Chapter 9

The Endocrine System

The Endocrine System

• Second controlling system of the body
• Nervous system is the fast-control system
• Uses chemical messengers (hormones) that are released into the blood
• Hormones control several major processes
• Reproduction
• Growth and development
• Mobilization of body defenses
• Maintenance of much of homeostasis
• Regulation of metabolism

The Endocrine System

• Hormones are produced by specialized cells
• Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
• Blood transfers hormones to target sites
• These hormones regulate the activity of other cells
• Endocrinology is the scientific study of hormones and endocrine organs

The Chemistry of Hormones

• Hormones are classified chemically as:
• Amino acid–based, which includes:
• Proteins
• Peptides
• Amines
• Steroids—made from cholesterol
• Prostaglandins—made from highly active lipids that act as local hormones

Hormone Action
• Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target cells or target organs)
• Target cells must have specific protein receptors
• Hormone binding alters cellular activity

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Hormone Action
• Hormones arouse cells or alter cellular activity
• Typically, one or more of the following occurs:
1. Change plasma membrane permeability or membrane potential by opening or
closing ion channels
2. Activate or inactivate enzymes
3. Stimulate or inhibit cell division
4. Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
5. Turn on or turn off transcription of certain genes

Hormone Action
• Hormones act by two mechanisms
1. Direct gene activation
• Used by steroid hormones and thyroid hormone
2. Second-messenger system
• Used by protein and peptide hormones

Hormone Action
• Direct gene activation
1. Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
2. Once inside the cell, the hormone enters the nucleus
3. Then, the hormone binds to a specific protein within the nucleus
4. Hormone-receptor complex binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
5. Certain genes are activated to transcribe messenger RNA
6. New proteins are synthesized

Hormone Action
• Second-messenger system
1. Hormone (first messenger) binds to a membrane receptor
2. Activated receptor sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme
3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that produces a second-messenger molecule
(such as cyclic AMP, known as cAMP)
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes to promote a specific response in
the target cell

Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

• Hormone levels in the blood are maintained mostly by negative feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood trigger the release of more hormone
• Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the blood is reached

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Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release
• The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall into three major categories
1. Hormonal
2. Humoral
3. Neural

Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

• Hormonal stimuli
• Most common category of stimulus
• Endocrine organs are activated by other hormones
• Example:
• Hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the anterior pituitary to
secrete its hormones

Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

• Humoral stimuli
• Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients stimulate hormone release
• Humoral indicates various body fluids, such as blood and bile
• Examples:
• Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are produced in response to
changing levels of blood calcium levels
• Insulin is produced in response to changing levels of blood glucose
levels

Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

• Neural stimuli
• Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
• Most are under the control of the sympathetic nervous system
• Examples:
• Sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine
and norepinephrine

The Major Endocrine Organs

• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Pineal gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid glands
• Thymus
• Adrenal glands
• Pancreas

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• Gonads (testes and ovaries)

The Major Endocrine Organs

• Some glands have purely endocrine functions
• Anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, parathyroids
• Endocrine glands are ductless glands
• Hormones are released directly into blood or lymph
• Other glands are mixed glands, with both endocrine and exocrine functions
(pancreas, gonads)

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• Pituitary gland
• Pea-sized gland that hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus in the brain
• Protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
• Has two functional lobes
• Anterior pituitary—glandular tissue
• Posterior pituitary—nervous tissue
• Often called the “master endocrine gland”

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• Hypothalamus produces releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones
• These hormones are released into portal circulation, which connects
hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
• Hypothalamus also makes two hormones: oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
• Carried to posterior pituitary via neurosecretory cells for storage

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• Posterior pituitary
• Does not make the hormones it releases
• Stores hormones made by the hypothalamus
• Two hormones released
• Oxytocin
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• Posterior pituitary (continued)
• Oxytocin
• Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor, sexual relations, and
breastfeeding
• Causes milk ejection (let-down reflex) in a breastfeeding woman

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Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
• Posterior pituitary (continued)
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Inhibits urine production (diuresis) by promoting water reabsorption by
the kidneys
• Urine volume decreases, blood pressure increases
• In large amounts, causes constriction of arterioles, leading to
increased blood pressure (the reason why ADH is known as
vasopressin)
• Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• Six anterior pituitary hormones
• Two hormones affect nonendocrine targets
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin
• Four are tropic hormones
1. Follicle-stimulating hormone
2. Luteinizing hormone
3. Thyrotropic hormone
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• All anterior pituitary hormones:
• Are proteins (or peptides)
• Act through second-messenger systems
• Are regulated by hormonal stimuli
• Are regulated mostly by negative feedback

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• Growth hormone (GH)
• General metabolic hormone
• Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and long bones
• Plays a role in determining final body size
• Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• Prolactin (PRL)
• Stimulates and maintains milk production following childbirth
• Function in males is unknown

