is the
“devil’s whore,” it would be easy to assume that Luther had only contempt for
philosophy and reason. Nothing could be further from the truth. Luther believed,
rather, that philosophy and reason had important roles to play in our lives and in the
life of the community. However, he also felt that it was important to remember what
those roles were and not to confuse the proper use of philosophy with an improper
one.

Properly understood and used, philosophy and reason are a great aid to individuals
and society. Improperly used, they become a great threat to both. Likewise,
revelation and the gospel when used properly are an aid to society, but when
misused also have sad and profound implications.

Francis Bacon (accumulated knowledge of society, to the young)

Francis Bacon (1561—1626)

bacon-francisSir Francis Bacon (later Lord Verulam and the Viscount St. Albans) was
an English lawyer, statesman, essayist, historian, intellectual reformer, philosopher,
and champion of modern science. Early in his career he claimed “all knowledge as
his province” and afterwards dedicated himself to a wholesale revaluation and re-
structuring of traditional learning. To take the place of the established tradition (a
miscellany of Scholasticism, humanism, and natural magic), he proposed an entirely
new system based on empirical and inductive principles and the active development
of new arts and inventions, a system whose ultimate goal would be the production of
practical knowledge for “the use and benefit of men” and the relief of the human
condition.

At the same time that he was founding and promoting this new project for the
advancement of learning, Bacon was also moving up the ladder of state service. His
career aspirations had been largely disappointed under Elizabeth I, but with the
ascension of James his political fortunes rose. Knighted in 1603, he was then steadily
promoted to a series of offices, including Solicitor General (1607), Attorney General
(1613), and eventually Lord Chancellor (1618). While serving as Chancellor, he was
indicted on charges of bribery and forced to leave public office. He then retired to his
estate where he devoted himself full time to his continuing literary, scientific, and
philosophical work. He died in 1626, leaving behind a cultural legacy that, for better
or worse, includes most of the foundation for the triumph of technology and for the
modern world as we currently know it.

Thomas Hobbes (the child should be trained in order to serve the state better),
Thomas Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy

hobbesThe English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) is best known for his
political thought, and deservedly so. His vision of the world is strikingly original and
still relevant to contemporary politics. His main concern is the problem of social and
political order: how human beings can live together in peace and avoid the danger
and fear of civil conflict. He poses stark alternatives: we should give our obedience to
an unaccountable sovereign (a person or group empowered to decide every social
and political issue). Otherwise what awaits us is a state of nature that closely
resembles civil war – a situation of universal insecurity, where all have reason to fear
violent death and where rewarding human cooperation is all but impossible.

One controversy has dominated interpretations of Hobbes. Does he see human

beings as purely self-interested or egoistic? Several passages support such a
reading, leading some to think that his political conclusions can be avoided if we
adopt a more realistic picture of human nature. However, most scholars now accept
that Hobbes himself had a much more complex view of human motivation. A major
theme below will be why the problems he poses cannot be avoided simply by taking
a less selfish view of human nature.

John Amos Comenius (the child starts from general and undefined manner and he
follow the method of nature and let him observe, and thereby lead him to understand
of things about him)
education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1868/Comenius-Johann-1592-1670.html

Comenius is best known for his innovations in pedagogy, but one cannot gain an
adequate appreciation of his educational ideas without recognizing his religious and
metaphysical convictions. Despite the prevalent human suffering of his day,
Comenius remained optimistic about the future of mankind, as he believed in the
immanence of God and the imminence of God's kingdom on Earth. As God's
creations, humans were necessarily good, not corrupt. Comenius also felt that
Christ's Second Coming would end human strife but that people themselves could act
in ushering the new millennium by engaging in pansophy, or the lifelong study of an
encyclopedic system of human knowledge. By seeing the harmony among everything
in the universe, all human beings would come to acknowledge God's glory and
presence in themselves and in nature.

Specifically, Comenius characterized human life–from the mother's womb to grave–

as a series of educational stages in which objects from nature would serve as the
basis of learning. In this, he was influenced by the writings of the English statesman
Sir Francis Bacon, an early advocate of the inductive method of scientific inquiry.
Comenius believed that true knowledge could be found in things as they existed in
reality and when one came to understand how they came about. As a result,
Comenius urged all people to recognize the interconnections and harmony among
philosophical, theological, scientific, social, and political facts and ideas. That way,
one could reconcile three seemingly distinct worlds: the natural, the human, and the
divine. Comenius felt that disagreements among religious, scientific, and philosophic
enterprises arose because each held only a partial understanding of universal truth–
but that all could exist harmoniously through pansophic awareness. Viewing the
human mind as infinite in its capacity (as the benevolent gift of God), Comenius
advocated universal education so that the souls of all people would be enlightened in
this fashion. Through universal education and pedagogy, pansophy would eliminate
human prejudice and lead to human perfection–a state of being that God had
intended for man.

