CONCRETE FUNDAMENTALS

Cement This section includes a collection of materials explaining the

fundamentals of concrete materials and behaviour. While
serving as a useful tool for teachers, as a valuable addition to
Aggregates a regular textbook, it will also help practitioners to recall their
basics of concrete technology. Wherever applicable,
Admixtures additional references are provided to enable the reader to
obtain adequate information. The chapters are broadly
divided into three categories:
Mixture
Design 1. Concrete making materials
2. Fresh and hardened properties
3. Durability and dimensional stability
Fresh
Concrete

Hardened
Concrete

Dimensional
Stability

Durability

Stages in Cement Development

Cement, in one form or the other, has been in use for many centuries.
However, modern cement, as we know it now, resulted from the work of a
select bunch of engineers and scientists in the 18th and 19th centuries AD.
John Smeaton, while planning the building of Eddystone lighthouse tower in
1756, discovered that the best limes for mortar contained a high degree of
clayey matter. Ultimately, such a lime was used along with pozzolana in equal
quantities. In the early 1800s, Vicat prepared artificial hydraulic lime by
calcining an intimate mixture of limestone (chalk) and clay – this was the
principal forerunner to Portland Cement. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, while
obtaining a patent for his hydraulic cement, termed it as Portland cement,
upon Portland stone (limestone from Dorset, UK), which had a high quality
and durability and a similar appearance. Although the term ‘Portland’ has no
significance in the modern context, it still continues to be used.

Three types of Portland Cement (PC) can be found over the ages:
 1. Proto PC – Calcined mixture of limestone and clay; no CaO-
SiO2 interaction; low burning temperatures
2. Meso PC – C2S clearly evident; some C3S present ; poorly defined flux
phases (C3A and C4AF); Aspdin’s patented cement falls in this category
3. Normal PC – Controlled production; suitable proportioned mixture of
calcareous and argillaceous components, as in the modern day cements.

The primary differences between the cement in Aspdin’s time and the modern
cement are encapsulated in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of cements – then and now

Parameter Aspdin clinker Modern clinker

Relative burning rate Slow (poor) Quick

Alite size 60 μm 10 – 40 μm
Belite size 5 – 10 μm 20 – 60 μm
Cooling rate Slow (poor) Quick
αC2S Nil 10 – 20%
Kiln Vertical (beehive) Rotary

Modern day cement is an unusual industrial product produced in huge

quantities in special plants that can produce nothing else. It is produced by a
combination of unusual unit operations involving mining, very fine scale
blending of raw materials, very high temperature clinkering reactions,
controlled cooling, grinding, blending, and finally shipping under controlled
conditions. Its chemical composition is maintained within narrow limits
despite huge tonnages. Typical plant costs range upwards of Rs. 1500 crores
(USD 250 Million) - a fairly substantial fixed investment. In order to pay off
this huge capital cost as well as to maintain kiln integrity, the cement plant
must produce continuously - 3 shifts per day! In addition, the plant must
comply with severe environmental constraints. All this must be done to
produce a commodity product that sells for Rs. 7 – 8 / kg (cheaper than
mineral water)!!

Raw Materials

1. Calcareous material – Containing CaCO3 primary source - limestone);

impurities such as iron and alumina are sometimes present
2. Argillaceous material – Containing clayey matter, source of SiO2,
Al2O3 and some Fe2O3
3. Gypsum – Added in the final stages of manufacture as a set regulator
Sometimes, other mineral additives such as ground limestone, fly ash, or slag,
are also added during the final stages of cement manufacture, even for
ordinary Portland cement. In fact, most cements in India have fly ash or
ground limestone as a minor additive (BIS permits up to 5% performance
improver).

The sources of the different raw materials, as compiled in

(http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Monograph3_3.html) are
shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Raw material sources

Calcium Silicon Aluminum Iron

Limestone Clay Clay Clay
Marl$ Marl Shale Iron ore
Calcite Sand* Fly ash Mill scale
Aragonite Shale Aluminum ore refuse Shale
Shale Fly ash Blast furnace dust
Sea Shells Rice hull ash
Cement kiln dust Slag

Note: $ Marl = Limestone deposits with a high fraction of clay minerals

* Usually a problem, as quartz is hard, remains in the coarse fraction

Cement Production Operation

The various operations involved in cement production are schematically

depicted in Figure 1.
 Figure 1. Processes involved in the manufacture of cement

Considerations in processing:

Raw material feedstock has to be pulverized to the right size before burning in
the kiln; this is in order to reduce the power consumption in the later stages of
grinding that are necessary to obtain the final fineness of the product.
Additionally, it makes better blending and burning possible. The desired size
is typically less than 1% retained on 200 micron sieve and 12% on 90 micron
sieve. During this process, several equipment are utilized, depending on the
cement plant, including: Jaw Crushers, Roll Crushers, Hammer and Impact
Crushers, Gyratory Crushers, Ball Mills, Roller Presses, and Classifiers.
Some of these are shown in Figure 2.

(insert Figure 2 here)

Figure 2. ….

Blending of the feedstock is dependent on the moisture content (MC). When

MC > 15%, the wet process is preferred. When MC < 8%, the dry process is
used. The feedstock is interground and blended in a dry form. For MC
between 8 and 15 %, a raw meal slurry (similar to wet process) is prepared,
sent through a short kiln with a cyclonic preheater.

In the wet process, the feedstock is ground and blended in the form of slurry.
Removal of this excess water necessitates the use of a longer kiln for the wet
process. The total power consumption in this process is also higher and the
output lower than in the dry process. However, blending is much easier in a
wet state. Most modern plants opt for the dry process with preheaters and
precalciners.