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Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
• Gonadotropic hormones
• Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Stimulates follicle development in ovaries
• Stimulates sperm development in testes
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Triggers ovulation of an egg in females
• Stimulates testosterone production in males

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Influences growth and activity of the thyroid gland
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex

Pineal Gland
• Hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the brain
• Secretes melatonin
• Believed to trigger the body’s sleep/wake cycle
• Believed to coordinate the hormones of fertility in humans and to inhibit the
reproductive system until maturity occurs

Thyroid Gland
• Found at the base of the throat, inferior to the Adam’s apple
• Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus
• Follicles are hollow structures that store colloidal material
• Produces two hormones
1. Thyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin

Thyroid Gland
• Thyroid hormone
• Major metabolic hormone
• Controls rate of oxidation of glucose to supply body heat and chemical energy
• Needed for tissue growth and development
• Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
• Thyroxine (T4)—secreted by thyroid follicles
• Triiodothyronine (T3)—conversion of T4 at target tissues

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Thyroid Gland
• Calcitonin
• Decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium deposition on bone
• Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
• Produced by parafollicular cells found between the follicles

Parathyroid Glands
• Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
• Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• Most important regulator of calcium ion (Ca2+) homeostasis of the blood
• Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
• Hypercalcemic hormone (increases blood calcium levels)
• Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium

Thymus
• Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum
• Largest in infants and children
• Decreases in size throughout adulthood
• Produces a hormone called thymosin
• Matures some types of white blood cells
• Important in developing the immune system

Adrenal Glands
• Sit on top of the kidneys
• Two regions
1. Adrenal cortex—outer glandular region has three layers that produce
corticosteroids
• Mineralocorticoids are secreted by outermost layer
• Glucocorticoids are secreted by middle layer
• Sex hormones are secreted by innermost layer
2. Adrenal medulla—inner neural tissue region

Adrenal Glands
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex
• Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
• Produced in outer adrenal cortex
• Regulate mineral (salt) content in blood, particularly sodium and
potassium ions
• Regulate water and electrolyte balance
• Target organ is the kidney

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Adrenal Glands
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
• Release of aldosterone is stimulated by:
• Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or too many potassium ions in the
blood)
• Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
• Renin and angiotensin II in response to a drop in blood pressure
• Aldosterone production is inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a
hormone produced by the heart when blood pressure is too high

Adrenal Glands
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
• Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
• Produced by middle layer of adrenal cortex
• Promote normal cell metabolism
• Help resist long-term stressors by increasing blood glucose levels
(hyperglycemic hormone)
• Anti-inflammatory properties
• Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH

Adrenal Glands
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
• Sex hormones
• Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
• Small amounts are made throughout life
• Most of the hormones produced are androgens (male sex hormones),
but some estrogens (female sex hormones) are also formed

Adrenal Glands
• Adrenal medulla
• Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
• These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-term stress (“fight or
flight”) by:
• Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels
• Dilating small passageways of lungs

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Pancreatic Islets
• Pancreas
• Located in the abdomen, close to stomach
• Mixed gland, with both endocrine and exocrine functions
• The pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) produce hormones
• Insulin—produced by beta cells
• Glucagon—produced by alpha cells
• These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar homeostasis

Pancreatic Islets
• Insulin
• Released when blood glucose levels are high
• Increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism by body cells
• Effects are hypoglycemic
• Glucagon
• Released when blood glucose levels are low
• Stimulates the liver to release glucose to blood, thus increasing blood glucose
levels

Gonads
• Gonads
• Produce sex cells
• Produce sex hormones

Gonads
• Ovaries
• Female gonads located in the pelvic cavity
• Produce eggs
• Produce two groups of steroid hormones
1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
• Testes
• Male gonads suspended outside the pelvic cavity
• Produce sperm
• Produce androgens, such as testosterone

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Gonads
• Estrogens
• Stimulate the development of secondary female characteristics
• Mature the female reproductive organs
• With progesterone, estrogens also:
• Promote breast development
• Regulate menstrual cycle

Gonads
• Progesterone
• Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
• Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
• Helps prepare breasts for lactation

Gonads
• Testes
• Produce several androgens
• Testosterone is the most important androgen
• Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
• Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
• Required for sperm cell production

Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs

• Other organs that are generally nonendocrine in function also secrete hormones
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Kidneys
• Heart

Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs

• Placenta
• Produces hormones that maintain pregnancy
• Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the baby
• Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in addition to estrogen,
progesterone, and other hormones
• Human placental lactogen (hPL) prepares the breasts for lactation
• Relaxin relaxes pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis for childbirth

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Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System
• In the absence of disease, efficiency of the endocrine system remains high until old
age
• Decreasing function of female ovaries at menopause leads to such symptoms as
osteoporosis, increased chance of heart disease, and possible mood changes

Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System

• Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually decreases with aging, which leads to a
generalized increase in incidence of:
• Diabetes mellitus
• Immune system depression
• Lower metabolic rate
• Cancer rates in some areas

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