Comenius found fault with many of the educational practices of his day. In particular,
he disapproved of the scholastic tradition of studying grammar and memorizing texts.
He lamented the haphazard and severe teaching methods in european schools,
which tended to diminish student interest in learning. Finally, comenius felt that all
children–whether male or female, rich or poor, gifted or mentally challenged–were
entitled to a full education, and he regretted that only a privileged few received formal
schooling. For comenius, all of these educational shortcomings were especially
urgent, as they hindered mankind's progress to the new millennium. As a result, he
attempted to remedy these problems by authoring a number of textbooks and
educational treatises.

John Locke (education as a process of learning through experience with this outside
world and working towards the realization of happiness. His ideal was a sound mind
in a sound body),
John Locke (1632—1704)

LockeJohn Locke was among the most famous philosophers and political theorists of
the 17th century. He is often regarded as the founder of a school of thought known
as British Empiricism, and he made foundational contributions to modern theories of
limited, liberal government. He was also influential in the areas of theology, religious
toleration, and educational theory. In his most important work, the Essay Concerning
Human Understanding, Locke set out to offer an analysis of the human mind and its
acquisition of knowledge. He offered an empiricist theory according to which we
acquire ideas through our experience of the world. The mind is then able to examine,
compare, and combine these ideas in numerous different ways. Knowledge consists
of a special kind of relationship between different ideas. Locke’s emphasis on the
philosophical examination of the human mind as a preliminary to the philosophical
investigation of the world and its contents represented a new approach to philosophy,
one which quickly gained a number of converts, especially in Great Britain. In
addition to this broader project, the Essay contains a series of more focused
discussions on important, and widely divergent, philosophical themes. In politics,
Locke is best known as a proponent of limited government. He uses a theory of
natural rights to argue that governments have obligations to their citizens, have only
limited powers over their citizens, and can ultimately be overthrown by citizens under
certain circumstances. He also provided powerful arguments in favor of religious
toleration. This article attempts to give a broad overview of all key areas of Locke’s
thought.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (he identifies himself in the society through the SOCIAL
CONTRACT),
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712—1778)

rousseauJean-Jacques Rousseau was one of the most influential thinkers during the
Enlightenment in eighteenth century Europe. His first major philosophical work, A
Discourse on the Sciences and Arts, was the winning response to an essay contest
conducted by the Academy of Dijon in 1750. In this work, Rousseau argues that the
progression of the sciences and arts has caused the corruption of virtue and morality.
This discourse won Rousseau fame and recognition, and it laid much of the
philosophical groundwork for a second, longer work, The Discourse on the Origin of
Inequality. The second discourse did not win the Academy’s prize, but like the first, it
was widely read and further solidified Rousseau’s place as a significant intellectual
figure. The central claim of the work is that human beings are basically good by
nature, but were corrupted by the complex historical events that resulted in present
day civil society.Rousseau’s praise of nature is a theme that continues throughout his
later works as well, the most significant of which include his comprehensive work on
the philosophy of education, the Emile, and his major work on political philosophy,
The Social Contract: both published in 1762. These works caused great controversy
in France and were immediately banned by Paris authorities. Rousseau fled France
and settled in Switzerland, but he continued to find difficulties with authorities and
quarrel with friends. The end of Rousseau’s life was marked in large part by his
growing paranoia and his continued attempts to justify his life and his work. This is
especially evident in his later books, The Confessions, The Reveries of the Solitary
Walker, and Rousseau: Judge of Jean-Jacques.
Rousseau greatly influenced Immanuel Kant’s work on ethics. His novel Julie or the
New Heloise impacted the late eighteenth century’s Romantic Naturalism movement,
and his political ideals were championed by leaders of the French Revolution.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (education should be a matter of building citdizens

according to a socially accepted and determined pattern and following he inner
pattern of the child)
infed.org/mobi/johann-heinrich-pestalozzi-pedagogy-education-and-social-justice/

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi: pedagogy, education and social justice. His commitment
to social justice, interest in everyday forms and the innovations he made in schooling
practice make Pestalozzi a fascinating focus for study.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746 – 1827). Born in Zurich, Pestalozzi took up

Rousseau’s ideas and explored how they might be developed and implemented. His
early experiments in education (at Neuhof) ran into difficulties but he persisted and
what became known as the ‘Pestalozzi Method’ came to fruition in his school at
Yverdon (established in 1805). Instead of dealing with words, he argued, children
should learn through activity and through things. They should be free to pursue their
own interests and draw their own conclusions (Darling 1994: 18).

I wish to wrest education from the outworn order of doddering old teaching hacks
as well as from the new-fangled order of cheap, artificial teaching tricks, and entrust it
to the eternal powers of nature herself, to the light which God has kindled and kept
alive in the hearts of fathers and mothers, to the interests of parents who desire their
children grow up in favour with God and with men. (Pestalozzi quoted in Silber 1965:
134)

Pestalozzi goes beyond Rousseau in that he sets out some concrete ways forward –
based on research. He tried to reconcile the tension, recognized by Rousseau,
between the education of the individual (for freedom) and that of the citizen (for
responsibility and use). He looks to ‘the achievement of freedom in autonomy for one
and all’ Soëtard 1994: 308).