Precalciners (see Figure 3) are useful because a part of the burning process
gets completed before the material gets to the kiln. Particularly, most of the
decarbonation of limestone gets completed in the precalciner itself. Table 3
presents some comparisons between wet and dry process.

Figure 3. Precalciner

Table 3. Dry Vs. Wet process

Dry
Process Wet
Preheater Precalciner

Kiln length (m) 40 – 232 40 – 95 54 – 110

Output (tons/day) 100 – 3350 200 – 3500 1500 – 8500

Fuel consumption (kcal/kg clinker) 1000 – 2200 800 – 950 800 – 950
Burning in kilns:

In Portland cement production, two types of kilns have been used:

1. Vertical shaft kiln: Low output; not effective; highly variable product; no
longer used
2. Rotary kiln: All the operating plants use rotary kilns

Choice of the rotary kiln (i.e. the length and diameter) depends on:

• Raw materials used – dictates the process of blending

• Fuel consumption (any limitations)
• Output required from the process
• Capital available

Typical rotary kilns (example in Figure 4) are more than 40 m long. The
inside of the kiln is lined with refractory bricks. Temperature increases along
the length of the kiln from 850 – 950 oC at the inlet to 1450 – 1500 oC at the
outlet. The choice of the refractory linings will thus depend on the
temperature properties of the materials used and their cost.

Figure 4. Rotary kiln

The product of the kiln operations is called ‘clinker’. The clinkering reactions
involve conversion of mixtures of calcium carbonate and silica and alumina-
bearing components to a mixture of special crystalline components capable of
reacting with water to produce controlled setting and strength gain. The
major components in clinker are impure but well crystallized fine (ca. <50
µm) crystals of tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate. Minor but important
crystalline components are extremely fine crystals of tricalcium aluminate and
calcium aluminate ferrite solid solution (ferrite). Of great importance despite
minor amount present are deposits of soluble crystalline components (alkali
sulfates and calcium alkali sulfates) on the surfaces of clinkers.

The kiln reactions can be described using the schematic presented in Figure 5.

The sequence of reactions is as follows:

• Up to 700 o C: activation of silicates through removal of water and

changes in crystal structure
• 700 – 900 oC: dacarbonation of CaCO3, initial combination of A, F, and
activated silica with lime
• 900 – 1200 oC: Belite (C2S) formation
• 1250 oC (more particularly, > 1300 oC): liquid phase appears and promotes
the reaction between belite and free lime to form alite (C3S)

Figure 5. Processes in the rotary kiln

Clinker cooling and final processing:

The reactions of clinker formation are not completed inside the kiln – for the
compounds to properly form, cooling is necessary.
The heat from the kiln burning is recovered by the means of a cooler and
returned to the process. A rapid rate of cooling is necessary between 1450 oC
and 1200 oC for the best strength-giving properties. Otherwise, discrepancies
may arise due to the crystallization of C3A resulting in setting problems. Also,
a partial transformation of C3S (alite) into C2S (belite) and CaO (free lime)
can occur in the process of slow cooling.
The different types of coolers are rotary coolers, planetary coolers, and grate
coolers, arranged in the increasing order of their effectiveness. New and
efficient cross bar coolers are also now available
(see http://www.flsmidth.com/en-
US/eHighlights/Archive/Cement/2010/November/Latest+cross-bar+cooler).

The clinker is cooled to ambient temperature and stored in silos. The last step in
cement manufacture is the grinding of clinker with additives. Grinding is done in
different types of grinding equipment, such as a ball mill (see Figure 6) or in
more efficient vertical roller presses; in a ball mill, the particles are crushed by
the impact of steel balls. Gypsum is an essential additive, as it acts as a set
regulator for the cement. Other additives that are commonly used in small
quantities are fly ash and limestone powder. Control of temperature is essential
during grinding, since high temperatures during intergrinding could cause a
transformation of gypsum into hemihydrate or anhydrite, which can cause false
set (upon reconversion to gypsum) during hydration. Because of their varying
levels of solubility, cement plants these days use a judicious mixture of the
different hydrated forms of calcium sulphate.

Figure 6. Ball mill

Quality control during cement manufacture

It is undesirable to obtain a high degree of variation in between batches of

cement produced from the same raw material source. In order to avoid
potential problems occurring with the variable quality of cement, quality
control (QC) should be performed at various stages during the cement
production operation.
Sampling and evaluation should be performed after excavation from the
quarry, before and after blending the feedstock, after formation of clinker,
after intergrinding clinker with gypsum, and finally before packaging in the
bags and drums.

The following chemical properties must be checked at the intermediate stages

of manufacture:

• Lime saturation factor (LSF) = C/(2.8S + 1.2A + 0.65F), where C, S, A, and F

are the % amounts of CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, respectively. This ratio
is generally recommended in the range of 0.92 – 0.98. A ratio greater
than1.0 indicates the presence of free lime. Too much free lime can cause
unsoundness (expansion during the early hardening process) of the
cement.
• Silica ratio (or modulus) = S/(A + F); generally 2.0 - 3.0
• Alumina ratio (or modulus) = A/F; generally 1.0 - 4.0
• Potential C3S from Bogue formulation

Check out these links for more information:

http://www.engineeringintro.com/2012/08/cement-manufacturing-process/
http://www.cembureau.be/about-cement/cement-manufacturing-process
http://www.lafarge-na.com/wps/portal/na/en/2_2_1-Manufacturing_process