His initial influence on the development of thinking about pedagogy owes much a
book he published in 1801: How Gertrude Teaches Her Children – and the fact that
he had carried his proposals through into practice. He wanted to establish a
‘psychological method of instruction’ that was in line with the ‘laws of human nature.
As a result he placed a special emphasis on spontaneity and self-activity. Children
should not be given ready-made answers but should arrive at answers themselves.
To do this their own powers of seeing, judging and reasoning should be cultivated,
their self-activity encouraged (Silber 1965: 140). The aim is to educate the whole
child – intellectual education is only part of a wider plan. He looked to balance, or
keep in equilibrium, three elements – hands, heart and head.
Johann Friedrich Herbart (the teacher determines the impression the child
receives),
education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2040/Herbart-Johann-1776-1841.html

German philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart is the founder of the pedagogical

theory that bears his name, which eventually laid the groundwork for teacher
education as a university enterprise in the United States and elsewhere. Herbart was
born in Oldenburg, Germany, the only child of a gifted and strong-willed mother and a
father whose attention was devoted to his legal practice. Herbart was tutored at home
until he entered the gymnasium at the age of twelve, from which he went on as
valedictorian to the University of Jena at a time when such stellar German
intellectuals as Johann Gottfried Herder, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe, and Friedrich von Schiller were associated with that institution. It was
apparently Schiller's Briefe über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen (Letters
concerning the aesthetic education of man), then in progress in 1795, that influenced
Herbart to devote himself to philosophy and education.

Wilhelm August Proebel (he founded the school of kindergarten , the garden of
children. For him the school was operated like a garden. The teacher should permit
and helpt the children to grow, just as the gardener helps the flowers to grow)
encyclopedia.com/people/social-sciences-and-law/education-biographies/friedrich-wilhelm-august-froebel

Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August (1782–1852)

Childhood education pioneer Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel was born at

Oberweissbach in the Thuringia region of Germany. (Froebel is the English form of
the German surname Fröbel.) Just as his last name was translated from his native
language, his ideas and educational practices were adapted to a variety of
international settings. Froebel's greatest contribution to the care and education of
young children, however, was his invention called the kindergarten.

The principal accounts of Froebel's life were written either by himself or by his
supporters. Most of these biographies draw extensively upon his correspondence,
contain religious language, and present Froebel in an uncritical, sometimes
hagiographical, manner. The accounts highlight Froebel's unhappy early childhood
experiences, describing them as influencing his thoughts and actions as an adult.
The most lasting of Froebel's contributions to early childhood education is his
insistence that its curriculum be based on play. Although Froebel was not the first to
recognize that play could be instructive, he did synthesize existing educational
theories with innovative ideas of his own. He was not a very clear thinker, however;
his writing is sometimes difficult to follow unless the reader interprets it in the context
of German Romanticism, Idealist philosophy, and Naturphilosophie, or Nature
Philosophy. These intellectual concepts heavily influenced Froebel. He read works by
the German poet Novalis (1772–1801) and the German philosophers Johann Gottlieb
Fichte (1762–1814), Karl Krause (1781–1832), and Friedrich Schelling (1775–1854).

Froebel applied his so-called spherical philosophy to education and it, rather than
empirical observation, guided his work. Because of his strong religious beliefs, some
educators have argued that his approach is more accurately described as mystical
rather than philosophical. His method was to counterpose opposites that would then
be resolved through the mediation of a third element. For example, Froebel held that
mind and matter, although opposites, are both subject to the same laws of nature in
which God, the third element, is immanent. Another triad he used in relation to the
child was unity, diversity, and individuality. Each child would spontaneously represent
these elements, a process he referred to as all-sided, self-activity. This is the context
of his statement that "play is the self-active representation of the inner from inner
necessity."

Like the seventeenth-century Moravian bishop and educator Johann Amos

Comenius, Froebel thought that all personal development came from within.
Therefore, he asserted that the task of the teacher was to provide the conditions for
growth without intervening too much in the learning process. Froebel presented these
ideas in his 1826 book The Education of Man. In this philosophical work, Froebel
explains the aims and principles of his first school at Keilhau and describes the
characteristics of the stages of boyhood(never girlhood). Like the revolutionary
Swiss-born French philosopher, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), Froebel
believed that education should be adapted to the needs and requirements of each
stage. Also, like Rousseau, he advocated that teaching should follow nature, avoiding
arbitrary interference in the life of the young child. Contrary to many religious beliefs
at the time, this naturalist approach asserted that every child is born good.

After childhood the youngster begins school, and Froebel devoted a chapter to
describing the subjects he thought appropriate for this stage. This discussion owes
much to the theories of Swiss educator, Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827), whose work
Froebel observed when he visited Pestalozzi's Yverdon Institute between 1808 and
1810. In the final part of his book, Froebel talks of the necessity of unity between the
school and the family, thereby emphasizing the notion that education is most
effective when the school and family complement each other.

Near the end of his life, Froebel turned his attention to the family and the education of
young children through play. He invented his famous educational toys, which he
called gifts, a graded series of wooden blocks together with a sphere and a cylinder.
Later, he added learning activities, which he called occupations, such as paper-
folding and -cutting, weaving, and clay modeling. At Blankenburg in 1837, Froebel
gave the name kindergarten to his system of education foryoung children.

In 1843, Froebel published a book entitled Mother's Songs, Games and Stories. This
was his most popular book; as the title suggests, it described action songs and finger
plays (together with their musical notation) woodcut illustrations, and guidance on
how to present the songs as well as the meanings that could be derived from them.
The book's content was based in part on Froebel's observations of mothers singing to
their children. Froebel wanted to help women educate their infants more effectively
as a prerequisite for a better society. Many middle-class women in Germany and
elsewhere, including the United States, opened kindergartens and used Froebel's
methods to educate their children.
Educators have long debated the nature of the relationship between Froebel's
philosophy and his pedagogy. While the gifts and occupations and games may not
have been logically entailed by his philosophy, without it many teachers resorted to
formalism and mechanical imitation. For the most part, his attempts to persuade
public schools to adopt the kindergarten saw only limited success during his lifetime.
After his death, however, his ideas and practices spread rapidly; other educators
came to agree with Froebel's belief in the importance of early childhood education.

John Dewey (the center of education should be the individual child.

John Dewey (1859—1952) www.iep.utm.edu/dewey/
deweyJohn Dewey was a leading proponent of the American school of thought
known as pragmatism, a view that rejected the dualistic epistemology and
metaphysics of modern philosophy in favor of a naturalistic approach that viewed
knowledge as arising from an active adaptation of the human organism to its
environment. On this view, inquiry should not be understood as consisting of a mind
passively observing the world and drawing from this ideas that if true correspond to
reality, but rather as a process which initiates with a check or obstacle to successful
human action, proceeds to active manipulation of the environment to test
hypotheses, and issues in a re-adaptation of organism to environment that allows
once again for human action to proceed. With this view as his starting point, Dewey
developed a broad body of work encompassing virtually all of the main areas of
philosophical concern in his day. He also wrote extensively on social issues in such
popular publications as the New Republic, thereby gaining a reputation as a leading
social commentator of his time.

Various teaching-learning delivery modes

Kolb's Learning Styles and Experiential Learning CycleBySaul McLeod, published

Oct 25, 2017 David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984 from which he
developed his learning style inventory.Kolb's experiential learning theory works on
two levels: a four-stage cycle of learning and four separate learning styles. Much of
Kolb’s theory is concerned with the learner’s internal cognitive processes. Kolb states
that learning involves the acquisition of abstract concepts that can be applied flexibly
in a range of situations. In Kolb’s theory, the impetus for the development of new
concepts is provided by new experiences. “Learning is the process whereby
knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p.
38).How to reference this article:McLeod, S. A. (2017, Oct 24).Kolb - learning styles.
Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html
The Experiential Learning Cycle Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically
represented by a four-stage learning cycle in which the learner 'touches all the
bases':

1.Concrete Experience - a new experience or situation is encountered, or a

reinterpretation of existing experience.
2.Reflective Observation of the New Experience - of particular importance are any
inconsistencies between experience and understanding.
3.Abstract Conceptualization - reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of
an existing abstract concept (t he person has learned from their experience).
4.Active Experimentation - the learner applies their idea(s) to the world around them
to see what happens.
Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages:
of (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on
that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and
generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test hypothesis in future
situations, resulting in new experiences.

Kolb (1974) views learning as an integrated process with each stage being mutually
supportive of and feeding into the next. It is possible to enter the cycle at any stage
and follow it through its logical sequence.However, effective learning only occurs
when a learner can execute all four stages of the model. Therefore, no one stage of
the cycle is effective as a learning procedure on its own.
Learning Styles
Kolb's learning theory (1974) sets out four distinct learning styles, which are based on
a four-stage learning cycle (see above). Kolb explains that different people naturally
prefer a certain single different learning style.Various factors influence a person's
preferred style. For example, social environment, educational experiences, or the
basic cognitive structure of the individual.
Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is actually
the product of two pairs of variables, or two separate 'choices' that we make, which
Kolb presented as lines of an axis, each with 'conflicting' modes at either end. A
typical presentation of Kolb's two continuums is that the east-west axis is called
theProcessing Continuum(how we approach a task), and the north-south axis is
called thePerception Continuum(our emotional response, or how we think or feel
about it).

Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is actually
the product of two pairs of variables, or two separate 'choices' that we make, which
Kolb presented as lines of an axis, each with 'conflicting' modes at either end. A
typical presentation of Kolb's two continuums is that the east-west axis is called
theProcessing Continuum(how we approach a task), and the north-south axis is
called thePerception Continuum(our emotional response, or how we think or feel
about it). Kolb believed that we cannot perform both variables on a single axis at the
same time (e.g., think and feel). Our learning style is a product of these two choice
decisions.It's often easier to see the construction of Kolb's learning styles in terms of
a two-by-two matrix. Each learning style represents a combination of two
preferred styles. The matrix also highlights Kolb's terminology for the four learning
styles; diverging, assimilating, and converging, accommodating:accommodating:
Learning Styles Descriptions
Knowing a person's (and your own) learning style enables learning to be orientated
according to the preferred method. That said, everyone responds to and needs the
stimulus of all types of learning styles to one extent or another - it's a matter of using
emphasis that fits best with the given situation and a person's learning style
preferences.Here are brief descriptions of the four Kolb learning styles:
Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO)These people are able to look at things
from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do,
tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They are best
at viewing concrete situations from several different viewpoints.Kolb called this style
'diverging' because these people perform better in situations that require ideas-
generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a diverging learning style have
broad cultural interests and like to gather information.They are interested in people,
tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with
the diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive
personal feedback.
Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO)The Assimilating learning preference
involves a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than
people. These people require good clear explanation rather than a practical
opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it
in a clear, logical format. People with an assimilating learning style are less focused
on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style
are more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical
value. This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science
careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures,
exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.
Converging( doing and thinking - AC/AE)People with a converging learning style can
solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. They
prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.
People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas
and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to
questions and problems.
People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and
problems than social or interpersonal issues. A converging learning style enables
specialist and technology abilities. People with a converging style like to experiment
with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.
Accommodating(doing and feeling - CE/AE)The Accommodating learning style is
'hands-on,' and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use other people's
analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to
new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans.
They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. People with an
accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information than carry out
their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent within the general population.
Educational Implications
Both Kolb's (1984) learning stages and cycle could be used by teachers to critically
evaluate the learning provision typically available to students, and to develop more
appropriate learning opportunities. Educators should ensure that activities are
designed and carried out in ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in the
manner that suits them best. Also, individuals can be helped to learn more effectively
by the identification of their lesser preferred learning styles and the strengthening of
these through the application of the experiential learning cycle. Ideally, activities and
material should be developed in ways that draw on abilities from each stage of the
experiential learning cycle and take the students through the whole process in
sequence.

Teaching-learning models

Comprehend the concept of Models of Teaching

Understand the various essential elements of Models of Teaching
Acquire information about various families of Models of Teaching
The classic definition of teaching is the design and creation of environments.
Students learn by interacting with those environment and they study how to learn
(Dewy, 1916). A model of teaching can be defined as the depiction of teaching and
learning environment, including the behaviour of teachers and students while the
lesson is presented through that model. Models of teaching enable the students to
engage in robust cognitive and social task and teach the student how to use them
productively. Models of teaching are the specific instructional plans which are
designed according to the concerned learning theories. It provides a comprehensive
blue print for curriculum to design instructional materials, planning lessons, teacher
pupil roles, supporting aids and so forth. Joyce & Weil (2014) defines A model of
teaching is a description of a learning environment, including our behavior as
teachers when that model is used. Eggen (1979) defines that Models are prescriptive
teaching strategies which help to realize specific instructional goals. Models of
teaching are really models of learning. It helps students to acquire information, ideas,
skills, value, way of thinking and means of expressing themselves. Hence models of
teaching train the student on how to learn. In fact the most important long term
outcome of instruction may be the student’s increased capabilities to learn more
easily and effectively in the future. Hence the main aim of models of teaching is to
create powerful learners.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEACHING MODEL
The following are the chief characteristics of a good teaching model
Each model has built up based on particular learning theory
Creation of congenial learning environment in the classroom
Effective interaction between the teacher and students
Planned use of appropriate strategies
Teaching process are systematically, sequentially and logically arranged
Clear and specified roles for teachers and students
Large scope for supporting material
Ensure active participation of entire students in the class
It raises the students’ level of aspiration, motivation and interest in learning
Every model foster and strengthen the cognitive structure of the student

ELEMENTS OF MODELS OF TEACHING

Element of a model of teaching represent its structure, process and teaching aids of
the instruction. A model of teaching consists of syntax, social system, principle of
reaction and support system. The detailed descriptions are as follows.
Syntax
It is the steps or phases of the model being presented before the class. It illustrates
the logical and sequential order of the teacher student activities of the instruction
procedure. It describes the complete programme of action of the model.
Social system
Social system of a model explains its nature of learning environment. It describes the
role and relationship of the teacher and students through the phases as well as
designing the lesson. As each and every model is unique, the role of teacher and
students in every model may vary according to the respective learning theory of the
model is built. It also varies in phases to phases.
Principle of Reaction
This is the extension of social system. It deals with the rules of reaction to the
students responses in the classroom interaction. The reaction of the teacher must be
in accordance with the theory of which model has been built. The teacher reaction is
desired when the students’ responses/ behavior are untouched with expected level
responses and for giving reinforcement. It depends the family of the model is
presented.
Support system
It includes all instructional aides used in a model of teaching. Eg. Books,
Encyclopedia, Video clips, slides, News paper, Tab, Expert, Films, Specimen etc.
Effect of models of Teaching
Models of teaching have a very positive effect on students’ behavior. Bruce Joyce
classified the effect as Instructional effect and Nurturant Effect. Instructional effects
are the direct effect of an instruction on students’ cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domain. Nurturant effects are the indirect effect other than the teacher
intends to achieve through the model. It is the additional achievement gained by the
students through the unique nature classroom interaction. Examples are the
development of problem solving ability, analytical thinking, critical thinking, social
skill, tolerance etc.
FAMILIES OF MODELS OF TEACHING
Joyce & Weil (2014) categorized the models of teaching in to four families. The
classification has been made in accordance with the theoretical basis and
fundamental aim of the teaching model. The four families explained below in detail.
THE INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY
Models in the information processing family focus on the cognitive activity of child. It
includes scientific inquiry for collecting original information, organizing and properly
storing of the information. Some models provide the learners with information and
concept, some emphasis concept formation and hypothesis testing and still other
generate creative thinking. Joyce & Weil (2014) listed eight models in Information
Processing Model.
THE SOCIAL FAMILY
The focus of the social model family is to build synergy (collective energy) in the
classroom for addressing ongoing problems of personal, social, national as well as
international importance. Social models help the students to develop Self directed
problem solving ability, sense of belongingness towards the society and make them
responsible citizens of the country.
THE PERSONAL FAMILY
The personal models begin from the perspective of the selfhood of the individual.
Individual consciousness and development of unique personality is the chief focus of
this family. The models in personal family attempt to make them understand their self
and thereby students can shape their future. The cluster of personal models pays
great attention to the individual perspective and seeks to encourage productive
interdependence, increasing people’s self awareness and sense of responsibility for
their own destinies.
THE BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEM FAMILY
Modification of behavior is the main focus of this family. The stance taken is that
human beings are self correcting communication systems that modify behavior in
response to the information about how successfully tasks are navigated. The role of
predetermined objectives, observable behavior, clearly defined task and methods,
feedback and reinforcement are the foundations of models in behavior family.
CONCLUSION
Models of teaching are very effective teaching strategies which are meant for
transacting specific topic to students. The nature of the topic, presentation method
and classroom environment will direct the teacher that what model of teaching s/he
has to select for teaching the concerned topic. However the teachers and student
teachers should be well aware on the concept and various models of teaching.
Hence they can implement the models of teaching in their professional life and make
wonder in their classroom interactions.

Learner – Centered Models

Presentation of the model (Learner-Centered Teaching)

In the traditional approach to college teaching, most class time is spent with the
professor lecturing and the students watching and listening. The students work
individually on assignments, and cooperation is discouraged. Learner-centered
teaching methods shift the focus of activity from the teacher to the learners.

These methods include

Active learning, in which students solve problems, answer questions, formulate

questions of their own, discuss, explain, debate, or brainstorm during class
Cooperative learning, in which students work in teams on problems and projects
under conditions that assure both positive interdependence and individual
accountability
Inductive teaching and learning, in which students are first presented with
challenges. Inductive methods include inquiry-based learning, case-based
instruction, problem-based learning, project-based learning, discovery learning, and
just-in-time teaching.

Learner-centered methods have repeatedly been shown to be superior to the

traditional teacher-centered approach to instruction, a conclusion that applies
whether the assessed outcome is short-term mastery, long-term retention, or depth of
understanding of course material, acquisition of critical thinking or creative problem-
solving skills, formation of positive attitudes toward the subject being taught, or level
of self-confidence in knowledge and skills.

Richard Felder has written or co-authored a book and numerous papers about the
use of learner-centered teaching methods in college science and engineering
courses, some reporting on his own classroom research studies and some
summarizing the literature. The references are listed below. Each will open in a
separate browser tab. Many may be viewed and downloaded as PDF files. You may
also view excerpts from an interview with Dr. Felder and see a list of good websites
related to learner-centered methods.

1.Lecture/Open-ended Questioning: Lecture in 7 to 10 minute segments with

preplanned open-ended questions between segments. Ask students to record their
answers in their notes, share with the person sitting next to them, and share with the
class.
2.Class discussion led by teacher/students: Formal or informal discussion primed by
open-ended process types of questions. When using this technique be sure to stick
to the class objectives, make the expectations clear, and focus on only one issue with
the varying views or opinions raised.
3.Demonstration:Instructor shows how a skill should be performed and/or observes
students performing a skill and provides feedback throughout the process.
4.Graphic organizers: a graphic organizer is a visual display that demonstrates
relationships between facts, concepts or ideas (e.g. flow charts, concept maps,
storyboards, venn diagrams). They are useful as part of lectures or as a
reinforcement activity to help students clarify, demonstrate, or build upon what they
have learned.
5.Case Studies: study a singular instance or event that can be studied to illustrate a
concept. The most motivating and effective case studies involve real people and real
problems that must be solved. There is often no clear-cut answer, but many possible
solutions that strengthen the critical thinking skills and the problem solving skills of
the students.
6.Literature review: Students read and reflect on articles in professional journals in
order to become familiar with course content and current research. One way to
accomplish this is through a one-page review with three paragraphs. In the first
paragraph students summarize the content. In the second paragraph students
describe strengths and weaknesses of the study. Finally, in the third paragraph
students apply the information in a practical way.
7.Problem solving activities: Provide problem scenarios for students to work through
in small groups. Students should work together to brainstorm multiple solutions to
the problem. Each group then shares their solutions or their best solution during a
class discussion. To help students consider new information when in a real world
situation integrate a change to the scenario part way through the problem solving
process.
8.Think, Pair, Share: Students first think about possible answers to a posed question.
Students then share their answers with the person sitting next to them before sharing
with the entire class.
9.Student presentations/Peer teaching: Students assume professional roles when
presenting course content to the class. Peer teaching has significant gains on
learning while increasing the communication skills of students.
10.Jig-saw activities: Students work in groups to become an “expert” on a certain
topic or course concept. Each group focuses on a different concept and the groups
are then remixed so there is one “expert” for every topic in each group. The group
members then teach the members of their new group about their topic. Students may
create fact sheets, notes, brochures, or other written materials to share with the
members of their new group. These written materials will help ensure all students
receive all of the information. For example, you may place students in five groups
where each group studies a crop and creates a fact sheet providing information about
that crop. Once the fact sheets are completed, you will refigure the groups so there
is one person per crop in each group. Students will share their fact sheets with one
another in their group and present the information. Students would then have fact
sheets, information, and their notes about five different crops.
11.Debate:Informal or formal debate on current issues related to the course content.
When using this technique allow students time to prepare for their side of the
argument, and set expectation and ground rules prior to the debate.
12.Misconception check: Use this technique at the beginning of a new topic to gain
understanding about students’ preconceptions and prior knowledge related to a topic.
Pose a specific question or ask students to write what they know about the topic that
will be covered. Ask students to share their answers on the board in the front of the
room. These answers can then be referred to throughout the class making the
content relevant to what students already know or thought they knew.
13.One-Minute Papers: Students write for one minute about a specific question. This
question can be used to link new information to prior knowledge, begin to relate what
they have learned to what will be learned or simply reflect on learning. This
technique is well suited for the end of class.
14.Muddiest Point: This technique is similar to one minute papers, but students write
the “most confusing” points. This technique is good to us at the end of the class
period. Students identify what they don’t understand and the instructor gains insight
into what concepts still need to be reinforced.
15.Consultant Letter: Ask students to work as “consultants” to solve real-world
problems people in the industry face. Students should be provided with a “request”
letter outlining the problem which they will serve as a “consultant” for. Students then
research the problem, create a detailed plan/solution, and communicate their solution
through a written letter or a presentation.
16.Concept Sharing Rotations: Use multiple boards or plain posters set up around
the room. On the posters assign a topic, prompt, or question. Have students rotate
around to each of the posters to share their knowledge about the topic/ prompt or
question. This is great to use as a review or as a way to identify what the students
already know. An example of using this technique is to review the stages of mitosis
or meiosis: Place four posters around the room with each poster labeled with one of
the stages. Ask students to work in groups to write what they know about each of the
stages. Allow 3 to 5 minutes per group at each of the posters. Then facilitate a class
discussion to talk about what might be missing, what is not missing, and what might
be misunderstandings.
17.Picture Prompt: Show students an image or diagram with no explanation. Ask
students to write about the image using terms and concepts from the lecture. Do not
give the “answer” until students have explored all possibilities. This also works well
as a small group activity. For example, after teaching a lesson on flower morphology,
show students a picture of a complete, perfect, and imperfect flower. Be sure that
the picture does not have any labels on it. Ask the students to draw the diagram in
their notes, and label as much of it as possible. Also ask them to write definitions or
explanations for each of their labels. Have the students discuss their pictures in
groups before discussing the answers as a class.
18.Pass the Pointer: Show a complex image or diagram on the board. Pass the laser
pointer around the room to different students asking them to identify, describe, or
explain certain aspects of the image.
19.Word/Concept of the Day: At the beginning of the class introduce a word or
concept of the day. Ask students to write everything they know about the word or
concept. Students can then add to this list throughout class. At the end of class
facilitate a short discussion covering the concepts they learned and any
misconceptions they had.
20.3, 2, 1:Use this strategy to help students reflect on a lecture, discussion, e-
module, or other text. Ask students the following three questions: What are 3 things
you learned? What are 2 things you found interesting? What is 1 question you still
have? Have students discuss their answers to these questions in small groups
before discussing as a class. Ask students to try to answer the final question for one
another before answering it for them.

Steps, processes and practices

An effective training program is built by following a systematic, step-by step process.

Training initiatives that stand alone (one-off events) often fail to meet organizational
objectives and participant expectations. In today’s post we outline the five necessary
steps to creating effective training programs that drive positive business impact.
Assess training needs:
The first step in developing a training program is to identify and assess needs.
Employee training needs may already be established in the organization’s strategic,
human resources or individual development plans. If you’re building the training
program from scratch (without predetermined objectives) you’ll need to conduct
training needs assessments.
Set organizational training objectives:
 The training needs assessments (organizational, task & individual) will identify any
gaps in your current training initiatives and employee skill sets. These gaps should be
analyzed and prioritized and turned into the organization’s training objectives. The
ultimate goal is to bridge the gap between current and desired performance through
the development of a training program. At the employee level, the training should
match the areas of improvement discovered through 360 degree evaluations.
Create training action plan:
The next step is to create a comprehensive action plan that includes learning
theories, instructional design, content, materials and any other training elements.
Resources and training delivery methods should also be detailed. While developing
the program, the level of training and participants’ learning styles need to also be
considered. Many companies pilot their initiatives and gather feedback to make
adjustments before launching the program company-wide.
Implement training initiatives:
The implementation phase is where the training program comes to life.
Organizations need to decide whether training will be delivered in-house or externally
coordinated. Program implementation includes the scheduling of training activities
and organization of any related resources (facilities, equipment, etc.). The training
program is then officially launched, promoted and conducted. During training,
participant progress should be monitored to ensure that the program is effective.
Evaluate & revise training:
As mentioned in the last segment, the training program should be continually
monitored. At the end, the entire program should be evaluated to determine if it was
successful and met training objectives. Feedback should be obtained from all
stakeholders to determine program and instructor effectiveness and also knowledge
or skill acquisition. Analyzing this feedback will allow the organization to identify any
weaknesses in the program. At this point, the training program or action plan can be
revised if objectives or expectations are not being met.

Review of the related literature and studies (RRLS) about the learner-centered

Related Literature is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the

present study related.
The materials are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional
journals, magazines, newspapers, and other publications.
Importance, Purpose and functions of related literature and studies
Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the following ways:
 Help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research
problem or topic.
 Help the investigator understand his topic for research better
 Ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies
 Help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information
 Help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in
a. The formulation of specific questions to be research on:
b. The formulation of assumptions and hypothesis if there should be any;
c. The formulation of conceptual framework;
d. The selection and application of methods of research;
e. The selection and application of sampling technique;
f. The selection and / or preparation and validation of research instruments for
gathering data.
g. The selection and application of statistical procedures;
h. The analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data;
i. The making of the summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations;
and
 Help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings
with the findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of
formulating generalizations or principles which are the contributions of the
study to the fund of knowledge.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATED LITERATURE

 The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible
Exceptions:
A. Treatises that deal on universals or things of more or less permanent nature
may still be good today.
B. When a comparison or contrast is to be made between the conditions of
today and those of a remote past, say ten or twenty years ago.
 Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased.
 Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.
 Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true
facts or data to make valid and reliable.
 Reviewed materials must not be too few or too many.

Sources and where to locate sources

  Literature reviewed typically includes scholarly journals, scholarly books,
authoritative databases and primarily sources. Sometimes it includes
newspapers, magazines, other books, films, and audio and video tapes, and
other secondary sources.
 Primary sources are the origin of information under study, fundamentals
documents relating to particular subject or idea. Often they are first hand
accounts written by a witness or researcher at the time of an event or
discovery. Ex. Published books, magazines, encyclopedias, almanacs and etc.
 Secondary sources are documents or recording that relate to or discuss
information originally presented elsewhere. Ex. Information from the internet,
unpublished thesis and dissertations.

Where to locate the sources?

Generally, the sources of related literature and studies are located in the following
places:
 Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries.
 Government and private offices.
 The National library
 The Library of the Department of Education.
The last two are especially rich depositories of related materials, particularly
unpublished master’s thesis and doctoral dissertations.
Related Legal Bases
Related – means the legal bases literature and studies which have direct bearing
or relation to the present study.
It determine the relevance of the study to government’s thrusts. The major
sources of related legal bases are laws and department directives such as
circulars, order, memoranda, and others which are related to the present study.
Related Literature
Literature may be defined as Written works collectively, especially those enduring
importance exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill which in a particular
period language and subject. Ex. The works of Paulo Coelho, Jane Austen, and
Tom Clancy.

Related Studies (Local or Foreign)

 Published and unpublished research studies are sources of materials that
included in this section. The research studies which have direct bearing to
 the present study are segregated into foreign and local studies.
Conceptual and Operational
Conceptual- also known as constitutive, is that which is given in dictionaries. It
is the academic or universal meaning attributed to a word or group of works.
Moreover, it is mostly abstract and formal in nature.
Operational- also known as functional. Operational definition may be
measured and experimental. The measured operational definition states the
way the concept is measured in the investigation. In an experimental
operational definition the researcher may spell out the details of the
manipulation of a variable.

Preparation on the Publishable Paper

1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results and discussion
4. References